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PRINCIPLES OF SOIL PHYSICS
 BOOKS IN SOILS, PLANTS, AND THE
ENVIRONMENT

Editorial Board
Agricultural Engineering
Robert M.Peart, University of Florida, Gainesville
Animal Science
Harold Hafs, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey
Crops
Mohammad Pessarakli, University of Arizona, Tucson
Environment
Kenneth G.Cassman, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Irrigation and Hydrology
Donald R.Nielsen, University of California, Davis
Microbiology
Jan Dirk van Elsas, Research Institute for Plant Protection, Wageningen, The
Netherlands
Plants
L.David Kuykendall, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland Kenneth
B.Marcum, Arizona State University, Mesa, Arizona
Soils
Jean-Marc Bollag, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
Tsuyoshi Miyazaki, University of Tokyo

Soil Biochemistry, Volume 1, edited by A.D.McLaren and G.H.Peterson

Soil Biochemistry, Volume 2, edited by A.D.McLaren and J.Skujiņš

Soil Biochemistry, Volume 3, edited by E.A.Paul and A.D.McLaren

Soil Biochemistry, Volume 4, edited by E.A.Paul and A.D.McLaren

Soil Biochemistry, Volume 5, edited by E.A.Paul and J.N.Ladd

Soil Biochemistry, Volume 6, edited by Jean-Marc Bollag and G. Stotzky

Soil Biochemistry, Volume 7, edited by G.Stotzky and Jean-Marc Bollag

 Soil Biochemistry, Volume 8, edited by Jean-Marc Bollag and G.Stotzky

Soil Biochemistry, Volume 9, edited by G.Stotzky and Jean-Marc Bollag

Soil Biochemistry, Volume 10, edited by Jean-Marc Bollag and G.Stotzky

Organic Chemicals in the Soil Environment, Volumes 1 and 2, edited by C. A.I.Goring

and J.W.Hamaker

Humic Substances in the Environment, M.Schnitzer and S.U.Khan

Microbial Life in the Soil: An Introduction, T.Hattori

Principles of Soil Chemistry, Kim H.Tan

Soil Analysis: Instrumental Techniques and Related Procedures, edited by Keith A.Smith

Soil Reclamation Processes: Microbiological Analyses and Applications, edited by

Robert L.Tate III and Donald A.Klein

Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation Technology, edited by Gerald H.Elkan

Soil–Water Interactions: Mechanisms and Applications, Shingo Iwata and Toshio

Tabuchi with Benno P.Warkentin

Soil Analysis: Modern Instrumental Techniques, Second Edition, edited by Keith A.Smith

Soil Analysis: Physical Methods, edited by Keith A.Smith and Chris E. Mullins

Growth and Mineral Nutrition of Field Crops, N.K.Fageria, V.C.Baligar, and Charles
Allan Jones

Semiarid Lands and Deserts: Soil Resource and Reclamation, edited by J. Skujiņš

Plant Roots: The Hidden Half, edited by Yoav Waisel, Amram Eshel, and Uzi Kafkafi

Plant Biochemical Regulators, edited by Harold W.Gausman

Maximizing Crop Yields, N.K.Fageria

Transgenic Plants: Fundamentals and Applications, edited by Andrew Hiatt

Soil Microbial Ecology: Applications in Agricultural and Environmental Management,

edited by F.Blaine Metting, Jr.

Principles of Soil Chemistry: Second Edition, Kim H.Tan

 Water Flow in Soils, edited by Tsuyoshi Miyazaki

Handbook of Plant and Crop Stress, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli

Genetic Improvement of Field Crops, edited by Gustavo A.Slafer

Agricultural Field Experiments: Design and Analysis, Roger G.Petersen

Environmental Soil Science, Kim H.Tan

Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Improved Productivity: Modern Ap-proaches, edited

by Amarjit S.Basra

Selenium in the Environment, edited by W.T.Frankenberger, Jr., and Sally Benson

Plant–Environment Interactions, edited by Robert E.Wilkinson

Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli

Handbook of Phytoalexin Metabolism and Action, edited by M.Daniel and R.

P.Purkayastha

Soil–Water Interactions: Mechanisms and Applications, Second Edition, Re-vised and

Expanded, Shingo Iwata, Toshio Tabuchi, and Benno P. Warkentin

Stored-Grain Ecosystems, edited by Digvir S.Jayas, Noel D.G.White, and William

E.Muir

Agrochemicals from Natural Products, edited by C.R.A.Godfrey

Seed Development and Germination, edited by Jaime Kigel and Gad Galili

Nitrogen Fertilization in the Environment, edited by Peter Edward Bacon

Phytohormones in Soils: Microbial Production and Function, William T. Frankenberger,

Jr., and Muhammad Arshad

Handbook of Weed Management Systems, edited by Albert E.Smith

Soil Sampling, Preparation, and Analysis, Kim H.Tan

Soil Erosion, Conservation, and Rehabilitation, edited by Menachem Agassi

Plant Roots: The Hidden Half, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Yoav
Waisel, Amram Eshel, and Uzi Kafkafi
Photoassimilate Distribution in Plants and Crops: Source–Sink Relation-ships, edited by
Eli Zamski and Arthur A.Schaffer

Mass Spectrometry of Soils, edited by Thomas W.Boutton and Shinichi Yamasaki

Handbook of Photosynthesis, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli

Chemical and Isotopic Groundwater Hydrology: The Applied Approach, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Emanuel Mazor

Fauna in Soil Ecosystems: Recycling Processes, Nutrient Fluxes, and Agri-cultural

Production, edited by Gero Benckiser

Soil and Plant Analysis in Sustainable Agriculture and Environment, edited by Teresa
Hood and J.Benton Jones, Jr.

