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SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION MSc in soil science
By: Ass.prof. Latamo Lameso (Feb,2023)

SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION

Department of natural resource management

Specialization (MSc in Soil science)

Material for course

Soil Genesis and Classification (SOSC 511)

Prepared by: Latamo Lameso ( Assis. Prof.)

February, 2023

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SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION MSc in soil science
By: Ass.prof. Latamo Lameso (Feb,2023)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page
CHAPTER ONE .....................................................................................................................................................1
SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION............................................................................................................1
1. Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Concepts of soil genesis and soil classification............................................................................................1
1.2. Concepts and definition of soils ...................................................................................................................1
1.3. Approaches and disciplines in soil science ..................................................................................................3
1.3.1. Approaches of study in soil science ......................................................................................................3
1.3.2. Disciplines in soil science .....................................................................................................................4
1. Soil chemistry..............................................................................................................................................5
2. Soil biology or microbiology ......................................................................................................................5
3. Genesis and classification of soils (Pedology) ............................................................................................5
4. Soil physics .................................................................................................................................................5
5. Soil fertility .................................................................................................................................................5
6. Soil Conservation ........................................................................................................................................6
1.4. Introduction on fields of Pedology, Edaphology and Soil genesis ...............................................................6
1.4.1. Pedology and Edaphology .....................................................................................................................7
1.4.2. Soil genesis............................................................................................................................................8
1.4.3. Relations of Soil genesis with other fields of soil science ....................................................................8
CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................................................11
2.1. Compositions of Soil and their Characteristics ..............................................................................................11
2.1.1. Mineral (inorganic) Constituent ..........................................................................................................11
2.1.2. Soil Organic Matter (SOM).................................................................................................................14
2.1.3. Soil Water............................................................................................................................................23
2.1.4. Soil Air ................................................................................................................................................25
2.2. Soil as a component of the ecosystem ........................................................................................................27
2.3. Ecosystem services of soil..........................................................................................................................27
CHAPTER THREE ...............................................................................................................................................29
3. Soil forming factors...........................................................................................................................................29
3.1. Parent material ...........................................................................................................................................29

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3.2. Climate .......................................................................................................................................................35

3.3. Living Organisms .......................................................................................................................................37
3.4. Topography ................................................................................................................................................39
3.5. Time ...........................................................................................................................................................41
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................................................43
4. Soil formation....................................................................................................................................................43
4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................43
4.2. Soil forming Rocks ....................................................................................................................................44
4.3. Pedogenic Processes (Process of soil formation)(Fundamenatl of soil book page 14) ..............................48
4.4. Weathering of rocks and minerals ..............................................................................................................50
CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................................................57
5. Major morphology of soils ................................................................................................................................57
5.1. Soil profile and its major horizons .............................................................................................................57
5.1.1. Soil profile ...........................................................................................................................................57
5.1.2. Soil Horizons .......................................................................................................................................58
CHAPTER SIX .....................................................................................................................................................64
6. Classification of soils ........................................................................................................................................64
6.1. Definitions and Perspective of Soil Classification .....................................................................................64
6.2. History and Principles of Soil Classification .............................................................................................65
6.2.1. History of Soil Classification and Development .................................................................................65
6.2.2. Principle of Soil Classification ............................................................................................................66
6.3. FAO-UNESCO and USDA soil classification system ...............................................................................69
6.3.1. FAO-UNESCO (FAO-WRB) soil Classification system ....................................................................69
6.3.2. USDA soil classification system and structures ..................................................................................72
6.4. Soils of Ethiopia and their agricultural significance ..................................................................................77
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................................80

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SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION MSc in soil science
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CHAPTER ONE

SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION

1. Introduction

1.1. Concepts of soil genesis and soil classification

Soil genesis is a century-old science that has dealt with soil in three conceptual phases: (1) as a
geologic entity (geologic resources such soils, sediments, rocks, and minerals), (2) as a product of
factors and processes of soil formation, and (3) as an open system capable of supporting the functions
of soil in all ecosystems. Soil genesis includes concepts of biogeochemistry.
It conceptualizes the factors and processes responsible for the chemical, physical, geological,
and biological properties of all soils and the spatial distribution of various kinds of soil on the
landscape.
Soil classification is the categorization of soils into groups at varying levels of generalization
according to their physical, mineralogical, and chemical properties and criteria that dictate choices in
use.
The objectives of soil classification include organization of knowledge, ease in remembering
properties, clearer understanding of relationships, ease of technology transfer and communication and
criteria that dictate choices in use.

1.2. Concepts and definition of soils

Definition of soil

The term ―soil‖ has many definitions depending upon who is using the term. For example:

 To a farmer: soil is that portion of the earth‘s surface which he can plough and grow crops on
to provide him with food and fiber for his own needs and that of his animals;
 To a civil engineer: soil foundation for constructing house and roads.
 To geologists: soil is weathered rock or debris covering the rocks.
 To an archaeologist: soil is a record of the past.

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 To an environmentalist/ecologist: reflecting interest in the role of soils in hydrologic and

other environmental cycles, regard soils as ‗living filter‘ or ‗geologic kidney‘;
 In agricultural point of view, soil is upper part of the earth‘s crust that serves as medium for
growth of land plant (Habitat of plants )

Concepts of Soil

As we can see from above definitions the diversity in the concept of soil necessitates the development
of a common concept of what the soil is. The concept should thus encompass the view of the engineer,
homeowner and the farmer. Practical and scientific discoveries of the past are given due consideration
in developing such a concept. There are two basic sources for the modern concept of soil. The first is
the practical knowledge gained by farmers through centuries of trial and error while the second is
information and science based facts about the soil.

Early scientific understanding of soils flourished from the early seventeenth century until the middle
of the twentieth century with the aim of increasing crop production.

i) Experience of the cultivator: This concept was gained through centuries of trial and error. The
earliest recorded history contains evidence that, through trial and error, man learned to distinguish
differences in soils. He also learned the value of treating soils with plant and animal wastes. A very
tangible example of these is a more than 42 centuries old history of the Chinese that they used a
schematic soil map as a basis for taxation. Other examples are Homer‘s Odyssey (1000 B.C.)
which makes reference to the use of manure on the land, Biblical references to the use of dung,
manuscripts of the Greek and Roman writers who stated directly or indirectly the different
practices of soil management, etc. With the great role the Romans played in European agriculture,
the practices passed from generation to generation with little knowledge or concern of why.
ii) Early scientific investigations and soil productivity: There were scientific attempts from the
17th C to the mid-19th C to increase crop productivity. e.g Van Helmont's willow tree experiment,
Woodward's muddy water to produce plant, Liebig's "minerals " in the manure for plant. With
these scholars and others, soil was given attention. However, until early 20th century Liebig's
concept dominated the thinking of the then soil scientists. Through field investigation, Hillgard
concluded that soil is a dynamic entity varying with climate, vegetation, rock, etc. Then, a Russian
scientific team led by Dokuchaev developed a concept that soil is a neutral body, which varies with

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climate, vegetation, relief, rock type and time, and can be classified or grouped.
These different the practical knowledge gained by farmers and science based facts about the soil,
lead to three different concepts of soil.

1. Medium for pant Growth (Earliest concept): Man used soil for food long before he
understood the nature and origin of it. Man, just after commencing agriculture, understood that
the potential for plant growth lies in the soil. Consequently, he started classifying soil based on
their production potentials.
2. Weathered Rock (Impact of geology on the study of soils): Geologists, engineers, space
scientists and oceanographers share this idea. They believe character of source rock determine
the nature of the soil. Soil by this concept includes all the loose or unconsolidated rock and
mineral matter on the surface of the earth, and even on other planets and celestial bodies.
3. A Natural Body (Soil as a product of the environment under which it develops): An
individual soil is a 3-dimensional dynamic natural body. It was this concept that realized that soil
is a unique being formed through pedogenic processes and is different from underlying rocks and
minerals. The characteristics of this unique being is determined by the soil forming factors
identified by Dokuchaev and his team, who deserve the biggest credit in developing this very
concept. The problem here is the separation between pedology and geology, boundaries of
unconsolidated rocks and soil, is somewhat blurred. In any case, this is the most widely
maintained concept by soil scientists.

SOIL is, therefore, defined as a three-dimensional, dynamic, natural body occurring on the surface
of the earth and which is a medium for plant growth and whose characteristics have resulted from
the forces of climate and living organisms acting upon parent material, as modified by the relief
over a period of time.

1.3. Approaches and disciplines in soil science

1.3.1. Approaches of study in soil science

Soil Science is that science dealing with soils as a natural resource on the surface of the earth
including soil formation, classification and mapping, and the physical, chemical, biological, and
fertility properties per se; and these properties in relation to their management for crop production.

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Two main approaches of study of soil are recognized:

1. Pedological Approach: This approach considers the soil as a natural body and places a minor
emphasis on its immediate practical utilization. It deals with the origin of the soil, its
classification, and description. The pedologist studies, examines, and classifies soils as they
occur in their natural environment.

NB: Pedology is the study of soils as naturally occurring phenomena, taking into account their
composition, distribution and methods of formation.

2. Edaphological Approach: - This approach studies the soil from the standpoint of higher plants. It
considers the various properties of soils as they relate to plant production.

N.B. Since the studies of the basic physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of soils contribute
equally to the edaphology and pedology, it is not possible to clearly separate the two approaches of
soil study.

1.3.2. Disciplines in soil science

Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the Earth‘s surface including soil formation,
classification, and mapping. It is the most important because it is the main source of nutrition for
plants. It Moreover, it also includes the physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils
and the relation of these properties to the use and management of soils.

Soil science has major six well defined and developed disciplines and branches.

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Branches (Disciplines) of soil Sciences with definitions and scope

1. Soil chemistry

Soil chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the study of the chemical compositions,
properties, and processes of the soil. Soils are heterogeneous mixtures of water, air, inorganic &
organic solids, and microorganisms. Soil chemistry helps us to understand available of minerals to
plants and their leaching process.

2. Soil biology or microbiology

While dealing with several areas of agriculture, soil microbiology examines the soil for microbial
communities. It deals with their role and characteristics in soil fertility and land reclamation, and in
particular plant nutrition through rooting or diseases caused by phytopathogenic microbes in the soil.
This concerns organism living in soil, their biology, function, and activities, for example, nematodes
and insects. Major soil organisms are microorganisms and microinvertebrates. These live within the
soil and are largely responsible for the decomposition processes vital to soil fertility.

3. Genesis and classification of soils (Pedology)

In the case of Soil formation, it is associated with weathering of rocks and minerals, as well as aspects
and routes of soil formation. But the soil classification is a science of division of soils into groups
based on their properties.

4. Soil physics

The mechanical behavior of the mass of the soil in particular with water and energy of the grounds
called soil physics. Moreover, this branch of soil science also determines the soil‘s basic texture. Small
particles of sand, silt, and clay lump together to form peds or aggregates. The shape and size of these
peds determine soil structure.

5. Soil fertility

It is the capacity of the soil to supply plants with essential nutrients for their growth and development.
The fertility of soil can be enhanced by the application of inorganic or organic fertilizers in the soil.
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More fertility of soils leads to more crops yield and more microbial and biological activity of soil
leading to more nutrients recycling.

6. Soil Conservation

This branch of soil science is concerned with the protection of the soil from physical destruction
caused by erosion (by water and wind) or chemical destruction. Soil protection is associated with a
mixture of all land use and management approaches that protect soils from destruction due to natural
or anthropogenic factors.

1.4. Introduction on fields of Pedology, Edaphology and Soil genesis

Definitions of terms

Soil morphology is the study of the formation and description of soil types within various soil
horizons.
Soil formation, also known as pedogenesis, is the process of soil genesis as regulated by the effects
of place, environment, and history.
Pedogenesis or Soil genesis is the study of the origin and formation of soil.
Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing
characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use.
Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living beings, particularly plants. It is one of
two main divisions of soil science, the other being pedology.

The pedosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil
formation processes. It is the skin of the Earth and only develops when there is a
dynamic interaction between the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. It
exists at the interface of atmosphere (air in and above the soil), biosphere (living
organisms), lithosphere (unconsolidated and consolidated bedrock) and the hydrosphere
(water in, on and below the soil). The pedosphere is the foundation of terrestrial life on
Earth.
Biogeochemistry is the scientific discipline that involves the study of
the chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes and reactions that govern the

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SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION MSc in soil science
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composition of the natural environment (including the biosphere, the cryosphere (water
in solid form) the hydrosphere, the pedosphere, the atmosphere and the lithosphere).
Consolidated rocks: known as bedrock consist of rock and mineral particles of different sizes and
shapes that have been welded together by heat and pressure or chemical reaction into a
rock mass.
Unconsolidated rock: A sediment that is loosely arranged or unstratified (not in layers) or whose
particles are not cemented together (soft rock); occurring either at the ground surface or
at a depth below the surface.
Soil physics is the study of soil's physical properties and processes. It deals with the dynamics of
physical soil components and their phases as solids, liquids, and gases. Soil physics
applies these principles to address practical problems of agriculture, ecology, and
engineering.
Soil chemistry is the study of the chemical characteristics of soil. Soil chemistry is affected
by mineral composition, organic matter and environmental factors.

1.4.1. Pedology and Edaphology

Pedology (from Greek: pedon, "soil"; and, logos, "study") is a discipline within soil science which
focuses on understanding and characterizing soil formation, evolution, and the theoretical
frameworks for modeling soil bodies, often in the context of the natural environment. Pedology is
―the study of soils that integrates their distribution, formation, morphology, and classification as
natural landscape bodies. Pedology is often seen as one of two main branches of soil inquiry, the
other being edaphology which is traditionally more agronomical oriented and focuses on how soil
properties influence plant communities (natural or cultivated). Edaphology includes the study of
how soil influences humankind's use of land for plant growth as well as people's overall use of the
land. In studying the fundamental phenomenology of soils, e.g. soil formation (aka pedogenesis),
pedologists pay particular attention to observing soil morphology and the geographic distributions
of soils, and the placement of soil bodies into larger temporal and spatial contexts. In so doing,
pedologists develop systems of soil classification, soil maps, and theories for characterizing
temporal and spatial interrelations among soils.

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1.4.2. Soil genesis

Soil genesis or pedogenesis is the study of the origin and formation of soil. Soil formation, also known
as pedogenesis, is the process of soil genesis as regulated by the effects of place, environment, and
history. Biogeochemical processes act to both create and destroy order (anisotropy) within soils. These
alterations lead to the development of layers, termed soil horizon, distinguished by differences
in color, structure, texture, and chemistry. These features occur in patterns of soil type distribution,
forming in response to differences in soil forming factors. Pedogenesis is studied as a branch
of pedology, the study of soil in its natural environment. Other branches of pedology are the study
of soil morphology, and soil classification. The study of pedogenesis is important to understanding soil
distribution patterns in current (soil geography) and past (paleopedology) geologic periods. Soil
develops through a series of changes. The starting point is weathering of freshly accumulated parent
material. A variety of soil microbes (bacteria, archaea, fungi) feed on simple compounds (nutrients)
released by weathering, and produces organic acids and specialized proteins which contribute in turn
to mineral weathering. They also leave behind organic residues which contribute
to humus formation. Plant roots with their symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi are also able to extract
nutrients from rocks.

1.4.3. Relations of Soil genesis with other fields of soil science

Academically, soil scientists tend to be drawn to one of five areas of specialization in soil science
(fields of soil science) such as pedology, edaphology, soil physics, soil chemistry and soil biology.

How soil genesis relate with above fields of soil science?

Relationships between soil geneses and pedology

Pedology is ―the study of soils that integrates their distribution, formation, morphology, and
classification as natural landscape bodies‖. Pedogenesis or soil genesis, as the story of soils and how
they have developed, essentially calls upon the whole of pedology in telling the story. An article on
pedogenesis therefore, inevitably contains pedology as its subtext. Consequently, in this account,
Pedology is introduced through the prism of Pedogenesis.

