1.

Basics of Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical Processes

1. Milling:

o A machining process where a rotating multi-point cutter removes material from a

o Used for creating flat surfaces, grooves, gear cutting, and contouring.

o Types: Up milling (conventional), Down milling (climb).

o Key components: Milling cutter, table, spindle.

2. Planning and Shaping:

o Planning:

 A machining process where a single-point cutting tool moves linearly over a

 Used for large workpieces like machine beds.

o Shaping:

 Similar to planning but used for smaller workpieces.

 Cutting motion is reciprocating.

3. Drilling and Reaming:

o Drilling:

 Process of creating cylindrical holes using a drill bit.

 Types: Twist drills, core drills, step drills.

o Reaming:

 Enlarges and improves the finish of drilled holes using a reamer.

 Provides high dimensional accuracy.

4. Grinding:

o A finishing process that removes material using an abrasive wheel.

o Types: Surface grinding, cylindrical grinding, centerless grinding.

o Applications: Achieving tight tolerances and smooth finishes.

5. Welding and Joining:

o Welding:

 Fusion of materials to form a permanent joint.

 Types: Arc welding, MIG (Metal Inert Gas), TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas), Spot
welding.
  Defects: Porosity, cracks, incomplete fusion.

o Joining:

 Mechanical methods like riveting and bolting.

 Suitable for disassembly and maintenance.

6. Superfinishing Processes:

o Honing:

 Improves the surface finish of bores using abrasive stones.

o Lapping:

 Achieves precision surfaces by rubbing two surfaces with an abrasive.

o Buffing:

 Creates a shiny surface finish using a rotating cloth wheel.

Manufacturing Processes

1. Casting:

o Process of pouring molten metal into a mold to solidify into a desired shape.

o Types: Sand casting, Die casting, Investment casting.

o Applications: Automotive parts, engine blocks.

2. Forging:

o Shaping metal using compressive forces, typically at elevated temperatures.

o Types: Open-die, Closed-die, Drop forging.

o Applications: Shafts, gears, connecting rods.

3. Rolling:

o Reduces thickness and alters the cross-section of metal by passing it through rollers.

o Types: Hot rolling, Cold rolling.

o Applications: Sheet metal, beams, rails.

4. Drawing and Forming:

o Drawing:

 Pulls metal through a die to create wires or rods.

o Forming:

 Processes like bending, stretching to reshape materials without cutting.

Machine Tools

1. Types:
 o Lathe: Used for turning, threading, knurling.

o Milling Machine: For cutting and shaping metal or wood.

o Drilling Machine: For creating precise holes.

o Grinding Machine: For fine finishes and precision dimensions.

2. Cutting Tool Materials:

o High-Speed Steel (HSS), Carbides, Ceramics, Diamond.

o Properties: Hardness, toughness, wear resistance, heat resistance.

3. Coolants:

o Used to reduce heat generated during machining.

o Types: Water-based, oil-based, synthetic.

4. Tool Design:

o Factors: Cutting forces, wear resistance, tool geometry.

o Objectives: Efficiency, durability, accuracy.

2. Theory of Machines

Mechanisms and Machines

1. Mechanism:

o A combination of rigid bodies designed to transmit motion and force.

o Examples: Four-bar linkage, Slider-crank mechanism.

2. Simple Machines:

o Devices that change the direction or magnitude of a force.

o Types: Lever, Pulley, Inclined Plane, Wedge, Screw, Wheel, and Axle.

o Mechanical Advantage (MA): Ratio of output force to input force.

Belt Drives and Gear Drives

1. Belt Drives:

o Transmit power between shafts using belts.

o Types:

 Flat belts: Suitable for long distances.

 V-belts: Provide better grip and compact design.

 Timing belts: Used for synchronous drives.

2. Gear Drives:
 o Transmit power through meshing of gears.

o Types:

 Spur gears: Transmit motion between parallel shafts.

 Helical gears: Operate more smoothly with angled teeth.

 Worm gears: High reduction ratios.

Joints and Couplings

1. Types of Couplings:

o Rigid Couplings: Flange coupling, Sleeve coupling.

o Flexible Couplings: Universal coupling, Oldham coupling.