Seeds Handbook: Biology, Production, Processing, and Storage, B.B. Desai,

P.M.Kotecha, and D.K.Salunkhe

Modern Soil Microbiology, edited by J.D.van Elsas, J.T.Trevors, and E.M. H.Wellington

Growth and Mineral Nutrition of Field Crops: Second Edition, N.K.Fageria, V.C.Baligar,
and Charles Allan Jones

Fungal Pathogenesis in Plants and Crops: Molecular Biology and Host Defense
Mechanisms, P.Vidhyasekaran

Plant Pathogen Detection and Disease Diagnosis, P.Narayanasamy

Agricultural Systems Modeling and Simulation, edited by Robert M.Peart and R.Bruce
Curry

Agricultural Biotechnology, edited by Arie Altman

Plant–Microbe Interactions and Biological Control, edited by Greg J.Boland and

L.David Kuykendall

Handbook of Soil Conditioners: Substances That Enhance the Physical Properties of

Soil, edited by Arthur Wallace and Richard E.Terry

Environmental Chemistry of Selenium, edited by William T.Frankenberger, Jr., and

Richard A.Engberg

Principles of Soil Chemistry: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, Kim H. Tan

Sulfur in the Environment, edited by Douglas G.Maynard

Soil–Machine Interactions: A Finite Element Perspective, edited by Jie Shen and Radhey
Lal Kushwaha

Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food Safety, edited by Kaushal K.Sinha and Deepak
Bhatnagar

Plant Amino Acids: Biochemistry and Biotechnology, edited by Bijay K.Singh

Handbook of Functional Plant Ecology, edited by Francisco I.Pugnaire and Fernando

Valladares

Handbook of Plant and Crop Stress: Second Edition, Revised and Ex-panded, edited by
Mohammad Pessarakli

Plant Responses to Environmental Stresses: From Phytohormones to Ge-nome

Reorganization, edited by H.R.Lerner

Handbook of Pest Management, edited by John R.Ruberson

Environmental Soil Science: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Kim H. Tan

Microbial Endophytes, edited by Charles W.Bacon and James F.White, Jr.

Plant–Environment Interactions: Second Edition, edited by Robert E.Wil-kinson

Microbial Pest Control, Sushil K.Khetan

Soil and Environmental Analysis: Physical Methods, Second Edition, Re-vised and
Expanded, edited by Keith A.Smith and Chris E.Mullins

The Rhizosphere: Biochemistry and Organic Substances at the Soil–Plant Interface,

Roberto Pinton, Zeno Varanini, and Paolo Nannipieri

Woody Plants and Woody Plant Management: Ecology, Safety, and Envi-ronmental
Impact, Rodney W.Bovey

Metals in the Environment: Analysis by Biodiversity, M.N.V.Prasad

Plant Pathogen Detection and Disease Diagnosis: Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded, P.Narayanasamy

Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited
by Mohammad Pessarakli

Environmental Chemistry of Arsenic, edited by William T.Frankenberger, Jr.

 Enzymes in the Environment: Activity, Ecology, and Applications, edited by Richard
G.Burns and Richard P.Dick

Plant Roots: The Hidden Half, Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Yoav
Waisel, Amram Eshel, and Uzi Kafkafi

Handbook of Plant Growth: pH as the Master Variable, edited by Zdenko Rengel

Biological Control of Crop Diseases, edited by Samuel S.Gnanamanickam

Pesticides in Agriculture and the Environment, edited by Willis B.Wheeler

Mathematical Models of Crop Growth and Yield, Allen R.Overman and Richard
V.Scholtz III

Plant Biotechnology and Transgenic Plants, edited by Kirsi-Marja OksmanCaldentey and

Wolfgang H.Barz

Handbook of Postharvest Technology: Cereals, Fruits, Vegetables, Tea, and Spices,

edited by Amalendu Chakraverty, Arun S.Mujumdar, G.S. Vijaya Raghavan, and
Hosahalli S.Ramaswamy

Handbook of Soil Acidity, edited by Zdenko Rengel

Humic Matter in Soil and the Environment: Principles and Controversies, Kim H.Tan

Molecular Host Resistance to Pests, S.Sadasivam and B.Thayumanavan

Soil and Environmental Analysis: Modern Instrumental Techniques, Third Edition, edited
by Keith A.Smith and Malcolm S.Cresser

Chemical and Isotopic Groundwater Hydrology: Third Edition, Emanuel Mazor

Agricultural Systems Management: Optimizing Efficiency and Performance, Robert

M.Peart and W.David Shoup

Physiology and Biotechnology Integration for Plant Breeding, edited by Henry T.Nguyen
and Abraham Blum

Global Water Dynamics: Shallow and Deep Groundwater, Petroleum Hydrol-ogy,

Hydrothermal Fluids, and Landscaping, Emanuel Mazor

Principles of Soil Physics, Rattan Lal and Manoj K.Shukla

Seeds Handbook: Biology, Production, Processing, and Storage, Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Babasaheb B.Desai
Field Sampling: Principles and Practices in Environmental Analysis, Alfred R.Conklin,
Jr.