Relationships between soil geneses and edaphology

Edaphology is the science or study of soil, especially with respect to plant growth. The root of the
word is ‗édaphos,‘ Greek for ‗foundation,‘ ‗soil,‘ ‗ground,‘ or ‗land.‘ ‗Soil science‘ is the term more
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commonly used today and includes the study of soil as a natural body in the landscape (pedology), as
well as a medium to be managed for optimum crop and rangeland productivity, environmental waste
disposal, and construction. Soil genesis or pedogenesis is the study of the origin and formation of soil.
Soil formation, also known as pedogenesis, is the process of soil genesis as regulated by the effects of
place, environment, and history. Both pedology and edaphology refer to the study of soil, the latter
deals specifically with soil as a medium for plant growth. The organisms that live in a soil influence
soil formation and are in turn affected by the edaphic properties that govern water, air, and nutrient
supply. Thus, a continual feedback relationship is established between the soil flora and fauna, and the
physical and chemical characteristics of the soil.

Edaphology is the study of that relationship and how it affects plant growth. One approach to
edaphology is agronomic and involves cultivating the soil and adding water and nutrients for
maximum plant yield. Ecological studies that correlate plants to specific soil types or properties in
addition to landscape position and climate information are another example of edaphology. Evaluating
or predicting the effect of management on soil–plant interactions and edaphic factors is often the
objective of studies on ecosystem health, soil quality, and land degradation.

Relationships between soil geneses and soil physics

Soil physics is the branch of soil science that deals with the physical properties of soils. Just as physics
deals with matter and energy, soil physics is generally concerned with the state and movement of
matter and energy in soils.

Soil physical properties such as water content, texture and structure, as well as soil physical processes
such as water retention and transport, soil temperature and heat flow, and the composition of the soil
atmosphere (mainly O2 and CO2), all affect the rates of weathering and soil genesis. Therefore, the
basic concepts of soil physics those are necessary as background to the more in-depth discussions of
soil genesis and geomorphology that follow.

Relationships between soil geneses and soil chemistry

Soil chemistry is the branch of soil science that deals with the chemical composition, chemical
properties, and chemical reactions of soils. Soil chemistry can be considered as the natural chemical
composition of a given soil. This natural chemical composition of a soil is a function of that soil's
parent material. In many areas of the world soil is formed in place and derived directly from the
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chemical weathering and degradation of rocks. Soils derived from these different rocks will have
different chemical complexes. When soil is derived from rocks, its soil chemistry is a direct reflection
of the rocks‘ chemistry, including the minerals found in the rocks. During soil formation chemical
reaction plays role on weathering of rocks and their eventual transformation into secondary clay
minerals.

Relationships between soil geneses and soil biology or microbiology

Microorganisms are essential to soil formation and soil ecology because they control the flux of
nutrients to plants (i.e., control of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur cycles,), promote nitrogen fixation, and
promote soil detoxification of inorganic and naturally occurring organic pollutants. Soil microbiology
governs nutrient processing and recycling in soil, and also affects the decomposition of organic matter
in soil, soil salinity and soil acidity, thereby impacting soil fertility and crop health. Soil
microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) are responsible for biomass decomposition, biogenic element
circulation, which makes nutrients available to plants, biodegradation of impurities, and maintenance
of soil structure. They are mostly heterotrophic organisms that feed on the existing organic matter by
decomposing them in order to absorb the resultant micronutrients and minerals. Therefore, they are
essential to the recycling process of nutrients that keeps soils in good condition for plant growth.

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SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION MSc in soil science
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CHAPTER TWO

2.1. Compositions of Soil and their Characteristics

Soils consist of four major components: Mineral materials, Organic matter, Water and Air. These components
of soil are existing in a fine state of subdivision and are very intimately mixed. Take a representative silt loam
soil at optimum condition for plant growth. This very soil consists of: 50% Solid State (45% mineral & 5%
organic material) & 50% pore space (25% water & 25% air).

The proportion varies greatly, e.g. with depth, location, texture, and other factors. Subsoil has higher percentage
of minerals and water and lower content of organic matter and air.

Fig. 2.1.Components of soil

2.1.1. Mineral (inorganic) Constituent

Minerals are natural inorganic compounds or portion of the soil, with definite physical and chemical
properties and variable in size, that is so conspicuous in many granitic rocks. It is normally composed
of small rock fragments and minerals of various kinds. The rock fragments are quite coarse and are the
remnants of the regolith from which the soil is derive. The minerals, on the other hand, are partly as
large as the rock fragments and can be seen with a naked eye while others are colloidal clay particles
visible only by the aid magnifying equipment. They are broadly grouped into primary and secondary
minerals.

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A. Primary minerals

They have not been altered chemically since their crystallization from molten lava. Disintegration of
rocks composed of primary minerals (by physical and chemical weathering) releases the individual
mineral particles. Many of these primary mineral particles become sand and silt particles in parent
materials and soils. Primary minerals weather chemically (decompose) and release their elements to
the soil solution. Chemical weathering of 10 silicates contributes to native soil fertility because of they
produce major products such as Na+, Mg++, K+, Ca++, Mn++, and Fe++ in soil solution.

Some of the elements released in weathering react to form secondary minerals.

The vast majority of the minerals that make up the rocks of Earth‘s crust are silicate minerals. These
include minerals such as quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, and a great variety of
clay minerals. They appear in soil (mainly in sand and silt and also clay) from physical disintegration
of parent materials. The building block of all of these minerals is the silica tetrahedron, a
combination of four oxygen atoms and one silicon atom. These are arranged such that planes drawn
through the oxygen atoms form a tetrahedron (Figure 2.2). Since the silicon ion has a charge of +4
and each of the four oxygen ions has a charge of –2, the silica tetrahedron has a net charge of –4.
Silicate minerals, however, are typically classified on the basis of their silica tetrahedra
polymerization. The fundamental building blocks of silicate is silica tetrahedron, SiO4-2. Mineral
structures are built by polymerization through sharing of O between Si atoms resulting linkage of
tetrahedral units.

Tetrahedral unit

Fig. 2.2. Primary minerals

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Names and chemical formulas of primary silicates

Name Chemical formula Mineral group

Forsterite Mg2SiO4 Olivine
Fayalite Fe2SiO4 Olivine
Enstatite MgSiO3 Pyroxene
Diopside CaMgSi2O6 Pyroxene
Tremolite Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2 Amphibole
Hornblende NaCa2Mg5Fe2AlSi7O22(OH) Amphibole
Muscuvite K2[Si6Al2]Al4O20(OH)4 Mica
Biotite K2[Si6Al2]Mg4Fe2O20(OH)4 Mica
orthoclase KAlSi3O8 Feldespar
Albite NaAlSi3O8 Feldespar

A. Secondary minerals

Secondary minerals are formed as byproducts of weathering at the Earth's surface. Usually the
formation of secondary minerals begins near the site where primary minerals are being attacked.
Although weathering leads to the loss of Si as a dissolved constituent in stream water and some Si is
often retained in the formation of secondary minerals. In general, two types of layers characterize the
crystalline structure of secondary, alumino silicate clay minerals—Si layers and layers dominated by
Al, Fe, and Mg. These layers are held together by shared oxygen atoms. Because secondary minerals
may incorporate elements important to biochemistry, one cannot assume that the release of those
elements from primary minerals by weathering leads to an immediate increase in the pool of ions
available for uptake by plants.

Aluminosilicates (2o silicates) predominate in the clay fractions => weathering product. Muscovite (10)
weathering => Vermiculite (20). Alumino silicates (2o silicates) are composed of two kinds of horizontal sheets.

Octahedral unit Octahedral sheet formed from 2 Octahedral unit

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Fig. 2.3. Secondary minerals

2.1.2. Soil Organic Matter (SOM)

SOM is organic component of soil which represents an accumulation of partially decayed and partially
synthesized plant and animal residues. It is a transitory soil constituent as it is continuously broken
down by the work of micro-organisms. The organic matter content of a soil is small (3-5% by weight)
but its influence on soil properties and plant growth, however, is far greater than the low percentage
would indicate. SOM consists of two general groups: original tissue and its partially decomposed
equivalent, the humus. The later has dark or brown colour that some soils depict. It consists three
primary parts including small (fresh) plant residues and small living soil organisms, decomposing
(active) organic matter and stable organic matter (humus). The organic matter content of a soil is
small (3-5% by weight) but its influence on soil properties and plant growth, however, is far greater
than the low percentage would indicate.

2.2.1. Sources and composition of soil organic matter: The original source of SOM is plant tissue.
Animals are usually considered secondary sources. Under natural conditions, the tops and roots of
trees, shrubs, grasses, and other native plants supply large quantities of organic residues annually. As
plant residues dominate SOM, composition-wise SOM is similar to the composition of plant residues.

The moisture content of plant residues varies from 60-90%, 75% being a representative figure. On a
Weight basis, the dry matter is mostly carbon and oxygen, with less than 10% each of hydrogen and
inorganic elements (ash). On elemental basis (number of atoms of the elements), thus, there are H C
and O. It is these three elements that dominate the bulk of the organic tissue in the soil. There are also
micro-nutrients in plant tissues. Most of the rude protein contains N and others such as S, Fe and P in
significant amount.

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Composition of green plant materials

Fig.2.4. Composition of green plant materials

2.2.2. Decomposition Organic matter: Decomposition of organic matter is a process, which includes
mostly physical breakdown and biochemical transformation of complex organic molecules into
simpler organic and inorganic molecules. The organic materials (plant and animal residues)
incorporated in the soil is attacked by a variety of microbes, worms, and insects in the soil if the soil is
moist. Successive decomposition of dead material and modified organic matter results in the formation
of a more complex organic matter called humus and the process is called humification.

Fig. 2.2. Process of Organic matter decomposition

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SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION MSc in soil science
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When organic tissue is added to soil, three general reactions take place:

1. The bulk of the material undergoes enzymatic oxidation with carbon dioxide and water ==>A
burning/Oxidation process. In this oxidation process largely C and H are involved and it takes place under
aerobic condition. Though, there are many intermediate steps involved, the complete process may be
expressed as:
Oxidation

[C, 4H] + O2 enzyme CO2 + 2H2O + energy

2. The essential elements, N, P and S are released and/or immobilized by a series of specific reactions
relatively unique for each element ==>Break down of Proteins. The breakdown of the proteins is a little
bit complex. Organic compounds break down to amides and amino acids in addition to the CO2 and H2O.
The compounds are hydrolysed readily to CO2, ammonium compounds and other products. The ammonium
compounds may be changed to nitrates, the form in which higher plants take up nitrogen
3. Compounds resistant to microbial action are formed either from compounds in the original plant tissues or
by microbial synthesis ==>Organic decay
Simpler molecules carboxylic, phenolic, alcholic hydroxyl groups react one with one another and with residual
molecules creates long, complex chains, resistant to further decomposition as shown below.

Polymerization affects the decomposition rates. Polymerization is a process by which an organic

compound reacts with itself to form a high‐molecular‐weight compound composed of repeating units of the
original compound.

Fig 2.3. Polymerization

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SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION MSc in soil science
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2.2.3. Decomposition of organic compounds

Organic compounds are generally any chemical compounds that contain carbon-hydrogen bonds.
Organic compounds vary greatly in their rate of decomposition in terms of their ease of
decomposition. Some of the constituents are decomposed very rapidly, some less readily and others
very slowly.

The organic matter is also classified on the basis of their rate of decomposition

1. Rapidly decomposed: Sugars, starches, proteins etc.

2. Less rapidly decomposed: Hemicelluloses, celluloses etc.
3. Very slowly decomposed: Fats, waxes, resins, lignins etc.
4. Simple decomposition products, Aerobic – CO2, H2O, NO2, SO4.

(A) Decomposition of Soluble Substances

Sugar and water-soluble nitrogenous compounds are the first to be decomposed as they offer a very
readily available source of carbon, nitrogen, and energy for the microorganisms. Thus, when glucose
is decomposed under aerobic conditions, the reaction is as under:
Sugar + Oxygen → CO2 + H2O
(i) Ammonification

Soluble nitrogenous compounds like amino acids, amides, ammonium compounds, nitrates etc., are
also attacked by the microorganisms. The transformation of organic nitrogenous compounds into
ammonia is called ammonification. During the course of action under aerobic conditions by
heterotrophic organisms, oxygen is taken up and carbon dioxide is released. Ammonification process
involves a gradual simplification of complex compounds.
Protein → polypeptides → amino acids → ammonia or ammonium salts.
Or
Organic nitrogen → NH3

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The ammonification occurs as a result of the action of enzymes produced by microorganisms. Their
action is chiefly hydrolytic and oxidative (in the presence of air).

(ii) Nitrification

The process of conversion of ammonia to nitrite (NO2) and then to nitrate (NO3) is known as
nitrification. The production of nitrate is more rapid than that of nitrite, while the formation of
ammonia is the slowest process. That is why soil usually contains more nitrate nitrogen than nitrite at
any time. Nitrification is an aerobic process involving the production of nitrates from ammonium salts.

(iii) Denitrification

The process, which involves the conversion of soil nitrate into gaseous nitrogen or nitrous oxide, is
called Denitrification. Waterlogging and high pH will increase N loss by Denitrification. Waterlogging
(e.g., Rice field) and high pH will increase nitrogen loss by denitrification.

(B) Decomposition of Insoluble Substances

i. Breakdown of Protein: Proteins are complex organic substances containing nitrogen, sulfur, and
sometimes phosphorus, in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. During the course of
decomposition of plant materials, the proteins are first hydrolyzed to a number of intermediate
products, e.g., proteases, peptones, peptides, etc., as polypeptides. The process of conversion of
proteins to amino acids is known as ammonization.

ii. Breakdown of Cellulose: Cellulose is the most abundant carbohydrate present in plant residues.
The microorganisms break up cellulose into cellobiose and glucose. Glucose is further attacked by
organisms and converted into organic acids:
The decomposition of cellulose in acid soils proceeds more slowly than in neutral and alkaline soils. It
is quite rapid in well aerated soils and comparatively slow in those poorly aerated.
iii. Breakdown of Hemicellulose: to microbial decomposition, hemicelluloses are first hydrolyzed to
their component sugars and uranic acids. The sugars are further attacked by microorganisms. They are
converted to organic acids, alcohols, and water. The uranic acids are broken down to pentose and
carbon dioxide. The newly synthesized Hemicelluloses thus form a part of the hummus.
Hemicelluloses decompose faster than cellulose.

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iv. Breakdown of Starch: Chemically it is a glucose polymer. It is first hydrolyzed to maltose by the
action of enzymes (amylases). Maltose is next converted to glucose by another enzyme (maltase).
Glucose is soluble in water is utilized for growth and other metabolic activities.

(C) Decomposition of Ether-soluble substances

Fats is first broken down by microorganisms through the agency of enzyme lipase into glycerol and
fatty acids. Glycerol is next oxidized to organic acids which along with the other fatty acids are finally
oxidized to carbon dioxide and water.

(D) Decomposition of Lignin

Lignin is deposited on the cell wall to impart strength to the framework of the plant. Lignin
decomposes slowly, much slower than cellulose. Complete oxidation of lignin gives rise to carbon
dioxide and water.

(E) Simple Decomposition Products

As the enzymic changes of the soil organic matter proceed, simple products begin to manifest
themselves. Some of these especially carbon dioxide and water, appear immediately. Others such as
nitrate-nitrogen, accumulate only after the peak of the vigorous decomposition is over. The more
common simple products resulting from the activity of the soil microorganisms are as follows:
Carbon: CO2, CO32, HCO3, CH4, C
Nitrogen: NH4+, NO2, NO3, N2 (gas)
Sulfur: S, H2S, SO32, SO42, CS2
Phosphorus: H2PO4, HPO42
Others: H2O, O2, H2, H+, OH, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ etc.