2. Applications:

o Used to connect two shafts in a power transmission system.

Degrees of Freedom (DOF)

1. Definition:

o The number of independent motions possible in a system.

2. Formula:

o DOF = 3(L-1) - 2J - H (where L = links, J = joints, H = higher pairs).

3. Applications:

o Analysis of mechanisms for motion and stability.

3. Machine Design Concepts

Design of Mechanical Components

1. Springs:

o Used for energy absorption, force control, and vibration damping.

o Types: Compression, Tension, Torsion springs.

2. Joints:

o Threaded Joints:

 Screws and bolts for detachable connections.

o Welded Joints:

 Permanent connections through fusion.

3. Bearings:

o Reduce friction and support rotating components.

Theory of Failure and Factor of Safety

1. Theories of Failure:

o Maximum Stress Theory: Failure occurs when the maximum stress exceeds the
material’s strength.

o Shear Stress Theory: Accounts for shear stresses in material failure.

2. Factor of Safety (FoS):

o Ratio of ultimate strength to working stress.

o Ensures reliability under uncertain loading conditions.

3. Combined Stresses:

o Superposition of stresses from direct loading, bending, and torsion.

4. Environmental Studies

Natural Resources

1. Types:

o Renewable: Solar, Wind, Biomass, Hydropower.

o Non-Renewable: Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas.

2. Associated Problems:

o Overexploitation, habitat destruction, resource depletion.

Environmental Pollution

1. Types:

o Air Pollution: Emission of harmful gases like CO2, SO2, NOx.

o Water Pollution: Contamination by industrial and domestic effluents.

o Soil Pollution: Due to chemicals, pesticides, and waste dumping.

o Noise Pollution: Excessive sound levels affecting health.

2. Control Measures:

o Regulations, technological advancements, public awareness.

Renewable Energy Sources

1. Solar Energy:

o Converts sunlight to electricity using photovoltaic cells.

o Applications: Solar panels, water heaters.

o Systematic evaluation of energy consumption.

o Objectives: Identify wastage, optimize energy use.

Environmental Protection Act

1. Overview:

o Enacted in 1986 to safeguard the environment.

o Focuses on pollution control, conservation of natural resources.

5. Strength of Materials

Stress and Strain

1. Definitions:

o Stress: Force per unit area (N/m² or Pascal).

o Strain: Deformation per unit length (dimensionless).

2. Stress-Strain Curve:

o Elastic limit: Material returns to original shape.

o Yield point: Permanent deformation begins.

o Ultimate strength: Maximum stress material can bear.

o Fracture point: Breaking of material.

Shear Force and Bending Moment

1. Shear Force Diagram (SFD):

o Graphical representation of shear force variation.

o Positive and negative shear force conventions.

2. Bending Moment Diagram (BMD):

o Shows bending moment along the length of a beam.

o Critical for beam design to ensure safety.

Torsion and Trusses

1. Torsion:

o Twisting of shafts under applied torque.

o Formula: T/J = τ/r = Gθ/L (where T = torque, J = polar moment of inertia).

2. Trusses:

o Structural framework of members joined at nodes.

6. Fluid Mechanics

Pumps

1. Types and Selection:

o Centrifugal Pumps: For high flow rates and low head.

o Reciprocating Pumps: For low flow rates and high head.

o Submersible Pumps: For applications below water level.

2. Efficiency:

o Hydraulic efficiency: Ratio of useful hydraulic power to input power.

o Overall efficiency: Includes mechanical and volumetric losses.

3. Characteristics:

o Head vs. Flow curve.

o Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH): Prevents cavitation.

Fluid Properties

1. Key Properties:

o Density: Mass per unit volume.

o Viscosity: Resistance to flow.

o Surface Tension: Force per unit length at the liquid-gas interface.

2. Bernoulli’s Theorem:

o Energy conservation principle: P/ρg + v²/2g + z = constant.

o Applications: Venturimeter, Orifice meter.

Hydraulic Phenomena

1. Hydraulic Jump:

o Sudden rise in water surface level in open channel flow.

2. Water Hammer:

o Pressure surge caused by sudden closure of a valve.

3. Reynold’s Number (Re):

o Dimensionless number: Re = ρvd