Sustainable Agriculture and the International Rice–Wheat System, edited by Rattan Lal,
Peter R.Hobbs, Norman Uphoff, and David O.Hansen

Plant Toxicology: Fourth Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Bertold Hock and
Erich F.Elstner

Additional Volumes in Preparation

PRINCIPLES OF SOIL PHYSICS
RATTAN LAL
MANOJ K.SHUKLA
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.

MARCEL DEKKER, INC.

NEW YORK • BASEL
 Although great care has been taken to provide accurate and current information, neither the
author(s) nor the publisher, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any
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specific situation.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available
from the Library of Congress.

ISBN 0-203-02123-1 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN: 0-8247-5324-0 (Print Edition)

Headquarters Marcel Dekker, Inc., 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, U.S.A. tel:
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Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
 Preface

This book addresses the topic of soil’s physical properties and processes with particular
reference to agricultural, hydrological, and environmental applications. The book is
written to enable undergraduate and graduate students to understand soil’s physical,
mechanical, and hydrological properties, and develop theoretical and practical skills to
address issues related to sustainable management of soil and water resources. Sustainable
use of soil and water resources cannot be achieved unless soil’s physical conditions or
quality is maintained at a satisfactory level. Fertilizer alone or in conjunction with
improved crop varieties and measures to control pests and diseases will not preserve
productivity if soil’s physical conditions are not above the threshold level, or if
significant deterioration of physical conditions occur. Yet, assessment of physical
properties and processes of soil is not as commonly done as that of chemical or
nutritional properties, and their importance receives insufficient attention. Even when
information on soil’s physical properties is collected, it is not done in sufficient detail and
rarely beyond the routine measurement of soil texture and bulk density.
Sustainability is jeopardized when soil’s physical quality is degraded, which has a
variety of consequences. The process of decline in soil’s physical quality is set in motion
by deterioration of soil structure: an increase in bulk density, a decline in the percentage
and strength of aggregates, a decrease in macroporosity and pore continuity, or both. An
important ramification of decline in soil structural stability is formation of a surface seal
or crust with an attendant decrease in the water infiltration rate and an increase in surface
runoff and erosion. An increase in soil bulk density leads to inhibited root development,
poor gaseous exchange, and anaerobiosis. Excessive runoff lowers the availability of
water stored in the root zone, and suboptimal or supraoptimal soil temperatures and poor
aeration exacerbate the problem of reduced water uptake.
Above and beyond the effects on plant growth, soil’s physical properties and processes
also have a strong impact on the environment. Non-point source pollution is caused by
surface runoff, erosion, and drainage effluent from agricultural fields. Wind erosion has a
drastic adverse impact on air quality. An accelerated greenhouse effect is caused by
emission of trace or greenhouse gases from the soil into the atmosphere. Important
greenhouse gases emitted from soil are CO2, CH4, N2O, and NOx. The rate and amount of
their emission depend on soil’s physical properties (e.g., texture and temperature) and
processes (e.g., aeration and anaerobiosis).
The emphasis in this textbook is placed on understanding the impact of the physical
properties and processes of soil on agricultural and forestry production, sustainable use of
soil and water resources for a range of functions of interest to humans, and the
environment with special attention to water quality and the greenhouse effect. Sustainable
use of natural resources is the basic, underlying theme throughout the book.
This book is divided into 20 chapters and 5 parts. Part I is an introduction to soil
physics and contains two chapters describing the importance of soil physics, defining
basic terms and principal concepts. Part II contains six chapters dealing with soil
mechanics. Chapter 3 describes soil solids and textural properties, including particle size
distribution, surface area, and packing arrangements. Chapter 4 addresses theoretical and
practical aspects of soil structure and its measurement. There being a close relationship
between structure and porosity, Chapter 5 deals with pore size distribution, including
factors affecting it and assessment methods. Manifestations of soil structure (e.g.,
crusting and cracking) and soil strength and compaction are described in Chapters 6 and
7, respectively. Management of soil compaction is a topic of special emphasis in these
chapters. Atterberg’s limits and plasticity characteristics in terms of their impact on soil
tilth are discussed in Chapter 8.
Part III, comprising eight chapters, deals with an important topic of soil hydrology.
Global water resources, principal water bodies, and components of the hydrologic cycle
are discussed in Chapter 9. Soil’s moisture content and methods of its measurement,
including merits and demerits of different methods along with their application to specific
soil situations, are discussed in Chapter 10. The concept of soil-moisture potential and the
energy status of soil water and its measurement are discussed in Chapter 11. Principles of
soil-water movement under saturated and unsaturated conditions are described in
Chapters 12 and 13, respectively. Water infiltration, measurement, and modeling are
presented in Chapter 14. Soil evaporation, factors affecting it, and its management are
discussed in Chapter 15. Solute transport principles and processes including Fick’s laws
of diffusion, physical, and chemical nonequilibruim, its measurement, and modeling are
presented in Chapter 16.
Part IV comprises two chapters. Chapter 17 addresses the important topic of soil
temperature, including heat flow in soil, impact of soil temperature on crop growth, and
methods of managing soil temperature. Soil air and aeration, the topic of Chapter 18, is
discussed with emphasis on plant growth and emission of greenhouse gases from soil into
the atmosphere. Part V, the last part, contains two chapters dealing with miscellaneous
but important topics. Chapter 19 deals with physical properties of gravelly soils. Water
movement in frozen, saline, and water-repellent soils and scale issues in hydrology are
the themes of Chapter 20. In addition, there are several appendices dealing with units and
conversions and properties of water.
This book is of interest to students of soil physics with majors in soil science,
agricultural hydrology, agricultural engineering, civil engineering, climatology, and
topics of environmental sciences. There are several unique features of this book, which
are important in helping students understand the basic concepts. Important among these
are the following: (i) each chapter is amply illustrated by graphs, data tables, and easy to
follow equations or mathematical functions, (ii) use of mathematical functions is
illustrated by practical examples, (iii) some processes and practical techniques are
explained by illustrations, (iv) each chapter contains a problem set for students to
practice, and (v) the data examples are drawn from world ecoregions, including soils of
tropical and temperate climates. This textbook incorporates comments and suggestions of
students from around the world.
 The book is intended to explain basic concepts of soil physics in a simplified manner
rather than an exhaustive treatise on the most current literature available on the topics
addressed. It draws heavily on material, data, graphs, and tables from many sources. The
authors cite data from numerous colleagues from around the world. Sources of all data
and material are duly acknowledged.
We are thankful for valuable contributions made by several colleagues, graduate
students, and staff of the soil science section of The Ohio State University. We especially
thank Ms. Brenda Swank for her assistance in typing some of the text and in preparing
the material. Help received from Pat Patterson and Jeremy Alder is also appreciated.
Thanks are also due to the staff of Marcel Dekker, Inc., Publishers for their timely effort
in publishing the book and making it available to the student community.
Rattan Lal
Manoj K.Shukla
 Contents