(F) Mineralization of Organic Sulphur

Many organic compounds especially those of nitrogenous nature, carry sulphur. Heterotrophic bacteria
simplify the complex organic compounds, then autotrophic bacteria (sulfur bacteria) oxidize it into
sulfate form.

(G) Mineralization of Organic Phosphorus

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A large proportion of the soil phosphorus is carried in organic combinations. Upon attack by
microorganisms, the organic phosphorus compounds are mineralized; that is, they are changed to
inorganic combinations. It depends upon soil pH. As the pH goes up from 5.5 to 7.5 the available
phosphorus changes from H2PO4 to HPO4. Both of these forms are available to higher plants.

Carbon-nitrogen ratio soil organic matter and soil decomposition

There are two chemical elements in organic matter that are extremely important, especially in their
relation or proportion to each other: they are carbon and nitrogen. This relationship is called the
carbon-nitrogen ratio (C:N). Carbon to Nitrogen ratio is the mass of carbon to the mass of nitrogen in a
substance. Soil carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N) represents an indicator of soil quality and fertility,
having a major impact on agricultural land management for organic farming. For example, a C:N ratio
of 10:1 tells us that a substance has 10 parts carbon and 1 part nitrogen. This ratio directly impacts
residue decomposition & nutrient cycling and is the foundation of a biologically active soil. In order
for soil microbes to stay alive (energy + body maintenance) they need a C:N ratio near 24:1. This 24:1 ratio
rules the soil. Under these optimum conditions, microbes control your soil‘s ability to: cycle nutrients and
manage soil-protecting residue

Carbon-nitrogen ratio soil organic matter and soil decomposition

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SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION MSc in soil science
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2.2.3. Influence of OM on soil properties

Organic matter affects both the chemical, biological and physical properties of the soil and its overall
health.

i. Influence of OM on chemical properties of soil

Soil organic matter significantly improves the soil's capacity to store and supply
essential nutrients (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium), and to retain
toxic elements. Soil organic matter consists of a continuum of components ranging from labile
compounds that mineralize rapidly during the first stage of decomposition to more recalcitrant residues
(difficult to degrade) that accumulate as they are deposited during advanced stages of decomposition
as microbial by-products.

Freshly added or partially decomposed plant residues and their non-humic decomposition products
constitute the labile organic matter pool. The more stable humic substances tend to be more resistant to
further decomposition. The labile soil organic matter pool regulates the nutrient supplying power of
the soil, particularly of nitrogen (N), whereas both the labile and stable pools affect soil physical
properties, such as aggregate formation and structural stability. When crops are harvested or residues
burned, organic matter is removed from the system. However, the loss can be minimized by retaining
plant roots in the soil and leaving crop residues on the surface. Organic matter can also be restored to
the soil through growing green manures, cuttings from agroforestry species and the addition of
manures and compost. Soil organic matter is the key to soil life and the diverse functions provided by
the range of soil organisms.

ii. Influence of OM on biological properties of soil

Soil micro-organisms are of great importance for plant nutrition as they interact directly in the
biogeochemical cycles of the nutrients. Increased production of green manure or crop biomass
aboveground and belowground increases the food source for the microbial population in the soil.
Agricultural production systems in which residues are left on the soil surface and roots left in the soil,
e.g. through direct seeding and the use of cover crops, therefore stimulate the development and activity
of soil micro-organisms.

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In undisturbed soil ecosystems, e.g. in conservation agriculture, colonization with mycorrhizal fungi
increases strongly with time compared with colonization under natural vegetation (Figure A2.2). Fine
roots are the primary sites of mycorrhizal development as they are the most active site for nutrient
uptake. This partly explains the increase in mycorrhizal colonization under undisturbed situations as
rooting conditions are far better than under conventional tillage. Other factors that might stimulate
mycorrhizal development are the increase in organic carbon (C) and the rotation of crops with cover
crop/green manure species.

Another consequence of increased organic matter content is an increase in the earthworm population.
Earthworms rarely come to the soil surface because of their characteristics: photophobia, lack of
pigmentation and tolerance to periods of submergence and anaerobic conditions during rainfall. Soil
moisture is one of the most important factors that determine the presence of earthworms in the soil.
Through cover crops and crop residues, evaporation is reduced and organic matter in the soil is
increased, which in turn can hold more water.

iii. Influence of OM on physical properties of soil

Organic matter influences the physical conditions of a soil in several ways. Properties influenced by
organic matter include: soil structure; moisture holding capacity; diversity and activity of soil
organisms, both those that are beneficial to crop production and nutrient availability. Plant residues
that cover the soil surface protect the soil from sealing and crusting by raindrop impact, thereby
enhancing rainwater infiltration and reducing runoff. Increased organic matter also contributes
indirectly to soil porosity (via increased soil faunal activity).

Fresh organic matter stimulates the activity of macrofauna such as earthworms, which create burrows
lined with the glue-like secretion from their bodies and intermittently filled with worm cast material.
Surface infiltration depends on a number of factors including aggregation and stability, pore continuity
and stability, the existence of cracks, and the soil surface condition. Organic matter also contributes to
the stability of soil aggregates and pores through the bonding or adhesion properties of organic
materials, such as bacterial waste products, organic gels, fungal hyphae and worm secretions and casts.
Moreover, organic matter intimately mixed with mineral soil materials has a considerable influence in
increasing moisture holding capacity. The quality of the crop residues, in particular its chemical
composition, determines the effect on soil structure and aggregation.
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2.1.3. Soil Water

Soil water is the term for water found in naturally occurring soil. Soil that naturally occurs has water
contained in it, which is referred to as soil water. Water is held within the soil pores with varying
degrees of tenacity depending on the amount of water present. Those in large pores are quickly drained
by gravity while those in small pores are strongly held to the soil particles still some are lost through
evaporation. Soil water makes up soil solution, together with its dissolved salts, which is important as
a medium for supplying nutrients to growing plants. The potential of soil to hold back moisture which
is available readily for plant growth and development for purposes such as irrigation and land usage is
an important factor. One of the vital functions of soil is to hold and catch water at the time of periods
of rainfall and store them. There are types and classifications of soil water based on the function of the
water in the soil.

i. Soil water (moisture) classification

There are two types of soil water classification which are Physical classification and Biological Classification

A. Physical classification (Gravitational, capillary and hygroscopic):

Gravitational water is a water in excess of the field capacity (0.1-0.2 bars). The bar is a metric unit of
pressure and exactly equal to (100 kPa). Kilopascal (kPa) is a SI unit of pressure measurement. Even
if it is loosely held, it is of little use to plants as it occupies the pore spaces, reducing soil aeration.
Capillary water is the water held in microspores and behaves according to the lows governing
capillarity. It includes most of the water taken up by growing plants exerts suctions between 0.1 and
31 bars. Hygroscopic water is that bound tightly by the soil colloids at suction values greater than
31atm. Plants cannot make use of this water but some microbes are found to be active.

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Fig 2.6. Physical classification of soil water

B. Biological Classification (Available, Unavailable and gravitational)

Moisture retained in the soil between the field capacity (0.1 -0.2 bar) and the permanent wilting coefficient is
called available water. Water held at tension greater than 15 bars is said to be unavailable to plants.
Gravitational water is also of little use to plants, if not harmful.

Fig 2.7. Biological classification of soil water

There is no clear line of demarcation among different forms of soil water. The amount and use of
available soil moisture depend on a number of Plant factors(rooting habits, basic drought tolerance,
stage and rate of growth), Climatic factors(air temperature and humidity, and wind velocity and
turbulence) and Soil factors(moisture suction (osmotic and matric), soil depth, soil stratification or
layering).
ii. Importance of soil water

Importance of soil water:-

 Soil moisture serves as the solvent and carrier of food nutrients for plants growth.
 Soil moisture help to regulate soil air and temperature
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 Soil water is the principal constituent of the growing plants

 Soil water is essential for photosynthesis.
 Microorganism requires water for their metabolic activities.
 Soil water helps in the chemical and biological activities of the soil
 Soil forming processes and weathering depend on soil moisture

2.1.4. Soil Air

The meaning of SOIL AIR is gases occupying the free pore space in soil. Soil air is the gaseous phase
of the soil which present in between the pore space of soil. Soil air is a continuation of the atmospheric
air and there is continuous exchange of gases between atmosphere and soil air. It is in constant motion
from the soil pores into the atmosphere and from the atmosphere into the pore space. The circulation
of air in the soil and renewal of component gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide is known as soil
aeration. Soil air also occupies the pore space of the soil that is left from water. Soil air is not
continuous in its appearance. Consequently, its amount relate inversely to the amount of water in the
soil. As soils with fine pores drain slowly and the water held strongly to the soil particles, they are
poorly aerated. Soil is one in which gases are available to growing aerobic organisms (particularly
higher plants) in sufficient quantities and in the proper proportions to encourage optimum rates of the
essential metabolic processes of these organisms

Soil air contains gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and others. The
composition of soil air is different from atmospheric air and is also a changeable constituent, differs
from atmospheric air in many aspects. Soil air contains more carbon dioxide and less oxygen than
atmospheric air. It also contains more water vapour than atmospheric air. The nitrogen content of soil
air is almost equal to atmospheric air.

Per cent by volume

Source
Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon dioxide

Soil air 79.2 20.0 0.35

Atmospheric air 79.0 21.0 0.03

It generally contains high relative humidity as compared to atmospheric air. Besides, its content of Carbon
dioxide is usually much higher.

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Two biological reactions account for oxygen and CO2 proportions and amount in the soil:

 Respiration of higher plant roots

 The aerobic of organic residues by micro organisms
But the gases involved are the same:

C + O2 CO2 (Oxidation of carbonaceous products)

Either a deficiency of O2 or an excess of CO2 would cut down the reaction. Soil aeration problems in
the field, such as the one mentioned, are caused by:

 Excess moisture
 Poor exchange of gases between the soil and the atmosphere which in turn depends on
the rate of biochemical reactions influencing the soil gases and the actual rate at which
each gas is moving into or out of the soil.

Mass flow and diffusion facilitate the exchange of gases between the soil and the atmosphere. Soil air
contains higher level of CO2, water vapour, methane (CH4), and H2S as compared to atmospheric
air. This composition is determined by the amount of airspace available, biochemical reactions,
gaseous interchange, depth within the profile and season.

Effects of soil aeration on biological activities

i. On microorganisms: A decrease in the rate of organic matter oxidation results from poor
aeration because of the lack of oxygen, not excess CO2. Only anaerobic and facultative
organisms function properly under poor aeration.
ii. On higher plants: Poor aeration results in the following phenomena in higher plants:
 The growth of the plants, especially root, is curtained.
 The absorption of nutrients is decreased.
 The absorption of water is decreased.
 The formation of certain inorganic compounds toxic to plant growth is facilitated.
iii. On plant growth: the effect of poor aeration on the growth of plants depends on the type of the
plant and the Oxygen Diffusion Rate (ODR). For instance, rice is very tolerant to poor aeration
whereas tomato grows only in well aerated areas.
iv. On nutrient and Water: In poorly aerated condition, absorption of water and nutrients
decreases due to inefficiency of root respiration.
The most common remedies for poor aeration are removal of excess water and breaking compacted
layers.

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2.2. Soil as a component of the ecosystem

An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact with
each other and the surrounding environment. An ecosystem is a collection of organisms and the
local environment with which they interact. Soil is one of the most important elements of an
ecosystem, and it contains both biotic and abiotic factors. The composition of abiotic factors is
particularly important as it can impact the biotic factors, such as what kinds of plants can grow in an
ecosystem. These soil components fall into two categories. In the first category are biotic factors all
the living and once living things in soil, such as plants and insects. The second category consists
of abiotic factors, which include all nonliving things for example, minerals, water, and air. The most
common minerals found in soil that support plant growth are phosphorus, and potassium and also,
nitrogen gas. Other, less common minerals include calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.
The biotic and abiotic factors in the soil are what make up the soil‘s composition.

2.3. Ecosystem services of soil

Soils perform five key functions in the global ecosystem. Soil serves as a: medium for plant growth,
regulator of water supplies, recycler of raw materials, habitat for soil organisms, and landscaping and
engineering medium. Advances in watershed, natural resource, and environmental sciences have
shown that soil is the foundation of basic ecosystem function. Soil filters our water, provides essential
nutrients to our forests and crops, and helps regulate the Earth's temperature as well as many of the
important greenhouse gases. Therefore, soil health is a function of its capacity to provide the basic
services for supporting plant growth and contributing to the regulation of nutrient, water, carbon and
gaseous cycles. Soil health is widely linked to soil biodiversity. Soil organisms mechanically
(commination) and chemically (mineralization) break down the organic matter so they can use it as
food.

i. Life support services

The soil renews, retains, and delivers plant nutrients and provides physical support to plants. It
sustains biological activity, diversity and productivity. The soil ecosystem provides habitat for the
dispersion and dissemination of seeds, which ensures the continued evolution of the gene pool.

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ii. Provision services

Soil is the basis for the provision of food, fire, fuel and medicinal products that sustain life. It holds
and releases water for plant growth and water supply.

iii. Regulating services

The soil plays a central role in buffering, filtering and moderating the hydrological cycle. Soils
regulate the carbon, oxygen and plant nutrient cycles (e.g. nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium,
magnesium and sulphur) that affect plant production and the climate. Soil biodiversity contributes to
regulating soil pests and diseases. Soil micro-organisms process and break down wastes and dead
organic matter (e.g. manure, remains of plants, fertilizers and pesticides) preventing them from
building up to toxic levels and entering the water supply as pollutants.

iv. Cultural services

Soil provides the foundation for urban settlement and infrastructure. Soils and their wider ecosystems
provide spiritual or heritage value. Soils are the basis for landscapes that provide recreation.

Figure 1.2. Function of soil in ecosystem

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CHAPTER THREE

3. Soil forming factors

It was Dokuchaev, the famous Russian soil scientist, who first showed that soils do not occur by chance but as a
result of interplay of five factors. The factors are: climate (particularly temperature and precipitation), living
organisms (especially the native vegetation), parent material (texture, structure chemical and minerals
composition), topography (the state of land form/relief) and time that the parent materials are subjected to soil
formation

Fig. 2.1 Soil Forming Factors

3.1. Parent material

Parent material is the geologic material from which soil horizons form. Parent material can consist of
consolidated rocks, and it can also include unconsolidated deposits such as river alluvium, lake or marine
sediments, glacial tills, loess (silt-sized, wind-deposited particles), volcanic ash, and organic matter (such as
accumulations in swamps or bogs). There are seven variations of parent material. Weathered Bedrock, Till,
Outwash Deposit, Eolian Sand, Loess, Alluvium, and Local Overwash.

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Types of Parent Material

Weathered Bedrock (including bedrock):

1. More than 80% of the material in the

diagnostic zone is so hard that roots will not
grow into it (qualifies as bedrock limiting
layer), OR
2. Less material is that hard, AND:
a. Texture varies greatly depending on
kind of rock, AND
b. Sedimentary rock fragments, if
present, are mainly angular or flat or
both.

Till:

1. Calcareous in C horizons.
2. Pebbles, if present, are mainly igneous and
mainly rounded.
3. Not stratified (layered).
4. Usually has platy depositional structure in C
horizons.
5. Common texture and color combinations in
C horizons:
a. Medium texture (loam) and brownish
color (10YR 5/4, 5/6, 5/3), OR
b. Moderately clayey texture (clay loam,
silty clay loam) and near the
brownish/gray boundary (10YR 5/3,
5/4, 5/2).

Outwash and lacustrine deposits:

1. Pebbles, if present, are mainly rounded.

2. Material is either:
a. In the sandy texture group and the
sands are mainly greater than 0.5 mm
in diameter (qualifies as a coarse sand
and gravel limiting layer if it is thick
enough), OR
b. In any texture group and is stratified
(consists of layers that are clearly
visible and/or are in different texture
groups).
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3. Subsoil has strong soil development (to

distinguish it from alluvium and local
overwash).