Preface xi

Part I Introduction

1 Importance of Soil Physics 1

2 Basic Definitions and Concepts 13

Part II Soil Mechanics

3 Soil Solids 29
4 Soil Structure 86
5 Porosity 140
6 Manifestations of Soil Structure 153
7 Soil Strength and Compaction 175
8 Soil Rheology and Plasticity 214

Part III Soil Hydrology

9 Water 234
10 Soil’s Moisture Content 268
11 Soil-Moisture Potential 299
12 Water Flow in Saturated Soils 331
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 constitutional reformer. The charter which he had received
from his father was not modified in any essential respect
during his long reign."

New York Tribune Extra, volume 1, number 12 (1889).

"A new Constitution ... was ratified by the first National

Congress, convened on November 15, 1890. By this instrument the
Brazilian nation constituted itself into a federal republic,
under the name of the United States of Brazil. Each of the old
provinces was declared a self-governing state, to be
administered under a republican form of government, with power
to impose taxes, and subject to no interference from the
Central Government, except for purposes of national defense or
the preservation of internal order or for the execution of
Federal laws.
{315}
Legislation relating to customs, paper currency, and postal
communications is reserved to the Federal Government. The
right of suffrage is secured to all male citizens over 21
years old, with the exception of beggars, persons ignorant of
the alphabet, soldiers in actual service, and persons under
monastic vows, registration being the only prerequisite. The
executive authority is vested in the President ... elected by
the people directly for the term of six years, and .... not
eligible for the succeeding term. ... Senators are elected by
the Legislatures of the States for nine years, three from each
State, one retiring and his successor being chosen every three
years. ... The Chamber of Deputies has the initiative in all
laws relating to taxation. Deputies are elected for three
years by direct popular vote in the proportion of one to every
70,000 inhabitants. ... It is declared that no sect or church
shall receive aid from the National or State governments." In
1891, differences arose between the President and Congress, at
first over financial measures passed by the Chambers and
vetoed by the President and schemes recommended by the
President that were voted down by Congress. In November the
 President published a decree dissolving Congress, closed the
Chambers by force, proclaimed himself Dictator on the
invitation of officers of the army, and convoked a new
Congress, to be charged with the revision of the constitution.
The State of Rio Grande do Sul led off in a revolt against
this usurpation, and on the 23d of November, after some shots
had been fired into the city of Rio de Janeiro by a naval
squadron acting against him, President Fonseca resigned.
"Floriano Peixoto was immediately installed by the
revolutionary committee as President in his stead ... and the
country soon settled down under the new government."--

Appleton's Annual Cyclopædia 1891, pages 91-96.

"When Deodoro, after struggling for twelve months with the

factions in Congress, closed the doors of São Christovão
Palace and proclaimed a dictatorship, he had recourse to a
familiar expedient of Latin-American civilization. The speedy
collapse of his administration, when it was wholly dependent
upon military force, was a good augury for the future of
Brazil. ... In the early days of the Republic, the Provisional
Ministry were unable to agree upon the radical policy of
disestablishing the Church. ... Fortunately for Brazil there
was no compromise of the disestablishment question. ... Under
the Constitution no religious denomination was permitted to
hold relations of dependence upon, or alliance with, the
federal or State governments. ... Every church was made free
in the free State. Civil marriage was recognized as essential.
... Perhaps the most hopeful sign for the cause of progress
and religion is the adoption of educational suffrage."

I. N. Ford, Tropical America, chapter 4.

See CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL.

----------BRAZIL: End----------
BREAD AND CHEESE WAR.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1482-1493.

BRECKINRIDGE, John C.
Defeat in Presidential election.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (APRIL-

NOVEMBER).

BREDA: A. D. 1575.
Spanish-Dutch Congress.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1575-1577.

BREDA: A. D. 1590.
Capture by Prince Maurice of Nassau-Orange.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1588-1593.

BREDA: A. D. 1624-1625.
Siege and capture by the Spaniards.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1621-1633.

BREDA: A. D. 1637.
Taken by the Prince of Orange.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1635-1638.

BREDA: A. D. 1793.
Taken and lost by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL).

----------BREDA: End----------
BREDA, Declaration from.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1658-1660.

BREDA, Treaty of (1666).

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1665-1666.

BREED'S HILL (Bunker Hill), Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (JUNE).

BREHON LAWS.

"The portion of the Irish tribe system which has attracted

most attention is the mode in which the judicial authority was
withdrawn from the chief and appropriated by the hereditary
caste of the Brehons, and also the supposed anomalous
principles which they applied to the decision of the cases
which came before them. The earlier English writers found no
terms too strong to express their abhorrence and contempt of
these native judges, and their contempt for the principles
upon which they proceeded. On the other hand, Irish writers
attributed to these professional arbitrators advanced
principles of equity wholly foreign to an early community. ...
The translation of the existing vast mass of Brehon law books,
and the translation [publication?] of the most important of
them by the order of the government, have disposed of the
arguments and assertions on both sides. It is now admitted,
that the system and principles of the Brehon jurisprudence
present no characteristics of any special character, although
in them primitive ideas of law were elaborated in a manner not
found elsewhere; ... the laws which existed among the native
Irish were in substance those which are found to have
prevailed among other Aryan tribes in a similar stage of
social progress; as the social development of the nation was
prematurely arrested, so also were the legal ideas of the same
 stage of existence retained after they had disappeared in all
other nations of Europe. This legal survival continued for
centuries the property of an hereditary caste, who had
acquired the knowledge of writing, and some tincture of
scholastic philosophy and civil law. ... The learning of the
Brehons consisted (1) in an acquaintance with the minute
ceremonies, intelligible now only to an archæologist, and not
always to him, by which the action could be instituted, and
without which no Brehon could assume the role of arbitrator;
and (2) in a knowledge of the traditions, customs and
precedents of the tribe, in accordance with which the dispute
should be decided."

A. G. Richey, Short History of the Irish People, chapter 3.

ALSO IN: Sir H. Maine, Early History of Institutions,

lecture 2.

BREISACH: A. D. 1638.
Siege and capture by Duke Bernhard.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

BREISACH: A. D. 1648.
Cession to France.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

BREITENFELD,
Battle of (or first battle of Leipsic).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631.

The second battle of (1642).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1640-1645.

{316}

BREMEN: 13th-15th Centuries.

In the Hanseatic League.

See HANSA TOWNS.

BREMEN: A. D. 1525
Formal establishment of the Reformed Religion.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1522-1525.

BREMEN: A. D. 1648.
Cession of the Bishoprick to Sweden.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

BREMEN: A. D. 1720.
The Duchy ceded to the Elector of Hanover.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1719-1721.

BREMEN: A. D. 1801-1803.
One of six free cities which survive the Peace of Luneville.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

BREMEN: A. D. 1810.
Annexed to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1810 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).

BREMEN: A. D. 1810-1815.
Loss and recovery of autonomy as a "free city."

See CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE, OF GERMANY.

BREMEN: A. D. 1815.
Once more a Free City and a member of the Germanic
Confederation.

See VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF.

BREMEN: A. D. 1888.
Surrender of free privileges.
Absorption in the Zollverein and Empire.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1888.

----------BREMEN: End----------

BREMI: A. D. 1635-1638.
Taken by the French.
Recovered by the Spaniards.

See ITALY: A. D. 1635-1659.

BRÊMULE, Battle of (1119).

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1087-1135.

BRENHIN, The Cymric title.

See ROME: B. C. 390-347.

BRENNI, The.

See RHÆTIANS.

BRENTFORD, Battle of.

Fought and won by Edmund Ironsides in his contest with Cnut,

or Canute, for the English throne A. D. 1016.
BRESCIA: A. D. 1512.
Capture and pillage by the French.

See ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513.

BRESCIA: A. D. 1849.
Bombardment, capture and brutal treatment by the Austrian
Haynau.

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

----------BRESCIA: End----------

BRESLAU: A. D. 1741-1760.
In the wars of Frederick the Great.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1741 (MAY-JUNE); 1742 (JANUARY-MAY);

1742 (JUNE); GERMANY: A. D. 1757 (JULY-DECEMBER), and
1760.

BREST: A. D. 1694.
Repulse of the English fleet.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1694.

BRETAGNE.

See BRITTANY.

BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LOT OR COMMON LIFE.