Note: If official judges determine that the parent

material is outwash or lacustrine material, but the
material does not show clear stratification or the
material is not coarse sand and gravel, they will give
the parent material on the site card.

Eolian sand:

1. Sandy texture with no gravel or pebbles.

2. Sand grains are mainly 0.1 to 0.5 mm in
diameter (between 150-grit and 40-grit
sandpaper).
3. Not stratified, but may have lamellae.

Loess:

1. May or may not be calcareous.

2. No or very few pebbles.
3. Silt loam or silt texture in lower part of
profile (BC or C horizon).
4. Not stratified (in contrast to water-deposited
material).
5. Not dense (in contrast to most till).

Alluvium:

1. Two or more distinct layers that differ in

texture and/or organic matter content (color).
2. Soil horizons in and above the parent
material zone have very weak development.

Local overwash: Image N/A. See alluvium image for reference.

1. More than 20 inches thick (but the parent

material zone may not include all 20 inches).
2. Buries a dark horizon.
3. Soil horizons in and above the parent
material zone have very weak development.

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Parent material is the starting point for most soil development. They are defined as the initial state of
the soil system or initial state of the solid matter making up a soil. Soil parent material is the material
that soil develops from, and may be rock that has decomposed in place, or material that has been
deposited by wind, water, or ice.

In any case, the nature of the parent material may have a profound influence on soil formation, even
on a well-developed mature soil. The character and chemical composition of the parent material plays
an important role in determining soil properties, especially during the early stages of development.
E.g. Texture of sandy soils is determined largely by its parent material.

The igneous rocks form by the cooling of molten magma and include granite and basalt. The
sedimentary rocks are composed of weathering residues that have usually accumulated in large bodies
of water. They range from almost pure quart sand to limestone and chalk. Many sedimentary rocks
cemented by silica, calcium carbonate or iron oxides. Metamorphic rocks are those that have
undergone secondary change and include both altered igneous rocks and sediments. Very high
temperatures and pressures that occur at a great depth in the Earth‘s interior bring about the changes.
They include slates, schist and gneiss.

There is only weak correlation between the nature of rocks and the soils developed from them. The
same type of rock can give rise to very different soil types depending on the other soil forming factors.
For instance, basalt may give a brilliant red, highly weathered soil (Ferralsol) in the humid tropics or it
may give a black tropical soil (Vertisol) in a semi-arid environment. The best correlation is with the
texture of the parent material. Materials with high Quartz (second most abundant mineral in Earth's
crust after feldspar) content give rise to sandy soils while basic and fine-grained sediments tend to give
fine textured soils. Better correlation is found at the early stage of soil formation.

Types of transported parent material and associated modes of transportation and deposition

Mode of
Resulting Parent Material
Transport

 Alluvial or fluvial (deposited from flowing water)

Water  Lacustrine (sediments in still water, especially lakes)
 Marine (deposited in oceans or re-worked by oceans)
 Glacial-fluvial (sediments deposited by glacial melt water in a floodplain
Water and Ice environment)
 Glacial-lacustrine (sediments deposited by glacial melt water in lake environment)

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 Glacial-marine (sediments deposited by glacial melt water in an ocean environment)

Ice  Till (sediment deposited directly by glacial ice)

 Loess (sediment composed primarily of silt-sized particles)

Wind  Volcanic tephra (sediment composed of volcanic erecta in a range of particle sizes)
 Eolian sand (sediment composed primarily of sand-sized particles)

Gravity  Colluvium (sediments found on steep slopes derived from local sources)

The unconsolidated material comprises a wide range of superficial deposits. The following ones are the most
common types of unconsolidated rock material:
Alluvium: Alluvium is loose clay, silt, sand, or gravel that has been deposited by running water in a stream bed,
on a floodplain, in an alluvial fan or beach, or in similar settings. Alluvium is also sometimes
called alluvial deposit. deposit material, of which some of the fertile land in the world consists,
carried in suspension by a river. Its Size ranges from clay to very large boulders.

Figure 3.3. Alluvial fan formation with mountain river water and land outline diagram.

Colluvium: Is a crudely stratified material on slope formed by soil creep or flow. It is a material
comprising heterogeneous mixtures of soil and rock fragments deposited at the base of
slopes, on lower slopes and in concave slope positions from downslope transport by creep,
sheetwash or erosion'. It represents a soil parent materialGravity is the main agent of
transportation here.

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SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION MSc in soil science
By: Ass.prof. Latamo Lameso (Feb,2023)

Figure 3.4. Colluvium formation

Dune Sands: Any accumulation of sand grains shaped into a mound or ridge by the wind under the influence
of gravity. Coarse sand formed by wind into ridges of various shapes. They are common along
coasts and in arid areas.

Figure 3.5. Colluvium formation

Lacustrine Clays: Fine materials sediment at the bottom of lakes and now exposed at the surface due
to a change in the nature of the drainage.
Loess: a deposit of fine material transported by wind, it is usually buff colored, unstratified and forms
vertical walls. It can originate from deserts or melted glaciers.
Marine Clays: fine material sediment at the bottom of the sea and now exposed at the surface due to
change in sea level.
Pedi-sediments: material deposited by surface-wash on long, gently sloping plains. They consist of old
soil material such as quartz, gravel and concretions and are very common in tropical
and sub-tropical countries.
Raised Beaches: beach deposits that are now above the present high-water mark. They are very
common in coastal situations.
Solifluction Deposits: Crudely stratified deposits on slopes, they are formed in a cold climate as a
result of alternating freezing and thawing causing mass movement down the slope.
Volcanic Ash: A deposit of fine particles of lava ejected during an eruption. They occur very close to
the volcano, but they may be more than 100km away in case of aggressive eruption

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 SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION MSc in soil science
By: Ass.prof. Latamo Lameso (Feb,2023)

3.2. Climate

Climate is the average weather condition in a given area over a longer period of time. Climate is
perhaps the most influential factor and greatly affects the rate of soil formation. In areas that are
permanently dry and/or frozen, soil does not form. The two components of climate to be considered are
precipitation and temperature. Temperature and precipitation exert profound influences on the rates of
chemical and physical processes. Biochemical changes by soil organisms are most sensitive to
temperature as well as moisture. Temperature and moisture influence the speed of chemical reactions,
which in turn help control how fast rocks weather and dead organisms decompose. Soils develop faster
in warm, moist climates and slowest in cold or arid ones. Rainfall is one of the most important
climate factors in soil formation. Arid region soils, shallow and little weathered, are different from the
deep weathered soils of the humid warm areas. However, it must be stressed that the atmospheric
climate data do not always give a true picture of the soil climate. Climate influences other factors like
vegetation and fauna on which soil formation is dependent.

3.2.1. Temperature

The main effect of temperature on soils is to influence the rate of soil formation, since for every 10 o rise
in temperature the speed of a chemical reaction increases by a factor of two to three. This principally
applies to the weathering of minerals. The rate of both biological activity within the soil and the
breakdown of organic matter are also increased by a rise in temperature. The diurnal and seasonal
variations, soil depth aspect, latitude and altitude are factors that affect soil temperature. The
relationship between average temperature and plant growth and the accumulation of organic matter is
complex. The organic matter content of soil is the net result of plant growth or the addition of organic
matter, the rate of organic matter mineralization, and the soil's capacity to protect organic matter from
mineralization. Many soils of tundra regions are rich in organic matter even though plant growth rates
are very slow. Even slower are the rates of microbial decomposition of organic matter due to both low
temperature and soil wetness. The grassland soils of the Great Plains have a gradual decrease in organic
matter with increasing annual temperature.

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Soil Genesis and Classification By: Assis. Professor Latamo Lameso 2023 G.C

Effects of Soil Temperature on Soil Formation

There are several effects of soil formation. The effects can be grouped into categories which are
biological, chemical, and physical properties.

Physical Properties

Soil structure: The increase in the temperature of the soil causes the dehydration of clay minerals,
leading to interactions among clay particles, which in turn yields less clay to silt-sized particles in the
soil. High soil temperature can lead to cracks in the sand particles in the soil. This temperature rise will
change the physical structure of the soil.
Soil aeration: The temperature of the soil can influence the amount of carbon dioxide content that is
in soil air. The high temperature of the soil encourages the production of microorganisms which results
in higher production of carbon dioxide.
Aggregate stability: When a soil temperature is above 30 degrees, the aggregate stability of the soil
increases, the strength of the aggregate is due to the thermal transformation of aluminium and iron
oxide, making them act as cementing agents in the soil.
Biological Properties

Soil micro and macro-organisms: Soil microorganisms require temperatures between 10 degrees and
35 degrees for their activities. Soil microbial activities usually decrease with lower soil temperature,
and at freezing temperatures, most activities stop. The best temperature range for their metabolisms is
between 10 degrees and 24 degrees for macro-organisms activities.
Organic matter decomposition: Soil matter accumulation increases at a temperature below 0 degrees
due to a slow decomposition rate. There is a slower decomposition rate due to a decrease in microbial
activities and biochemical processes.
Bioactivity: An increase in soil temperature will increase soil nitrogen mineralization rate by
increasing microbial activity and decomposition of organic matter in the soil. Soil temperature that is
below the freezing point will stop mineralization b inhibition of microbial activities.

Chemical Properties

Available phosphorus: Soil with lower temperatures has low phosphorus availability because as
weathering occurs, soluble phosphorus is released and may be used by organisms and transformed into
secondary minerals.
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Soil pH: At temperatures between 25 degrees Celsius and 39 degrees, the pH of soil increases due to
organic acid. With a lower soil pH, the number of nutrients and chemicals that are soluble in water will
be produced less. This lower production of nutrients in the soil can affect the soil structure and poor
plant growth.

3.2.2. Precipitation

Water is necessary for mineral weathering and plant growth. Water very largely the movement of
moisture determines the differentiation of horizons (layers). The moisture entering the soil comes
mainly from precipitation as rain and snow and contains appreciable amounts of dissolved CO 2. Thus,
actually the water entering the soil is a dilute acid, which is much more active than pure water. It is
precipitation of moderate intensity that enters the soil best and that is most influential, as light showers
are mainly lost by evaporation and heavy rains are mainly lost as runoff.
The role of moisture in soil formation is profound as it is a transport agent of ions and other solutes.
Besides, it facilitates the activity of microbes. The acidic nature of soil-entering moisture facilitates the
decay (weathering) of some rock minerals, e.g. Calcite, dolomite and gypsum. Thus moisture also
speeds up the rate of soil formation, it does so much strongly under high temperature. Water in excess
of field capacity (surplus water) participates in the downward translocation of colloidal particles and
soluble salts. The limited supply of water in deserts re- suits in soils that tend to be alkaline, relatively
unweathered, and low in clay and organic matter content, and cation exchange capacity. Generally,
soils of the arid and sub humid regions tend to be fertile, except for the limited ability of the soil
microbes to mineralize soil organic matter and to supply available nitrogen.

Increases in precipitation have been positively related with greater: (1) leaching of lime and greater
depth to a k layer, (2) development of soil acidity, (3) weathering and clay content, and (4) plant
growth and organic matter content.

3.3. Living Organisms

Nearly every organism living on the surface of the earth or in the soil affects the development of soils
in one way or another. The actions of living organisms include organic matter accumulation, profile
mixing by animals, nutrient cycling by all, structural stability of soils, etc. The organisms can be
grouped as higher plants, human beings, vertebrates, micro-organisms, micro-fauna and meso-fauna.

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i. Higher plants: The most influential aspect of higher plants is the role of roots, the addition of
organic matter, the extraction water and nutrients from the soil. Plant roots act as binders and prevent
soil from erosion. They grow into the cracks of rocks forcing the rocks to break apart. Besides, the die
and decompose there adding organic matter to the interior of the soil. Litter fall, from leaves and
trunks, also contribute significant amount of organic matter to the soil surface thereby changing the
properties of the soil. Plants extract water and nutrients from the soil body. This leads to the loss of
ions from the soil and rapid loss of water from the soil. The losses in turn affect the physical and the
bio-chemical properties of the soil.

ii. Human beings: One of the most obvious and early effects of human activity on soils has occurred
at campsites and villages. Organic residues have been added to the soils from food preparation and
preservation, together with other materials such as bones and shells. Human excrement and other
materials have similarly contributed to the formation of thick, dark-colored layers greatly enriched
with phosphorus. The use of land for agriculture, forestry, grazing, and urbanization has produced
extensive changes in soils. Many of these changes have been discussed, including soil erosion,
drainage, salinity development, depletion and addition of organic matter and nutrients, compaction,
and flooding. Sometimes, solid waste disposal produces new soils that are little more than an
accumulation of trash. Millions of acres of land have soils with properties that are due more to human
activities than to soil-forming factors.

iii. Few mammals, vertebrates, including rabbits, moles and prairie dogs dig down into the soil
mixing the profile considerably. Uncontrolled grazing by animals also leads to susceptibility of the soil
to erosion. The addition of organic matter as waste products and dead bodies from animals should not
be ignored as well. Recently, human influence on soils is stepping up rapidly because of
industrialization and intensive agriculture. Human beings influence soil to the extent that a different
soil type is the result.

iv. Microorganisms: The predominant microorganisms in the soil are bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes,
algae and viruses. The distribution of these microorganisms in soils is determined largely by the
presence of food supply. Consequently, their number is greatest in the surface horizons. However, the
type and number of microorganisms that occur in soils are determined by temperature and moisture.
Microorganisms play considerable role in the decomposition of organic matter and other bio-chemical
reactions.

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v. Earthworms, nematodes, mites, millipedes, etc are some of the mesofauna that are present in
soils. Their distribution is determined almost entirely by their food supply. Consequently, they are
concentrated in the top 2-5cm; only few, such as earthworms, penetrate below 10-20cm. They are
concerned largely with the ingestion and decomposition of organic matter, and mineral matter in some
cases. They also transport materials from one place to another and in so doing they produce drainage
passages.

3.4. Topography

Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may
refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps. Topography is a
field of geoscience and planetary science and is concerned with local detail in general, including not
only relief (quantitative measurement of vertical elevation change in a landscape), but also natural,
artificial, and cultural features such as roads, land boundaries, and buildings. Examples
include mountains, hills, valleys, lakes, oceans, rivers, cities, dams, and roads. Elevation - The
elevation, or height, of mountains and other objects is recorded as part of topography. It is usually
recorded in reference to sea level (the surface of the ocean).

Figure 3.5. Topographic features

Differences in topography can cause wide variations in soils within the confines of a single field. Topography
determines the local distribution or disposal of the precipitation and determines the extent to which water tables
influence soil genesis. The work of topography may be to hasten or delay the work of climatic forces. There is a
definite interaction among topography, vegetation and soil. Topography is not static but dynamic, as all land

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surfaces are constantly changing through weathering and erosion, the study of which is known as
geomorphology.
Slope (gradient or incline of the land example steep and gentile slope) and aspect affect the moisture and
temperature of soil. Steep slopes facing the sun are warmer. Both the length and steepness of slope affect soil
genesis. As the steepness of slope increases, there is greater water runoff and soil erosion and loses their topsoil
as they form due erosion hazard, resulting in tiny stony soils on strongly sloping lands.The net effect is a
retardation of soil genesis. Generally, an increase in slope gradient is associated with less plant growth and
organic matter content, less weathering and clay formation, and less leaching and eluviation. Consequently,
soils have thinner sola and are less well developed on steeper slopes. Many soils on sloping land are in
equilibrium in terms of erosion rate and rate of horizon formation. As erosion reduces the thickness of the A
horizon, the upper part of the B horizon is incorporated into the lower part of the A horizon. The upper part of
the C horizon is slowly incorporated into the lower part of the B horizon. Under these conditions, the soil
essentially maintains its character over a long period of time as the landscape evolves.
Topography influences soils in such a way that on flat or gently sloping sites there is the tendency for materials
to remain in place and for the soil to be thick. Thus, they may be thinner than the more nearly level soils that
receive deposits from areas upslope. Soils on the side of hills tend to be shallow, due to erosional losses. Soils
on the tops of hills tend to be deep, but lighter in color, due to downward leaching losses. Soils in the valleys
tend to be deeper, darker, and contain more horizons.