"The Societies of the Beguines, Beghards, and Lollards [see

BEGUINES], which from the first laboured under various defects
and imperfections, had in course of time degenerated, and by
their own fault, either fallen to pieces of themselves, or
been suppressed. The two things, however, still existed, viz.,
the propensity to religious association, ... and, likewise,
the outward condition, which required and rendered practicable
the efforts of benevolence and charity, strengthened by
cooperation. The last was particularly the case in the
Netherlands, and most in the northern provinces. ... Here,
then, the Institute of the Common Lot takes its rise. ... The
first author of this new series of evolutions was Gerhard
Groot (Geert Groete or de Groot, Gerhardus Magnus), a man of
glowing piety and great zeal in doing good, a powerful popular
orator and an affectionate friend of youth [1340-1384]. ...
His affection for Holy Scripture and the ancient Fathers
kindled in Gerhard's bosom the liveliest zeal for collecting
the records of Christian antiquity. ... Hence, he had long
before employed young men, under his oversight, as copyists,
thereby accomplishing the threefold end of multiplying these
good theological works, giving profitable employment to the
youths, and obtaining an opportunity of influencing their
minds. This he continued more and more to do. The circle of
his youthful friends, scholars, and transcribers, became from
day to day larger, and grew at length into a regular society.
Having thus in part owed its origin to the copying of the
Scriptures and devotional books, the Society from the outset,
and through its whole continuance, made the Holy Scripture and
its propagation, the copying, collecting, preserving, and
utilizing of good theological and ascetical books, one of its
main objects. ... The members were called 'Brethren of the
Common Lot,' [or of the Common Life] or 'Brethren of Good
Will,' 'Fratres Collationarii,' 'Jeronymians,' and
'Gregorians.' ... Imitating the Church at Jerusalem, and
prompted by brotherly affection, they mutually shared with
each other their earnings and property, or consecrated also
their fortune, if they possessed any, to the service of the
community. From this source, and from donations and legacies
made to them, arose the 'Brother-houses,' in each of which a
certain number of members lived together, subjected, it is
true, in dress, diet, and general way of life, to an appointed
rule, but yet not conventually sequestered from the world,
with which they maintained constant intercourse, and in such a
 way as, in opposition to Monachism [monasticism], to preserve
the principle of individual liberty."

C. Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation,

volume 2, part 2, chapter l.

"Through the wonderful activity of that fraternity of

teachers, begun about 1360, called the Brethren of the Common
Life, the Netherlands had the first system of common schools
in Europe. These schools flourished in every large town and
almost in every village, so that popular education was the
rule."

W. E. Griffis, The Influence of the Netherlands, page 3.

ALSO IN: S. Kettlewell, Thomas à Kempis and the Brothers

of Common Life, chapter 5-6 (volume 1).

BRETHREN OF THE FREE SPIRIT.

See BEGUINES.

BRETIGNY, Treaty of.

The treaty, called at the time "the great peace," concluded

May 8, 1360, between Edward III. of England and John II. of
France, in which Edward renounced his pretensions to the
French crown, released for a ransom King John, then a prisoner
in his hands, and received the full sovereignty of Guienne,
Poitou and Ponthieu in France, besides retaining Calais and
Guisnes.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1337-1360.

BRETWALDA.

A title given to some of the early English kings. "Opinions

 differ as to the meaning of the word Bretwalda. Palgrave and
Lappenberg take it as equivalent to 'ruler of Britain': Kemble
construes it 'broad-ruling,' and sees in it a dignity without
duty, hardly more than an accidental predominance.' (Saxons in
England, ii., 18.) The list of those who obtained this
'ducatus' includes Ethelbert of Kent, who broke the power of
the petty kings as far as the Humber, Redbald of East Anglia,
who obtained it by some means even in the lifetime of
Ethelbert, and the three great Northumbrian kings, Edwin,
Oswold and Oswy, whose supremacy however did not extend to
Kent."

O. Elton, Origins of English History, page 392, note.

ALSO IN:
E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest of
England, volume 1, appendix B.

See, also, ENGLAND: A. D. 477-527,

and ENGLAND: 7TH CENTURY.

{317}

BREWSTER, William, and the Plymouth Pilgrims.

See INDEPENDENTS: A. D. 1604-1617,

and MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1620, and after.

BREYZAD.
The people and the language of Brittany, or Bretagne.

See BRITTANY: A. D. 818-912.

BRIAN BORU,
The reign in Ireland of.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1014.

BRIDGE, Battle of the.

A serious reverse suffered by the Arab followers of Mahomet in

their early movements against the Persians, A. D. 634. A force
of 9,000 or 10,000 having crossed the Euphrates by a bridge of
boats were beaten back, their bridge destroyed and half of
them slain or drowned.

G. Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, chapter

26.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 632-651.

BRIDGEWATER, OR LUNDY'S LANE, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1814 (JULY-

SEPTEMBER).

BRIDGEWATER, Storming of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1645 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

BRIENNE, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

BRIGANTES, The.

One of the strongest and fiercest of the tribes of ancient

Britain, believed by some historians to have been the original
pre-Celtic inhabitants of the island. At the time of the Roman
conquest they held the whole interior northward from the
Humber and Mersey to the Forth and Clyde. They were subdued by
Agricola.

E. Guest, Origines Celticæ, volume 1, chapter 1.

 See, also, BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES,
and A. D. 43-53;
also, IRELAND, TRIBES of EARLY CELTIC INHABITANTS.

BRIGANTINE.--BERGANTIN.

See CARAVELS.

BRIHUEGA, Battle of (A. D. 1710).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1707-1710.

BRILL, The capture of.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1572.

BRISBANE.

See AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1800-1840, and 1859.

BRISSOT DE WARVILLE AND THE GIRONDISTS.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1791 (OCTOBER), to 1793

(SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).

BRISSOTINS.

The party of the Girondists, in the French Revolution, was

sometimes so called, after Brissot de Warville, one of its
leaders.

BRISTOE STATION, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863

(JULY-NOVEMBER: VIRGINIA).
BRISTOL: 12th Century.
Its slave trade and other commerce.

"Within its comparatively narrow limits Bristol must have been

in general character and aspect not unlike what it is
to-day--a busy, bustling, closely-packed city, full of the
eager, active, surging life of commercial enterprise. Ostmen
from Waterford and Dublin, Northmen from the Western Isles and
the more distant Orkneys, and even from Norway itself, had
long ago learnt to avoid the shock of the 'Higra,' the mighty
current which still kept its heathen name derived from the
sea-god of their forefathers, and make it serve to float them
into the safe and commodious harbour of Bristol, where a
thousand ships could ride at anchor. As the great trading
centre of the west Bristol ranked as the third city in the
kingdom, surpassed in importance only by Winchester and
London. The most lucrative branch of its trade, however,
reflects no credit on its burghers. All the eloquence of S.
Wulfstan and all the sternness of the Conqueror had barely
availed to check for a while their practice of kidnapping men
for the Irish slave-market; and that the traffic was in full
career in the latter years of Henry I. we learn from the
experiences of the canons of Laon."

K. Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings, volume 1, chapter

1.

BRISTOL: A. D. 1497.
Cabot's voyage of discovery.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1497.

BRISTOL: A. D. 1645.
The storming of the city by Fairfax.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1645 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

BRISTOL: A. D. 1685.
The commerce and wealth of the city.

"Next to the capital, but next at an immense distance, stood

Bristol, then the first English seaport. ... Pepys, who
visited Bristol eight years after the Restoration, was struck
by the splendour of the city. But his standard was not high;
for he noted down as a wonder the circumstance that, in
Bristol, a man might look round him and see nothing but
houses. ... A few churches of eminent beauty rose out of a
labyrinth of narrow lanes built upon vaults of no great
solidity. If a coach or cart entered those alleys, there was
danger that it would be wedged between the houses, and danger
also that it would break in the cellars. Goods were therefore
conveyed about the town almost exclusively in trucks drawn by
dogs; and the richest inhabitants exhibited their wealth, not
by riding in carriages, but by walking the streets with trains
of servants in rich liveries and by keeping tables loaded with
good cheer. The hospitality of the city was widely renowned,
and especially the collations with which the sugar refiners
regaled their visitors. ... This luxury was supported by a
thriving trade with the North American Plantations and with
the West Indies. The passion for colonial traffic was so
strong that there was scarcely a small shopkeeper in Bristol
who had not a venture on board of some ship bound for Virginia
or the Antilles. Some of these venturers indeed were not of
the most honourable kind. There was, in the Transatlantic
possessions of the crown, a great demand for labour; and this
demand was partly supplied by a system of crimping and
kidnapping at the principal English seaports. Nowhere was this
system in such active and extensive operation as at Bristol.
... The number of houses appears, from the returns of the
hearth-money, to have been, in the year 1685, just 5,300. ...
The population of Bristol must therefore have been about
29,000."

Lord Macaulay, History of England, chapter 3 (volume 1).

BRISTOL: A. D. 1831.
The Reform Bill Riots.