Figure 3.6. Influences of topography on soil horizons and soil formation

The topography of the land can hasten or delay the processes of climate forces and therefore can modify their
effects as well as the vegetative effects, having a major direct effect on soil formation and on the type of soil
that forms. The lengths of time that parent material have been subjected to weathering. Topography also
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influences rate of decomposition of organic matter during soil formation due to change in temperature and
precipitation

3.5. Time

Soil formation is a very long and slow process requiring thousands and even millions of years. This make
impossible for human beings to study the influence of time as it is much longer than the life span of an
individual. Some soils develop faster than others depending on the type of parent material and the other soil
forming factors.

Soils are products of evolution, and soil properties are a function of time or soil age. The age of a soil is
expressed by its degree of development and not the absolute number of years. In a sense, soils have a life cycle
that is represented by various stages of development. Reference has been made to minimally, moderately, and
intensively weathered soils. It should be recognized that the rate of soil genesis in a particular situation is highly
dependent on the nature of the soil-forming factors. In some situations, soil genesis is rapid, whereas in others,
soil genesis is very slow. Some soil features or properties develop quickly, but the development of other
properties requires much more time. Therefore, to study time as a soil-forming factor, the other soil-forming
factors must remain constant, or nearly so.

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Figure 3.7. Formation of soil through time process

Topography, Parent Material, and Time Interactions

In general, soil-forming factors have to be viewed from interactive point of view, as a soil is not
shaped with a single factor. On slopes, water runoff and soil erosion occur while simultaneously run-
on water and soil deposition occur on areas at a lower elevation. Thus, in a landscape, young soils tend
to occur where both sedimentation and erosion are active. The oldest soils tend to occur on broad
upland areas where neither erosion nor sedimentation occurs.

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CHAPTER FOUR

4. Soil formation

4.1. Introduction

Soils are a slowly renewable resource and it takes 100‘s to 1000‘s of years for soils to develop but they
do grow, change, and develop over time. Soil formation, or the development of soils that are natural
bodies, includes two broad processes. First is the formation of a parent material from which the soil
evolves and, second, the evolution of soil layers, as shown in Figure 4.1. Approximately 99 percent of
the world's soils develop in mineral parent material that was or is derived from the weathering of
bedrock, and the rest develop in organic materials derived from plant growth and consisting of muck
or peat.

Fig 4.1. Evolution of soil layers

Bedrock Weathering and Formation of Parent Material

Bedrock is not considered soil parent material because soil layers do not form in it. Rather, the
unconsolidated debris produced from the weathering of bedrock is soil parent material. When bedrock
occurs at or near the land surface, the weathering of bedrock and the formation of parent material may
occur simultaneously with the evolution of soil layers. This is shown in Figure 2.2, where a single soil
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horizon, the topsoil layer, overlies the R layer, or bedrock. The topsoil layer is about 12 inches (30 cm)
thick and has evolved slowly at a rate controlled by the rate of rock weathering. The formation of a
centimetre of soil in hundreds of years is accurate for this example of soil formation. Rates of parent
material formation from the direct weathering of bedrock are highly variable. Weakly cemented
sandstone in a humid environment might disintegrate at the rate of a centimetre in 10 years and leave 1
centimeter of soil. Con- versely, quartzite (metamorphosed sandstone) nearby might weather so slowly
that any weathered material might be removed by water or wind erosion. Soluble materials are
removed during limestone weathering, leaving a residue of insoluble materials. Estimates indicate that
it takes 100,000 years to form a foot of residue from the weathering of limestone in a humid region.
Where soils are underlain at shallow depths by bedrock, loss of the soil by erosion produces serious
consequences for the future management of the land.

Sediment Parent Materials

Weathering and erosion are two companion and opposing processes. Much of the material lost from a
soil by erosion is transported downslope and deposited onto existing soils or is added to some
sediment at a lower elevation in the landscape. This may include alluvial sediments along streams and
rivers or marine sediments along ocean shorelines. Most of the world's soils have formed in sediments
consisting of material that was produced by the weathering of bedrock at one place and was
transported and deposited at another location. In thick sediments or parent materials, the formation of
soil layers is not limited by the rate of rock weathering, and several soil layers may form
simultaneously.

4.2. Soil forming Rocks

The study of rocks is called Petrology (in Greek, petra means rock, logos means science). Petrology
deals with the description of rocks. Petrogenesis is the study of the origin of rocks. What is Rocks?
Rocks are the materials that form the essential part of the Earth‘s solid crust. Rocks are hard mass of
mineral matter comprising one or more rock forming minerals. Rocks are composed of minerals e.g.
granite is an igneous rock composed of minerals: quartz, Feldspar and mica. Rocks are formed from
the molten material known as magma.

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Formation of rocks

1. Cooling and consolidation of molten magma within or on the surface of earth Igneous or
Primary rocks
2. Transportation and cementation of primary rocks  Sedimentary or Secondary rocks.
3. Alteration of the existing primary and secondary rocks metamorphic rocks.

Rock cycle

Figure 4.2: Rock cycle

Classification of Rocks

1. Igneous Rocks (primary or massive rocks).

Igneous rocks (from the Latin word for fire) form when hot, molten rock crystallizes and solidifies.
They are formed from the solidification of magma, which is a hot (600 to 1,300 °C, or 1,100 to 2,400
°F) molten or partially molten rock material due high temperatures within Earth. Because magma is
less dense than the surrounding solid rocks, it rises toward the surface. It may settle within the crust or
erupt at the surface from a volcano as a lava flow. Within Earth‘s deep crust the temperatures and
pressures are much higher than at its surface; consequently, the hot magma cools slowly and
crystallizes completely, leaving no trace of the liquid magma. Rocks formed from the cooling and
solidification of magma deep within the crust are distinct from those erupted at the surface mainly
owing to the differences in physical and chemical conditions prevalent in the two environments. The
melt originates deep within the Earth near active plate boundaries or hot spots, then rises toward the
surface. These are first formed in the earth crust due to the cooling and solidification of molten rock

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lava (extrusive) & magma (intrusive).

Figure 4.3: Igneous rocks

Based on the mode of formation, they are further classified as extrusive and intrusive rocks
i. Extrusive rocks or volcanic rocks: These rocks are formed due to the consolidation of magma on
the surface of the earth. The magma, when it flows on the Earth surface is called LAVA. E.g. Basalt.
ii. Intrusive rocks or plutonic rocks: These rocks are produced due to solidification of magma below
the surface of the earth. Plutonic – intrusive rocks solidifies at greater depth and Hypabassal rocks
solidifies at shallow depth from the surface. E.g. Granite, syenite, diorite, Gabbro etc.

2. Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the accumulation or deposition
of mineral or organic particles at Earth's surface, followed by cementation. Sedimentation is the
collective name for processes that cause these particles to settle in place. The particles that form a
sedimentary rock are called sediment, and may be composed of geological detritus (minerals)
or biological detritus (organic matter). The geological detritus originated
from weathering and erosion of existing rocks, or from the solidification of molten lava blobs erupted
by volcanoes. The geological detritus is transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice
or mass movement, which are called agents of denudation. Biological detritus was formed by bodies
and parts (mainly shells) of dead aquatic organisms, as well as their fecal mass, suspended in water
and slowly piling up on the floor of water bodies (marine snow). Sedimentation may also occur as
dissolved minerals precipitate from water solution.

The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the Earth's crust is extensive (73% of the Earth's
current land surface), but sedimentary rock is estimated to be only 8% of the volume of the crust.
Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of igneous and metamorphic
rocks. Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata, forming a structure called bedding.

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Sedimentary rocks are often deposited in large structures called sedimentary basins. Sedimentary rocks
have also been found on Mars

Figure 4.4: Sedimentary rocks

3. Metamorphic Rocks

These are formed from igneous and sedimentary rocks under the influence of heat, pressure,
chemically active liquids and gases. Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of
existing rock to new types of rock in a process called metamorphism. The changes due to water is
called hydro metamorphosis and due to pressure is called dynamo metamorphosis.The original rock
(protolith) is subjected to temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C (300 to 400 °F) and, often, elevated
pressure of 100 megapascals (1,000 bar) or more, causing profound physical or chemical changes.
During this process, the rock remains mostly in the solid state, but gradually recrystallizes to a new
texture or mineral composition. The protolith may be an igneous, sedimentary, or existing
metamorphic rock.

Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth's crust and form 12% of the Earth's land
surface.[2] They are classified by their protolith, their chemical and mineral makeup, and their texture.
They may be formed simply by being deeply buried beneath the Earth's surface, where they are subject
to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above. They can also form
from tectonic processes such as continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure, friction, and
distortion. Metamorphic rock can be formed locally when rock is heated by the intrusion of hot molten
rock called magma from the Earth's interior. The study of metamorphic rocks (now exposed at the
Earth's surface following erosion and uplift) provides information about the temperatures and
pressures that occur at great depths within the Earth's crust.

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Some examples of metamorphic rocks are gneiss, slate, marble, schist, and quartzite. Slate and
quartzite tiles are used in building construction. Marble is also prized for building construction and as
a medium for sculpture. On the other hand, schist bedrock can pose a challenge for civil
engineering because of its pronounced planes of weakness

Examples are: Sand stone : Quartizite • Shale : Slate/mica, schist • Lime stone : Marble • Granite :
granite gneiss • Dolerite : Hornblende gneiss

Figure 4.5: Metamorphic Rocks

4.3. Pedogenic Processes (Process of soil formation)(Fundamenatl of soil book page 14)

After the parent material has been deposited, differentiation of layers takes place because of the soil
forming (pedogenic) processes that act upon the regolith. The soil forming processes responsible for
horizon differentiation is called pedogenic processes. The soil formation process begins with a parent
material that determines the mineral composition and widely contributes to the chemical and physical
properties of the soil.

Figure 4.6: Soil formations process

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There are several ways or mechanisms involved in soil formation. There are four processes commonly referred
to as pedogenic processes but sometimes, with more justification, they are referred to as processes of soil
change.

 Additions to the soil: Good example is addition of organic matter that creates black layer
at the soil surface; mineral matter may also be added.
 Losses from the soil: This may be explained by losses of salts from the soil by drainage.
It also includes losses by surface erosion.
 Transfer (translocation) with in the soil: e.g. movement of clay particles, organic matter,
ions, etc from A to B-horizon. It can also be movement of materials from subsoil
upwards.
 Transformations with in the soil: Mineral and organic matters change their form and
composition. The changes can be physical alteration or chemical modification usually
resulting in new products or minerals.

Although this happens, more commonly the processes operate to change the existing soils. This is why referring
to them as processes of soil change is more justifiable than calling them processes of soil formation. The
processes show narrow processes that lead to the occurrence of a lot many gross pedogenic processes.

i. Addition to the soil (Accumulation of materials)

Materials such as organic matter and decomposing materials or new mineral materials are added to the
soil by the forces of ice, water, or wind and they accumulate over time. In the case of poorly drained
soils, the organic matter accumulates since water-logging prevents it from being oxidized or broken
down by soil organisms. However, in the case of well-drained soils, the accumulation of materials
occurs when the root systems hold them up. Particle depositions by the forces of wind, water, or ice
equally aid in the accumulation of new materials. Some plants with the help of symbiotic bacteria fix
atmospheric nitrogen and ammonia compounds into the soil as nitrates.

ii. Loss from the soil (Leaching)

Loss from the soil includes losses of salts from the soil by drainage and losses by surface erosion and
removal of soluble components of the soil column by water. Through the movement of wind or water,
or uptake by plants, soil particles (sand, silt, clay, and OM) or chemical compounds can be eroded,
leached, or harvested from the soil, altering the chemical and physical makeup of the soil. The water
washing down through the soil carries bases like calcium, held as exchangeable ions in clay-humus
complexes, as well as acidification by the substitution of hydrogen ions. Through the movement of
water, wind, ice, or by the uptake of the accumulated materials by plants, new particles including clay,
organic matter, clay, silt, or other chemical compounds get leached and eroded or taken up by plants.

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iii. Transfer (translocation) with in the soil

The movement of clay particles, organic matter, ions, etc from A to B-horizon. It can also be
movement of materials from subsoil upwards. Transformation is the chemical weathering of soil
particles, including silt, sand, and clay minerals as well as the change of organic materials into
degradation-resistant organic matter. Following transformation, the clay and other accumulated
materials are washed from the upper layer and deposited in the lower horizons. The soil organisms like
plants and animals are also responsible for the transformation of the soil by the physical and chemical
breakdown of the materials. The soil begins to take shape on its own through transformation, which
improves water retention capacity and nutrient composition.

iv. Transformations with in the soil

Mineral and organic matters change their form and composition. The changes can be physical
alteration or chemical modification usually resulting in new products or minerals. Mineral soils have
originated from the unconsolidated materials (the regolith) that cover the country rock. The regolith is
first formed from rocks in the processes of disintegration and decomposition, i.e. weathering.
Weathering is the process by which all physical and chemical changes are produced in rocks, at or near
the earth's surface, by certain (mainly atmospheric) agents. Weathering is basically a combination of
destruction and syntheses. In weathering, rocks are broken down into small pieces, which are later on
further disintegrated into individual rock minerals. The minerals are attacked by bio-chemical
reactions to produce new minerals. The new minerals are formed by modification (alteration) in their
physical features or by complete chemical changes.

4.4. Weathering of rocks and minerals

Weathering of rocks and minerals  formation of regolith or parent material  formation of

true soil from regolith

Rock  Weathering  soil

Weathering: A process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks and minerals which are brought about by
physical agents and chemical processes, leading to the formation of Regolith. It is the process by which the
earth‘s crust or lithosphere is broken down by the activities of the atmosphere, with the aid of the hydrosphere
and biosphere. It is the process of transformation of solid rocks into parent material?

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Parent material: May be defined as the unconsolidated and more or less chemically weathered
mineral materials from which soil are developed.
Two basic processes of Weathering: Physical (or) mechanical disintegration and Chemical
decomposition. In addition, another process: Biological and all these processes are work hand in hand
(simultaneously).
Depending up on the agents taking part in weathering processes, it is classified into three types.
Physical/Mechanical (disintegration Chemical Biological (disint + decomp)
agents) (decomposition)
1.Physical condition of rock 1.Hydration 1.Man & animals
2.Change in temperature 2.Hydrolysis 2. Higher plants & their roots
3.Action of H2O 3.Solution 3.Micro organisms
-fragment & transport 4.Carbonation
- action of freezing 5.Oxidation
- alter. Wet & drying 6.Reduction
- action of glaciers
4.Action of wind

A. Physical weathering of Rocks

The rocks are disintegrated and are broken down to comparatively smaller pieces, without producing
any new substances. It is highly affected by physical condition of rocks. The permeability of rocks is
the most important single factor. Coarse textured (porous) sand stone weather more readily than a fine
textured (almost solid) basalt. Unconsolidated volcanic ash weather quickly as compared to
unconsolidated coarse deposits such as gravels

Physical processes of weathering

i. Thermal expansion and contraction: The variations in temperature exert great influence on
the disintegration of rocks. During day time, the rocks get heated up by the sun and expand. At
night, the temperature falls and the rocks get cooled and contract. This alternate expansion and
contraction weakens the surface of the rock and crumbles it because the rocks do not conduct
heat easily.

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ii. Abrasion: Water acts as a disintegrating, transporting and depositing agent. Fragmentation and
transport: Water beats over the surface of the rock when the rain occurs and starts flowing
towards the ocean. Water carrying suspended rock fragments has a scouring action on surfaces.
The grinding action of glaciers, gravels, pebbles and boulders moved along a constantly
abraded by fast-flowing streams.
iii. Freezing and thawing: In cold regions, the water in the cracks and crevices freezes into ice
and the volume increases to one tenth. Hence, the increase in volume creates enormous out
ward pressure which breaks apart the rocks.
iv. Alternate wetting and drying: Some natural substances increase considerably in volume on
wetting and shrink on drying. E.g. smectite, montmorilonite. This alternate swelling and
shrinking/ wetting or drying of clay enriched rocks make them loose and eventually breaks.
v. Crystallization/salt crystal growth: In arid environments, water evaporates at the surface of
rocks and crystals form from dissolved minerals. Overtime, the crystals grow (expand its
volume) and exert a force great enough to separate mineral grains and break up rocks
vi. Atmospheric electrical phenomenon: It is an important factor causing break down during
rainy season and lightning breaks up rocks and or widens cracks.

B. Chemical Weathering of Rocks

It is decomposition of rocks and minerals by various chemical processes. Takes place mainly at the
surface of rocks and minerals with disappearance/removal of certain minerals and the formation of
secondary products (new materials). This is called chemical transformation. The effectiveness of
chemical weathering is closely related to the mineral composition of rocks. E.g. quartz responds far
slowly to the chemical attack than olivine or pyroxene.

Chemical Processes of weathering

1. Hydration: Chemical combination of water molecules with a particular substance or mineral

leading to a change in structure. Up on hydration there is swelling and increase in volume of minerals
& the minerals loose their luster and become soft. It is one of the most common processes in nature
and works with secondary minerals, such as aluminium oxide and iron oxide minerals and gypsum.
E.g.
2Fe2O3 + 3HOH  2Fe2O3 .3H2O
(Hematite) (Red) (Limonite) (Yellow)

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Al2O3 + 3HOH  Al2O3 .3H2O

(Bauxite) (Hydrous aluminium Oxide)
CaSO4 + 2H2O  CaSO4 .2H2O

(Anhydrite) (Gypsum)

2. Hydrolysis: Most important process in chemical weathering. It is due to the dissociation of H2O
into H+ and OH- ions which chemically combine with minerals and bring about changes, such as
exchange, decomposition of crystalline structure and formation of new compounds. Water acts as a
weak acid on silicate minerals.
2KAlSi3O8 + H2O  H4Al2Si2O9 + K++4H4SiO4

(Orthoclase) (kaolinite) (Silicic acid)

Fate of the released K+ :

 Adsorbed by soil colloids
 Uptake by plants
 Removal in drainage water

The H4SiO4 is soluble and can be

 Removed slowly in drainage water

 Recombined with other compounds to form secondary minerals such as the silicate clays.

This reaction is important because of two reasons.

- clay, bases and Silicic acid - the substances formed in these reactions - are available to
plants.
- water often containing CO2 (absorbed from atmosphere), reacts with the minerals
directly to produce insoluble clay minerals, positively charged metal ions (Ca++, Mg++,
Na+, K+ ) and negatively charged ions (OH-, HCO3-) and some soluble silica – all these
ions are made available for plant growth.

3. Dissolution: water is capable of dissolving many minerals by hydrating cations and anions until
they become dissociated. The soluble substances are removed by the continuous action of water and
the rock no longer remains solid and form holes, rills or rough surface and ultimately falls into pieces

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or decomposes. The action is considerably increased when the water is acidified by the dissolution of
organic and inorganic acids.
CaSO4.2H2O + 2H2O Ca2- + SO42-+4H2O

4. Carbonation: Carbon dioxide when dissolved in water it forms carbonic acid.

2H2O + CO2  H2CO3
This carbonic acid attacks many rocks and minerals and brings them into solution. The carbonated
water has an etching effect up on some rocks, especially lime stone. The removal of cement that holds
sand particles together leads to their disintegration.
CaCO3 + H2CO3  Ca(HCO3)2

(Calcite) slightly soluble (Ca bicarbonate) readily soluble

5. Oxidation: The process of addition and combination of oxygen to minerals. The absorption is
usually from O2 dissolved in soil water and that present in atmosphere. The oxidation is more active in
the presence of moisture and results in hydrated oxides. E.g. minerals containing Fe and Mg.
4FeO (Ferrous oxide) + O2  2Fe2O3 (Ferric oxide)
4Fe3O4 (Magnetite) + O2  6Fe2O3 (Haematite)
2Fe2O3 (Hematite) + 3H2O  2Fe2O3 .3H2O (Limonite)

6. Reduction: The process of removal of oxygen and is the reverse of oxidation and is equally
important in changing soil colour to grey, blue or green as ferric iron is converted to ferrous iron
compounds. Under the conditions of excess water or water logged condition (less or no oxygen),
reduction takes place.

2Fe2O3 (Ferric oxide) - O2  4FeO (Ferrous oxide) – (reduced form)

In conclusion, during chemical weathering igneous and metamorphic rocks can be regarded as
involving destruction of primary minerals and the production of 2o minerals.

In sedimentary rocks, which is made up of primary and secondary minerals, weathering acts initially
to destroy any relatively weak bonding agents (FeO) and the particles are freed and can be
individually subjected to weathering.

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2.2.3. Biological Weathering of Rocks

Unlike physical and chemical weathering, the biological or living agents are responsible for both
decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals. The biological life is mainly controlled
largely by the prevailing environment.
1. Man and Animals:
The action of man in disintegration of rocks is well known as he cuts rocks to build dams, channels
and construct roads and buildings. All these activities result in increasing the surface area of the rocks
for attack of chemical agents and accelerate the process of rock decomposition.

A large number of animals, birds, insects and worms, by their activities they make holes in them and
thus aids for weathering. In tropical and sub-tropical regions, ants and termites build galleries and
passages and carry materials from lower to upper surface and excrete acids. The oxygen and water
with many dissolved substances, reach every part of the rock through the cracks, holes and galleries,
and thus brings about speedy disintegration.

Rabbits, by burrowing in to the ground, destroy soft rocks. Moles, ants and bodies of the dead animals,
provides substances which react with minerals and aid in decaying process. The earthworms pass the
soil through the alimentary canal and thus bring about physical and chemical changes in soil material.

2. Higher Plants and Roots:

The roots of trees and other plants penetrates into the joints and crevices of the rocks. As they grew,
they exert a great disruptive force and the hard rock may break apart. E.g. pipal tree growing on walls/
rocks. The grass root form a sponge like mass prevents erosion and conserve moisture and thus
allowing moisture and air to enter in to the rock for further action. Some roots penetrate deep into the
soil and may open some sort of drainage channel. The roots running in crevices in lime stone and
marble produces acids. These acids have a solvent action on carbonates. The dead roots and plant
residues decompose and produce carbon dioxide which is of great importance in weathering.
3. Microorganisms:

In early stages of mineral decomposition and soil formation, the lower forms of plants and animals
like, mosses, bacteria and fungi and actinomycetes play an important role. They extract nutrients from
the rock and N from air and live with a small quantity of water. In due course of time, the soil
develops under the cluster of these micro-organisms.

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This organism closely associated with the decay of plant and animal remains and thus liberates
nutrients for the use of next generation plants and also produces CO2 and organic compounds which
aid in mineral decomposition.

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CHAPTER FIVE

5. Major morphology of soils

Soil morphology is the study of the formation and description of soil types within various soil
horizons. Field morphology is the study of soil morphological features in the field by thorough
observation, description and interpretation. Field morphology starts with in situ (field) examination of
a soil profile, Field descriptions are organized by subdividing, in vertical exposure of the soil (soil
profile) into reasonably distinct layers or horizons that differ appreciably from the horizons
immediately above and below in one or more of the soil features listed below. Observable attributes
typically analyzed in the field include the composition, form, soil structure and organization of the
soil. Colour of the base soil and features such as mottling, distribution of roots and pores, consistency
of the soil and evidence of mineral presence also contribute to the classification. The observations are
typically performed on a soil profile in order to analyse the various soil horizons.

5.1. Soil profile and its major horizons

5.1.1. Soil profile

A soil profile is a vertical section through the soil in the field. A soil profile has a distinct
morphological appearance that varies gradually with distance. To represent an individual soil, soil
profile has to be wide enough to show lateral variation and deep enough to show the underlying
unconsolidated or consolidated layers that influence (have influenced) the genesis and behavior of the
soil.

The development of soil profile may result in layers of distinct characteristics or homogeneous single
soil stand. The following information is collected for assembling standard profile descriptions: Depth
intervals of horizons or layers (measured from the top of the mineral horizons), horizon boundary
characteristics, color (dark/grayish-black color, orange vs. gray colors), and texture (sandy vs.
clayey), and structure (good vs. poor structure), pores, consistence, coots, pH, effervescence, special
features such as coatings, nodules and concretions
The process of forming the first kind of profile is called horizonation and will be seen in detail
hereunder. The process leading to the formation of the homogeneous type of profile is called
haploidization. Mixing by burrowing animals, self-mixing, as in the case of vertisols are the
phenomena leading to haploidization.

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Most soil profiles, as stated above, show layers approximately parallel to the soil's surface, soil
horizon. Soil profile is different from geologic column. Generally, soil Profile develops through
disintegration and synthesis of minerals, addition and transformation of organic matter, nutrient
leaching, and all action of water.

5.1.2. Soil Horizons

The processes of soil change discussed earlier lead to the formation layers with distinct features. These
layers, parallel to the ground surface, are termed as soil horizons. A soil horizon is a layer parallel to
the soil surface whose physical, chemical and biological characteristics differ from the layers above
and beneath. Two overlapping trends can be identified in soil development: horizonation and
haploidization. Horizonation includes the proanisotropic processes and conditions by which initial
materials are differentiated into soil profiles with many horizons. Haploidization includes proisotropic
processes and conditions by which horizonation is inhibited or decelerated or by which horizons are
mixed or disturbed. The later, as it occurs in many soils like the Vertisol, is at least as important as
horizonation. Horizons are defined in many cases by obvious physical features, mainly colour and
texture. These may be described both in absolute terms (particle size distribution for texture, for
instance) and in terms relative to the surrounding material, i.e. 'coarser' or 'sandier' than the horizons
above and below.

The identified horizons are indicated with symbols, which are mostly used in a hierarchical way. The
soil horizons can be designated either by the ABC system or by 1, 2, 3… system, or by their depth
range. Master horizons (main horizons) are indicated by capital letters. Suffixes, in form of lowercase
letters and figures, further differentiate the master horizons. There are many different systems of
horizon symbols in the world. No one system is more correct as artificial constructs, their utility lies in
their ability to accurately describe local conditions in a consistent manner. Due to the different
definitions of the horizon symbols, the systems cannot be mixed.

They can also be named by a more quantitative method, which will later be discussed under soil
classification, as it is part of distinguishing features of a soil type. Here, the ABC system will be
discussed. In this system, there are head (master) horizons that are designated as O, A, B, and C. They
are also sub divided in to smaller layers. Many soils have an organic surface layer, which is
denominated with a capital letter "O" (letters may differ depending on the system). The mineral soil
usually starts with an A horizon. If a well-developed subsoil horizon as a result of soil formation
exists, it is generally called a B horizon. An underlying loose, but poorly developed horizon is called a
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C horizon. Hard bedrock is mostly denominated R. Most individual systems defined more horizons
and layers than just these five. In the following, the horizons and layers are listed more or less by their
position from top to bottom within the soil profile.

Not all of them are present in every soil. Soils with a history of human interference, for instance
through major earthworks or regular deep ploughing, may lack distinct horizons almost completely.
When examining soils in the field, attention must be paid to the local geomorphology (study of
landforms and landform evolution) and the historical uses, to which the land has been put, in order to
ensure that the appropriate names are applied to the observed horizons.

Figure: 5.1. Soil horizons

1. O horizon (Organic horizons)

O horizon (Organic horizons): The "O" stands for organic matter. It is a surface layer, dominated by
the presence of large amounts of organic matter in varying stages of decomposition. They form above

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the mineral soil as a result of litter derived from dead plants and animals. It is composed of organic
material that has accumulated and been modified (physically and chemically) over time, typically from
the remains of plant and animals. Microbial activity is high in this layer, utilizing the abundance of
organic matter and decomposing it in ways that allow it to contribute to the soil profile. O horizon
should be considered distinct from the layer of leaf litter covering many heavily vegetated areas, which
contains no weathered mineral particles and is not part of the soil itself. They occur commonly in
forested areas and are rarer or generally absent in more barren locations such as grassland regions.
This horizon is most easily observed in soils that are rarely, if ever, disturbed and with plenty of
foliage and/or organisms nearby to contribute to its development, such as forests. O horizons contain ≥
20% organic carbon. Due to the fact that its presence is determined by external factors (outside of the
original parent materials that form soils), it is the only layer not dominated by mineral substances. This
layer has three well-accepted subordinate horizons: Oi (slightly decomposed organic matter), Oe
(moderately decomposed organic matter), and Oa (highly decomposed organic matter). They can
further be subdivided as:

01: is organic horizon where in the organic forms of the plant and animal residues can be identified by
the naked eye.

02: is organic horizon where in the original plant and animal forms cannot be so distinguished.

2. P horizon

These horizons are also heavily organic but are distinct from O horizons in that they form under
waterlogged conditions. The "P" designation comes from their common name, peats (an accumulation
of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter). They may be divided into P1 and P2 in the same
way as O horizons. P horizons contain ≥ 12 to 18% organic carbon, depending on the clay content.

2. A Horizon (Admixture horizon)

A Horizon is mineral horizon which lies at/near the surface. It is a strong admixture of humified
organic matter. It is much darker than the underlying horizon. The A Horizon is a well-weathered and
fertile layer dominated by mineral particles but still rich in organic matter, especially if covered by an
O Horizon, which can leach decomposed organic matter into the A Horizon. This is a much thicker
layer than the O Horizon, dominated by highly weathered mineral particles (the most highly weathered
from the parent material of the soil), and typically darker and coarser than other Soil Horizons.

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The A Horizon is considered topsoil. The A is a surface horizon, and as such is also known as the
zone in which most biological activity occurs. Soil organisms such
as earthworms, potworms (enchytraeids), arthropods, nematodes, fungi, and many species
of bacteria and archaea are concentrated here, often in close association with plant roots. Thus, the A
horizon may be referred to as the biomantle. Biomantle is organic-rich bioturbated upper part of the
soil, including the topsoil where most biota lives, reproduce, die, and become assimilated.
Bioturbation is reworking of soils and sediments by animals or plants through burrowing, ingestion
and defecation of sediment grains. The A horizon may be further subdivided into A1 (dark, maximum
biologic activity), A2 (paler), and A3 (transitional to the B horizon).

3. E Horizon (Eluvial)

E horizon or horizon of maximum eluviation (e = ex; luv = washed) of clay, Fe, Al (oxides)
concentration of resistant minerals such as quartz. It is generally lighter in color than the A. The E in
"E Horizon" stands for eluviation, another word for leaching. This name is appropriate because, in this
layer clay, iron, and aluminum oxides leach into the lower layers (mostly the B Horizon). Like the O
Horizon, this layer is not always present, but when it is, it's usually in forested areas and rarely in
grasslands. Because of the loss of material through eluviation, it tends to be noticeably lighter than the
layers above and below it.

4. B Horizon (Illuvial)

B horizon is commonly referred to as "subsoil" and consists of mineral layers which are significantly
altered by pedogenesis, mostly with the formation of iron oxides and clay minerals. It is a region of
maximum accumulation of Fe & Al oxides and silicate clays. In arid areas CaCo3, CaSo4 and other
salts may accommodate in the lower B. It is usually brownish or reddish due to the iron oxides, which
increases the chroma (colorful) of the subsoil to a degree that it can be distinguished from the other
horizons. The B horizon can also accumulate minerals and organic matter that are migrating
downwards from the A and E horizons. If so, this layer is also known as
the illuviated or illuvial horizon. Illuvial horizon is a soil horizon in which material that is transported
downwards by eluviation from a horizon above, in solution or in suspension, has been deposited and
accumulates. As with the A horizon, the B horizon may be divided into B1, B2, and B3 types under
the Australian system. B1 is a transitional horizon of the opposite nature to an A3 – dominated by the
properties of the B horizons below it, but containing some A-horizon characteristics. B2 horizons have
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a high concentration of clay minerals or oxides. B3 horizons are transitional between the overlying B
layers and the material beneath it, whether C or D horizon.

Figure: 5.1. Soil horizons

5. C-horizon

C-horizon is the unconsolidated material underlying the solum (A and B). It is outside the zones of
major biological activities and is little affected by solum forming processes (pedogenesis) and is below
the solum (weatrhered portion of soil) horizons. The absence of solum-type development
(pedogenesis) is one of the defining attributes for this horizon. The C horizon forms either in deposits
(e.g., loess, flood deposits, landslides) or it formed from weathering of residual bedrock. Loess is
predominantly silt-sized sediment that is formed by the accumulation of wind-blown dust. The C
horizon may be enriched with carbonates carried below the solum by leaching. If there is no lithologic
discontinuity between the solum and the C horizon and no underlying bedrock present, the C horizon
resembles the parent material of the solum. Lithologic discontinuity is clear or abrupt change of
particle-size distribution or mineralogical composition within the soil profile

6. R – Horizon

R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered or unweathered bedrock at the base of the soil
profile. It is the consolidated bed rock. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise
continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. These
consist of hard bedrock underlying the soil. Granite, basalt, quartzite, and indurated limestone or
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sandstone is examples of bedrock that are designated R.

Transitional horizons

A horizon that combines the characteristics of two horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the
dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If distinct parts have properties of two kinds of
horizons, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and B/A.

Horizon suffixes

In addition to the main descriptors above, several modifiers exist to add necessary detail to each
horizon. Firstly, each major horizon may be divided into sub-horizons by the addition of a numerical
subscript, based on minor shifts in colour or texture with increasing depth (e.g., B21, B22, B23 etc.).
While this can add necessary depth to a field description, workers should bear in mind that excessive
division of a soil profile into narrow sub-horizons should be avoided. Walking as little as ten meters in
any direction and digging another hole can often reveal a very different profile in regards to the depth
and thickness of each horizon. Over-precise description can be a waste of time

Summary

A soil profile may not show all those horizons. Common are O2 (if forested), A, or E/A2, B2 and C.
Conditions of soil genesis will determine the presence of others. There are cases where the surface
horizons are eroded and the subsurface ones are exposed. Usually, B-horizon comes up to the surface.
In such cases, the profile is called truncated. Besides, due to haploidization some soil profiles may
depict only two or three horizons, for example, Vertisols, soils on completely sandy (quartz) material,
etc.

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CHAPTER SIX

6. Classification of soils

6.1. Definitions and Perspective of Soil Classification

Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing
characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use. Classification is the process of sorting or
arranging of objects into groups on the basis of one or more objectives and according to a system or
set of principles.

People have a natural tendency, urge, and need to sort and classify the natural objects of their
environment. Folk, or local, classifications (for example, those made by indigenous peoples) are based
on recognition of natural breaks in readily perceivable characteristics. These classification systems
tend to classify all natural objects in a local geographic area and make class distinctions according to
technology locally available at a basic level of generalization roughly comparable to the level of the
genus. Soils are present throughout the world, and many classification systems exist. Many soil
classification systems that include only portions of the world are well constructed, but are limited in
the worldwide transfer of information among soil scientists and others that seek information regarding
soil properties. The classification system used in a scientific discipline reflects the state of the art and
knowledge in the field. The renowned physicist Ampére is reported to have said, ―Perfect scientific
classification is first possible when one knows everything concerning the classified natural objects‖.

Classification and categorization of natural phenomena (like soils) are generally done for one or more
of the following purposes:
 To organize knowledge of the subject.
 To provide maximum knowledge about the subject with the least cognitive effort (perception,
recall, and memory of properties).
 To provide a map or organization chart of structure of the world we perceive and live in, to
satisfy our natural curiosity, and for ease in communication.
 To reveal and understand relationships among individuals and classes of the population of
interest.
 To identify and learn new relationships and principles not previously perceived in the
population of interest.

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 To provide objects or classes as subjects for research and experimentation and/or research
design.
 To establish groups or subdivisions of the object classified and under study in a useful manner,
such as: predicting behaviour, identifying best uses, estimating their productivity, identifying
potential problems and as basis for taking action to meet potential problems and facilitating
easier transfer of information and technology.

6.2. History and Principles of Soil Classification

The purpose of any classification may be so to organize our knowledge that properties of objects may
be remembered and their relationships understood most easily for a specific objective. With regard to
soil classification that specific objective may be:

 Practical (applied) purposes, e.g. for a certain kind of land use. Such kind of soil classification is
referred to as interpretative classification.
 Basic objectives e.g. distinguish soils characteristically. This kind, on the other side, is referred to
as taxonomic classification.
Soil taxonomy is the system of soil classification used for mapping and classifying soils by the
National Cooperative Soil Survey in the United States; it is used in many other countries as well.

6.2.1. History of Soil Classification and Development

It is long ago that people started to classify soil. The earliest known soil classification system in the
world can be find in an ancient Chinese (2,500 BC), where soils of China were classified into three
categories and nine classes based on soil color, texture and hydrologic features; the classification was
used for land evaluation mainly based on the productivity of the land. The purpose of their
classification was for tax imposition. Russia a systematic survey of folk soil knowledge was started in
the 16th century, when special books were created to evaluate soil resources of the state; these books
were prepared by interviewing the peasants about the quality and productivity of their lands. These
books mainly included short characteristics of soils, like poor sandy soil, clayey stony soils, fat loams
etc. Later, in 19th century, the survey became more regular, and perennial data were published in a
series of books ―Materials on Statistics of Russia‖, where a number of local folk soil names for soils
were listed. The materials were also used for preparing first soil maps of Russia, which, in fact, were
based on ethnopedological survey. The soil survey program in the USA was launched in 1899 without
prior knowledge of the work already completed in Russia. Different approach existed in Western
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Europe and the United States in 18th – 19th centuries.

Modern soil classification began from the early 19th century. The bases for the classification vary.
However, geology (residual, granite, sedimentary, marl etc.) and pedological concepts like normal
soils, abnormal soils, etc were the main ones. The pedological concept was developed by Dokuchaev,
the late Russian scientist remembered as ―the father of soil science.‖ Agronomic science also
developed independently from folk knowledge; farmers‘ perception was very conservative, while
progressive agronomy could answer the challenges of growing population with new technologies and
the use of fertilizers. Thus, the ―progressive‖ scientific knowledge was somewhat opposed to
―conservative‖ traditional knowledge. The soil was studied both in the field and in laboratories, and it
was classified by ad hoc empirical parameters, such as texture, visible or measured organic matter
percentage, and nutrients content. This agrogeological approach was soon extended from surface
samples to a sequence of layers during seminal early soil surveys in the United States

In the 1950's, international communications intensified while the number of soil surveys increased
sharply both in temperate regions and in the tropics. In 1974, the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO) published its Soil Map of the World (SMW). In 1990, a `Revised Legend'
was published and a third hierarchical level of `Soil Subunits' was introduced to support soil inventory
at larger scales. Soil Subunits were not defined as such but guidelines for their identification and
naming were given. De facto this converted the SMW map legend, with a finite number of entries, into
an open-ended, globally applicable `FAO-Unesco Soil Classification System'. The USDA also
prepared a soil map (for the USA at the beginning) and published its first legend in 1975. As a result
the USDA soil taxonomy became famous.

The existing scientific classifications developed from these three main sources: folk knowledge,
empirical soil study and from scientific theory. Every soil classification has elements of indigenous
concepts, empirically collected data and of scientifically-based grouping. It is expected that the
combination of these three components should lead to harmony.

6.2.2. Principle of Soil Classification

Basically, soil is a three-dimensional body with its properties varying respectively. The variation is
the result of climate, vegetation and fauna, topography, parent material and time, plus human
interference. Soil varies temporally and spatially. Variation leads to differentiation or types or

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classes. Early classification relied on the soil forming factors. E.g. desert soil (climate) mountain soil
(topography). Later individual soil properties were used as bases. E.g. Sandy soil (texture), red soil
(colour).

The earliest systems varied from country to country. E.g. USA, Canada, USSR, France, Central and
Western Europe had their own classification systems (See figure below)

But UNFAO/UNESCO wanted to prepare a soil map of the world with legends, whence no single
internationally accepted system of classification was not available. The legend was first prepared in
1974, and then its revised form was published in 1990 and recently in 1998. The FAO/UNESCO
system of soil classification was thence recognized. The FAO/UNESCO system has three categories,
i.e. Major soil Groups, Soil Units and Soil Sub-units.

The USDA also prepared a soil map (for the USA at the beginning) and published its first legend in
1975. As a result the USDA soil taxonomy became famous. The USDA soil taxonomy has six
categories, i.e. Orders, Soil suborders, Great soil groups, Soil, subgroups, Soil families and Soil
series. The scope this course does not allow to discuss all systems in detail.

The order category is based largely on morphology, but soil genesis is an underlying factor. A given
soil order includes soils whose properties suggest that they are not too dissimilar in their genesis.
Suborders are subdivisions of orders which emphasize genetic homogeneity. Thus, wetness, climatic
environment, and vegetation help determine the suborder in which a given soil is found. Diagnostic
horizons are used to differentiate the great groups in a given suborder. Soils in a given great group are
thought to have the same kind and arrangement of these horizons. The typical or the central concept of

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a great group makes up one subgroup (Typic). Other subgroups may have characteristics that are
intergraded between those of the central concept and those of another great group. The family
category is the least well defined. Properties important for plant growth are used to define families.
E.g. pH, texture, depth, etc. The series is defined as a collection of soil individuals essentially uniform
in differentiating characteristics and in arrangement of horizons. Both world-known classification
systems rely on the diagnostic characteristics and diagnostic horizons of soils for the classification.

The two principal systems of soil classification in use today are the soil order system of the U.S.
Soil Taxonomy and the soil group system, published as the World Reference Base for Soil Resources,
developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. Both of these
systems are morphogenetic, in that they use structural properties as the basis of classification while
also drawing on the five factors of soil formation described in the previous section in choosing which
properties to emphasize. Central to both systems is the notion of diagnostic horizons, well-defined soil
layers whose structure and origin may be correlated to soil-forming processes and can be used to
distinguish among soil units at the highest level of classification (see the table of primary diagnostic
horizons). Diagnostic horizons may be found very near the land surface (epipedons) or deep in the soil
profile (subsurface horizons); they need not correspond to the horizon letter designations.

Primary diagnostic horizons of soil

U.S. Soil FAO soil

defining features
Taxonomy group system

epipedons histic thick organic layer histic

mollic thick, dark, neutral to alkaline mollic

ochric pale or thin ochric

umbric thick, dark, acidic umbric

subsurface argillic clay mineral deposition argic

horizons
cambic in situ mineral weathering only cambic

highly weathered; aluminum oxide, iron oxide, and kaolin

oxic ferralic
clay deposition

spodic aluminum oxide, iron oxide, and humus deposition spodic

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6.3. FAO-UNESCO and USDA soil classification system

6.3.1. FAO-UNESCO (FAO-WRB) soil Classification system

UNFAO/UNESCO wanted to prepare a soil map of the world with legends, whence no single internationally
accepted system of classification was not available. The legend was first prepared in 1974, and then its revised
form was published in 1990 and recently in 1998. The FAO/UNESCO system of soil classification was thence
recognized. The FAO/UNESCO system has three categories, i.e. Major soil Groups, Soil Units and Soil Sub-
units.

The classification system of the FAO primarily involves a two level nomenclature comprising the
name of a soil group and a modifying adjective that serves to identify a soil unit within a group on the
FAO Soil Map of the World. It is not meant to substitute for national soil classification systems such
as the U.S. Soil Taxonomy but instead is designed to facilitate comparisons a mong these systems.
Only the major soil groups are discussed here. Four of the soil groups are defined principally by their
parent material (first cluster in the table of the classification system of the FAO), four are largely
related to topographic factors in soil formation, and the remaining 22 groups are based on the three
other soil-forming factors: climate, organisms, and time. Like the U.S. soil orders, the soil groups in
the FAO system are based on extensive sets of field and laboratory observations and on
technical criteria.

Soil classification system of the Food and Agriculture Organization

Percent
Bases of Name of Earth's
Soil Group Abbreviation Defining Characteristics
classification Derivation Land
Area

Soils defined an do
by parent Andosol AN Volcanic ejects (Japanese: 0.88
material "dark soil")

arena (Latin:
Arenosol AR Sands 7.17
"sand")

histos (Greek:
Histosol HS Organic matter 2.51
"tissue")

vertere (Latin:
Vertisol VR Swelling clays 2.67
"to turn")

Soils defined fluvius (Latin:

Fluvisol FL Alluvial lowlands 2.79
by "river")
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Soil classification system of the Food and Agriculture Organization

Percent
Bases of Name of Earth's
Soil Group Abbreviation Defining Characteristics
classification Derivation Land
Area

Topography gley (Russian:

Gleysol GL Waterlogged lowlands "mucky soil 5.74
mass")

leptos (Greek:
Leptosol LP Eroded uplands 13.19
"thin")

rhegos (Greek:
Regosol RG Climate-limited, thin soil 2.07
"blanket")

Soils defined Calcium carbonate calix (Latin:

Calcisol CL 6.38
by climate, accumulation "lime")
organisms,
and time gypsum (Latin:
Gypsisol GY Gypsum accumulation "calcium 0.72
sulfate")

sol chak
Solonchak SC Salt accumulation (Russian: 2.55
"salty area")

sol etz
(Russian:
Solonetz SN Sodium accumulation 1.08
"strongly
salty")

durum (Latin:
Durisol DU Silica accumulation —
"hard")

chern zemlja
Chernozem CH Cold steppe environment (Russian: 1.83
"black earth")

umbra (Latin:
Umbrisol UM Cool, wet steppe environment 0.80
"shade")

castanea zemlja
Warm, dry steppe (Latin-Russian:
Kastanozem KS 3.71
environment "chestnut
earth")

phaios zemlja
Warm, wet steppe (Greek-
Phaeozem PH 1.51
environment Russian:
"dusky earth")

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Soil classification system of the Food and Agriculture Organization

Percent
Bases of Name of Earth's
Soil Group Abbreviation Defining Characteristics
classification Derivation Land
Area

acer (Latin:
Acrisol AC Seasonally dry humid tropics 7.97
"strong acid")

Humid subtropical and warm alumen (Latin:

Alisol AL 0.80
temperate areas "aluminum")

ferrum alumen
Extensively weathered; humid
Ferralsol FR (Latin: "iron- 5.98
tropics
aluminum")

lixivia (Latin:
Lixisol LX Driest humid tropics 3.47
"washing")

Extensive clay migration; nitidus (Latin:

Nitisol NT 1.59
tropics "shiny")

plinthos
Fluctuating water table;
Plinthosol PT (Greek: 0.48
plinthite
"brick")

Clay accumulation; distinct luere (Latin:

Luvisol LV 5.18
seasons "to wash")

planus (Latin:
Planosol PL Clayey horizon 1.04
"flat")

pod zola
Accumulation of iron and
Podzol PZ (Russian: 3.87
aluminum oxides and humus
"under ash")

Cold temperate area; bleached albus (Latin:

Albeluvisol AB 2.55
horizon over clayey horizon "white")

Alternate freezing and

thawing; waterlogged during
kryros (Greek:
Cryosol CR thaw; permafrost within 1 —
"cold")
metre (3 feet) of the land
surface

anthropos
Anthrosol AT Extensive human modification 0.004
(Greek: "man")

cambiare
Cambisol CM Little soil formation; recent (Latin: "to 11.96
change")

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Some of the FAO soil groups are quite comparable to soil orders in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy (for
example, Andosol, Cambisol, Histosol, and Vertisol). Others correspond more closely to lower levels
of nomenclature than the soil order; for example, Gypsisol, Calcisol, Solonchak, and Solonetz would
be classified mostly within the U.S. Aridisol order. Still others have no equivalent within the U.S.
taxonomy (for example, Anthrosol).

The FAO designates eight soil groups

Cambisol, Chernozem, Fluvisol, Gleysol, Kastanozem, Phaeozem, Umbrisol, and Vertisol—as having
a high inherent soil fertility. They constitute 31 percent of the total land area. This figure would drop
to 16 percent if the Cambisol and Vertisol groups were excluded, an estimate quite close to that made
above for the more fertile U.S. soil orders. The soil groups that according to the FAO present toxicity
hazards from salt accumulation (Calcisol, Gypsisol, Solonchak, and Solonetz) or aridity and aluminum
accumulation (Acrisol, Alisol, and Ferralsol) cover about 25 percent of the land area. This figure
would increase to about 33 percent if more tropical soil groups and the Podzol and Albeluvisol groups
were included. Thus, both systems of soil classification conclude that the inherently more fertile soils
are but a small portion of the total soil resources on Earth.

6.3.2. USDA soil classification system and structures

The U.S. Soil Taxonomy classifies soils within a hierarchy of six categories i.e. Soil Orders, Soil
suborders, Great soil groups, Soil subgroups, Soil families and Soil series. Only the highest-level
category, order, is discussed here. Soil orders are named by adding the suffix -sol to a root word. The
resulting 12 soil order names thus represent a classification based either on parent material or on
processes related to the five factors of soil formation as reflected in diagnostic horizons. To identify,
understand, and manage soils, soil scientists have developed a soil classification or taxonomy system.
Like the classification systems for plants and animals, the soil classification system contains several
levels of detail, from the most general to the most specific. The most general level of classification in
the United States system is soil order. There are 12 orders of soils categorized by the U.S. Department
of Agriculture. Each order is based on one or two dominant physical, chemical, or biological
properties that differentiate it clearly from the other orders. The 12 soil orders all end in "sol" which is
derived from the Latin word "solum" meaning soil or ground. Most of the orders also have roots that
tell you something about that particular soil. For example, "molisol" is from the Latin "mollis"
meaning soft.

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1. Gelisol

Gelisols (from the Latin gelare – to freeze) are soils that are permanently frozen (contain
―permafrost‖) or contain evidence of permafrost near the soil surface. Gelisols are found in the Arctic
and Antarctic, as well as at extremely high elevations. Permafrost influences land use through its effect
on the downward movement of water and freeze-thaw activity (cryoturbation) such as frost heaves.
Permafrost can also restrict the rooting depth of plants. Gelisols make up about 9% of the world‘s
glacier-free land surface.

2 Histosols

Histosols (from the Greek histos – tissue) are dominantly composed of organic material in their upper
portion. The Histosol order mainly contains soils commonly called bogs, moors, peat lands, muskegs,
fens, or peats and mucks. These soils form when organic matter, such as leaves, mosses, or grasses,
decomposes more slowly than it accumulates due to a decrease in microbial decay rates. This most
often occurs in extremely wet areas or underwater; thus, most of these soils are saturated year-round.
Histosols can be highly productive farmland when drained; however, drained Histosols can decompose
rapidly and subside dramatically. They are also not stable for foundations or roadways, and may be
highly acidic. Histosols make up about 1% of the world‘s glacier-free land surface.

3. Spodosols

Spodosols (from the Greek spodos – wood ash) are among the most attractive soils. They often have a
dark surface underlain by an ashy gray layer, which is subsequently underlain by a reddish, rusty,
coffee-colored, or black subsoil horizon. These soils form as rainfall interacts with acidic vegetative
litter, such as the needles of conifers, to form organic acids. These acids dissolve iron, aluminum, and
organic matter in the topsoil and ashy gray (eluvial) horizons. The dissolved materials then move
(illuviate) to the colorful subsoil horizons. Spodosols most often develop in coarsely textured soils
(sands and loamy sands) under coniferous vegetation in humid regions of the world. They tend to be
acidic, and have low fertility and low clay content. Spodosols occupy about 4% of the world‘s glacier-
free land surface.

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4. Andisols

Andisols (from the Japanese ando – black soil) typically form from the weathering of volcanic
materials such as ash, resulting in minerals in the soil with poor crystal structure. These minerals have
an unusually high capacity to hold both nutrients and water, making these soils very productive and
fertile. Andisols include weakly weathered soils with much volcanic glass, as well as more strongly
weathered soils. They typically occur in areas with moderate to high rainfall and cool temperatures.
They also tend to be highly erodible when on slopes. These soils make up about 1% of the glacier-free
land surface.

5. Oxisols

Oxisols (from the French oxide – oxide) are soils of tropical and subtropical regions, which are
dominated by iron oxides, quartz, and highly weathered clay minerals such as kaolinite. These soils are
typically found on gently sloping land surfaces of great age that have been stable for a long time. For
the most part, they are nearly featureless soils without clearly marked layers, or horizons. Because they
are highly weathered, they have low natural fertility, but can be made productive through wise use of
fertilizers and lime. Oxisols are found over about 8% of the glacier-free land surface.

6. Vertisols

Vertisols (from the Latin verto – turn) are clay-rich soils that contain a type of ―expansive‖ clay that
shrinks and swells dramatically. These soils therefore shrink as they dry and swell when they become
wet. When dry, vertisols form large cracks that may be more than one meter (three feet) deep and
several centimeters, or inches, wide. The movement of these soils can crack building foundations and
buckle roads. Vertisols are highly fertile due to their high clay content; however, water tends to pool
on their surfaces when they become wet. Vertisols are located in areas where the underlying parent
materials allow for the formation of expansive clay minerals. They occupy about 2% of the glacier-
free land surface.

7. Aridisols

Aridisols (from the Latin aridus – dry) are soils that occur in climates that are too dry for
―mesophytic‖ plants (plants adapted to neither too wet nor too dry environments) to survive. The
climate in which Aridisols occur also restricts soil weathering processes. Aridisols often contain
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accumulations of salt, gypsum, or carbonates, and are found in hot and cold deserts worldwide. They
occupy about 12% of the Earth‘s glacier-free land area, including some of the dry valleys of
Antarctica.

8. Ultisols

Ultisols (from the Latin ultimus – last) are soils that have formed in humid areas and are intensely
weathered. They typically contain a subsoil horizon that has an appreciable amount of translocated
clay, and are relatively acidic. Most nutrients are held in the upper centimeters of Ultisol soils, and
these soils are generally of low fertility although they can become productive with additions of
fertilizer and lime. Ultisols make up about 8% of the glacier-free land surface.

9. Mollisols

Mollisols (from the Latin mollis – soft) are prairie or grassland soils that have a dark colored surface
horizon, are highly fertile, and are rich in chemical ―bases‖ such as calcium and magnesium. The dark
surface horizon comes from the yearly addition of organic matter to the soil from the roots of prairie
plants. Mollisols are often found in climates with pronounced dry seasons. They make up
approximately 7% of the glacier-free land surface.

10 Alfisols

Alfisols (from the soil science term Pedalfer – aluminum and iron) are similar to Ultisols but are less
intensively weathered and less acidic. They tend to be more inherently fertile than Ultisols and are
located in similar climatic regions, typically under forest vegetation. They are also more common than
Ultisols, occupying about 10% of the glacier-free land surface.

11. Inceptisols

Inceptisols (from the Latin inceptum – beginning) exhibit a moderate degree of soil development,
lacking significant clay accumulation in the subsoil. They occur over a wide range of parent materials
and climatic conditions, and thus have a wide range of characteristics. They are extensive, occupying
approximately 17% of the earth‘s glacier-free surface.

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12. Entisols

Entisols (from recent – new) are the last order in soil taxonomy and exhibit little to no soil
development other than the presence of an identifiable topsoil horizon. These soils occur in areas of
recently deposited sediments, often in places where deposition is faster than the rate of soil
development. Some typical landforms where Entisols are located include: active flood plains, dunes,
landslide areas, and behind retreating glaciers. They are common in all environments. Entisols make
up the second largest group of soils after Inceptisols, occupying about 16% of the Earth‘s surface.

U.S. soil taxonomy

No Percent Of
Soil Earth's
Defining Characteristics Name Derivation
Order Land Area
(%)

1. moderate leaching; B horizon

Alfisol enriched in clay; humid forest Pedalfer (C.F. Marbut) 9.77
vegetation

2. Andisol volcanic-ash parent material an do (Japanese: "dark soil") 0.73

3. Aridisol hot, dry climate; weak B horizon aridus (Latin: "dry") 18.53

4. little or no horizonation or swelling

Entisol recent 10.61
clay

5. permafrost within 2 metres

18 million
Gelisol (approximately 6 feet) of the land gelid (Greek: "very cold")
square km
surface

6. Histosol organic parent material histos (Greek: "tissue") 1.84

7. Inceptis inceptum (Latin:

little or no B horizon development 21.80
ol "beginning")

8. Mollisol thick, soft, black A horizon mollis (Latin: "soft") 5.99

9. hot, humid climate; B horizon

Oxisol enriched in iron and aluminum oxides oxide (French) 7.00
and kaolinite

10. cool, humid climate; B horizon

enriched in iron and aluminum oxides spodos (Greek: "wood
Spodosol 3.45
and organic matter; sandy parent ashes")
material
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U.S. soil taxonomy

No Percent Of
Soil Earth's
Defining Characteristics Name Derivation
Order Land Area
(%)

11. warm, humid climate; B horizon

Ultisol ultimus (Latin: "last") 8.12
enriched in clay; extensive leaching

12. little or no horizonation; high content

Vertisol vertere (Latin: "to turn") 2.23
of swelling clay

The soil orders associated with specific kinds of parent material (Andisol, Histosol, and Vertisol)
account for less than 5 percent of Earth‘s continental areas covered by soil. Soils that show little
development because they are too young (Entisol) or lie in an adverse weathering environment
(Inceptisol) represent nearly 33 percent of the land area. Soils those are likely to exhibit natural
toxicity to agricultural plants because of accumulations of salts (Aridisol) or of acidity and aluminum
(Spodosol, Oxisol, and Ultisol) make up almost 40 percent of the total. This leaves essentially only
the Alfisols and Mollisols—with about 15 percent of the total land area—as the inherently more fertile
soils of the world. They occupy a strategic belt at middle latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere and
in South America.

6.4. Soils of Ethiopia and their agricultural significance

In Ethiopia, the history of soil studies can go back as early as the 1920s although a well-organized and
systematic soil survey was started in the 1960s. The soil survey works since 60 s can be broadly
categorized into three: area specific, river basins, and general country-wide surveys. The area-specific
studies concentrated on potential agricultural areas for either rainfed or irrigated agricultural
development. Systematic area-specific and basin-wide soil surveys in the country were commenced in
the late 1950s. Natural conditions, such as parent material, climate, topography, biotic and land
use/land cover changes are largely responsible for creating regional and local differences in soil types
and characteristics. Due to this Ethiopia have diverse soil resources.

So far, there is only one country-wide soil study carried out in Ethiopia, soil association map of
Ethiopian. This was carried out in the early 1970s as a component of the Land Resources Inventory of
Ethiopia for the preparation of the Master Land Use Plan for Ethiopia. Despite the presence of several
types of soils, only nine soil types cover 90% of the land surface of Ethiopia. These major types of
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soils are Leptosols (30%), Nitisols (12%), Vertisols (11%), Cambisols (9%), Luvisols (8%), Calcisols
(9%), Fluvisols (4%), Gypsisols (8%) and Alisols (3%).

Ethiopia has no national soil classification system developed and adapted in the country. Both soil
taxonomy and the FAO-UNESCO classification systems are used in combination or in isolation in the
country. However, nowadays the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) is widely adopted.
Farmers in different localities and regions of Ethiopia have different names, as is the case elsewhere in
the world, for the local soil types on the basis of color, particle size, thickness, and fertility. From FAO
soil orders, 17 exist in Ethiopia. Lithosols, Cambisols, Nitosols, Vertisols, Xerosols, Solonchaks,
Fluvisols and Luvisols cover more than 80% of the country, and are the most important soils.
Vertisols are very important soils in Ethiopian agriculture.

The classification of Ethiopian soil is based on its chemical and physical properties of soils, their areas
and agricultural significances as discussed below

1. Leptosols: are soils limited in depth by continuous hard rock or highly calcareous material (45%) or
a continuous cemented layer within 30cm. it is located in the highlands parts of Ethiopia especially in
the semiarid regions (Tigray, North Gonder)

2. Nitosols: These are soils with a deep clay enriched B horizon. They show a yellowish or reddish
colour and a gradual diffuse horizon boundaries between A and B structure. They also show a
polyedric or blocky structure (nitic properties). They occur in many areas of the country especially in
Gojjam, Sidama, Gamogofa and have good potential for agriculture. Because the deep uniform profiles
that are porous and well drained have a stable angular to sub-angular blocky structure and
consequently a deep rooting volume. The clay is mainly kaolinitic.

3. Cambisols: These are young soils compared to other tropical soils. The B-horizon of cambisols is
an altered horizon with a soil structure at least moderately developed with some clay illuuvation, or
with a red colour or with some evidence of removal of carbonates. However, all these alterations in the
B- horizon are not enough to qualify as an argic (clay enriched as in Nitosols), nitric (high sodium
content) or toxic. Many cambisols in the tropics and sub-tropics can be considered as soils in
transitional stage of development between very young soils (like Leptosols or regosols) and the older
more mature soils like Nitosols, Luvisols). Consequently, cambisols may occur in various regions
together with many major soils of the country.

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4. Regosols: are very young soils (soil from unconsolidated materials) almost without soil
development. They have an A horizon without special characteristic and all other diagnostic horizons
are absent; often the soil material is loose.

5. Vertisols: are easily recognized because of their clayey texture (30% of clay and often5 0%) dark
colours and special physical attributes. They develop cracks when expanding and contracting with
changes in moisture content. They are found in large flat or gently slopping areas (mainly on volcanic
plateaux of central Ethiopia, southern Sidama, flood plains of the Wabi-shebele basins in western
Ethiopia and etc. Vertisols represent a vast crop production resource (teff, wheat, cheakpea, lentils,
linsed, noug& bread wheat are generally grown on vertisols. Workability of these soils is hampered by
their stickiness when weight & hardness when dry to water logging & soil erosion

6. Fluvisols: develop on recent fluvial marine and lacustrine sediments which receive fresh materials
at regular intervals. Most soils consist of stratified layers with different textures. The mineralogical
composition of the soil material is related to the types of rocks, their weathering products and
alterations before transport. Examples should be valleys and deltas, river terraces and depress ional
areas, coastal areas, etc. these soils have a good potential for agriculture, and the major limitations are
related to the flood risk

7. Luvisols: Luvisols are soils with a distinct clay-enriched B horizon, but with a high base saturation
(50%). In general, they are showing a reddish or yellowish colour. Most luvisols are good for
agriculture, except the ones on steep slopes. The clay enriched B horizon may prevent good root
distribution and permeability may be low, as a consequence the erodibility can be high.

79 Contacts: [email protected] , [email protected], Phone: +251926243698

 Soil Genesis and Classification By: Assis. Professor Latamo Lameso 2023 G.C

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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C., 2020. Microbial weathering of minerals and rocks in natural environments. Biogeochemical
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80 Contacts: [email protected] , [email protected], Phone: +251926243698

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