The popular excitement produced in England in 1831 by the

action of the House of Lords in rejecting the Reform Bill, led
to riots in several places, but most seriously at Bristol.
"The Bristol mobs have always been noted for their brutality;
and the outbreak now was such as to amaze and confound the the
whole kingdom. ...
{318}
The lower parts of the city were the harbourage of probably a
worse seaport populace than any other place in England, while
the police was ineffective and demoralised. There was no city
in which a greater amount of savagery lay beneath a society
proud, exclusive, and mutually repellent, rather than
enlightened and accustomed to social co-operation. These are
circumstances which go far to account for the Bristol riots
being so fearfully bad as they were. Of this city, Sir Charles
Wetherell--then at the height of his unpopularity as a
vigorous opponent of the Reform Bill--was recorder; and there
he had to go, in the last days of October, in his judicial
capacity. ... The symptoms of discontent were such as to
induce the mayor, Mr. Pinney, to apply to the home-office for
military aid. Lord Melbourne sent down some troops of horse,
which were quartered within reach, in the neighbourhood of the
city. ... Sir Charles Wetherell could not be induced to
relinquish his public entry, though warned of the danger by
the magistrates themselves. ... On Saturday, October 29, Sir
Charles Wetherell entered Bristol in pomp; and before he
reached the Mansion House at noon, he must have been pretty
well convinced, by the hootings and throwing of stones, that
he had better have foregone the procession. For some hours the
special constables and the noisy mob in front of the Mansion
House exchanged discourtesies of an emphatic character, but
there was no actual violence till night. At night, the Mansion
House was attacked, and the Riot Act was read; but the
military were not brought down, as they ought to have been, to
clear the streets. The mayor had 'religious scruples,' and was
'humane'; and his indecision was not overborne by any aid from
his brother-magistrates. When the military were brought in, it
was after violence had been committed, and when the passions
of the mob were much excited. Sir Charles Wetherell escaped
from the city that night. During the dark hours, sounds were
heard provocative of further riot; shouts in the streets, and
the hammering of workmen who were boarding up the lower
windows of the Mansion House and the neighbouring dwellings.
On the Sunday morning, the rioters broke into the Mansion
House without opposition; and from the time they got into the
cellars, all went wrong. Hungry wretches and boys broke the
necks of the bottles, and Queen Square was strewed with the
bodies of the dead-drunk. The soldiers were left without
orders, and their officers without that sanction of the
magistracy in the absence of which they could not act, but
only parade; and in this parading, some of the soldiers
naturally lost their tempers, and spoke and made gestures on
their own account, which did not tend to the soothing of the
mob. This mob never consisted of more than five or six
hundred. ... The mob declared openly what they were going to
do; and they went to work unchecked--armed with staves and
bludgeons from the quays, and with iron palisades from the
Mansion House--to break open and burn the bridewell, the jail,
the bishop's palace, the custom-house, and Queen Square. They
gave half an hour's notice to the inhabitants of each house in
the square, which they then set fire to in regular succession,
till two sides, each measuring 550 feet, lay in smoking ruins.
The bodies of the drunken were seen roasting in the fire. The
greater number of the rioters were believed to be under twenty
years of age, and some were mere children; some Sunday
scholars, hitherto well conducted, and it may be questioned
whether one in ten knew anything of the Reform Bill, or the
offences of Sir Charles Wetherell. On the Monday morning,
after all actual riot seemed to be over, the soldiery at last
made two slaughterous charges. More horse arrived, and a
 considerable body of foot soldiers; and the constabulary
became active; and from that time the city was in a more
orderly state than the residents were accustomed to see it.
... The magistrates were brought to trial, and so was Colonel
Brereton, who was understood to be in command of the whole of
the military. The result of that court-martial caused more
emotion throughout the kingdom than all the slaughtering and
burning, and the subsequent executions which marked that
fearful season. It was a year before the trial of the
magistrates was entered upon. The result was the acquittal of
the mayor, and the consequent relinquishment of the
prosecution of his brother-magistrates."

H. Martineau, A History of the Thirty Years' Peace,

book 4, chapter 4 (volume 2).

----------BRISTOL: End----------

BRITAIN, Count and Duke of.

The military commanders of Roman Britain.

See BRITAIN: A. D. 323-337,

also ARTHUR, KING.

BRITAIN, The name.

See BRITANNIA.

BRITAIN: Celtic Tribes.

"It appears that the southeastern part of the island, or the

district now occupied by the county of Kent, was occupied by
the Cantii, a large and influential tribe, which in Cæsar's
time, was divided among four chiefs or kings. To the west, the
Regni held the modern counties of Sussex and Surrey, from the
sea-coast to the Thames. Still farther west, the Belgæ
occupied the country from the southern coast to the Bristol
 Channel, including nearly the whole of Hampshire, Wiltshire
and Somersetshire. The whole of the extensive district
extending from the Belgæ to the extreme western point of the
island, then called Antivestæum or Bolerium (now the Land's
End) including Devonshire and Cornwall, was occupied by the
Dumnonii, or Damnonii. On the coast between the Dumnonii and
the Belgæ the smaller tribe of the Durotriges held the modern
county of Dorset. On the other side of the Thames, extending
northwards to the Stour, and including the greater part of
Middlesex as well as Essex, lay the Trinobantes. To the north
of the Stour dwelt the Iceni, extending over the counties of
Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge and Huntingdon. The Coritavi
possessed the present counties of Northampton, Leicester,
Rutland, Derby, Nottingham and Lincoln; and the south-eastern
part of Yorkshire was held by the Parisi. Between the tribes
last enumerated, in the counties of Buckingham, Bedford and
Hertford, lay the tribe called by Ptolemy the Catyeuchlani,
and by others Catuvellani. Another name, apparently, for this
tribe, or for a division of it, was the Cassii. West of these
were the Atrebates, in Berkshire; and still further west were
the Dobuni, in the counties of Oxford and Gloucester. ... The
interior of the island northward was occupied by the
Brigantes, who held the extensive districts, difficult of
approach on account of their mountains and woods, extending
from the Humber and the Mersey to the present borders of
Scotland. This extensive tribe appears to have included
several smaller ones [the Voluntii, the Sestuntii, the
Jugantes and the Cangi].
{319}
The Brigantes are believed to have been the original
inhabitants of the island, who had been driven northward by
successive invasions. ... Wales, also, was inhabited by a
primitive population. The northern counties ... was the
territory of the Ordovices. The southeastern counties ... were
held by the Demetae. The still more celebrated tribe of the
Silures inhabited the modern counties of Hereford, Radnor,
Breeknoek, Monmouth and Clamorgan. Between these and the
 Brigantes lay the Cornabii or Carnabii. The wilder parts of
the island of Britain, to the north of the Brigantes, were
inhabited by a great number of smaller tribes, some of whom
seem to have been raised in the scale of civilization little
above savages. Of these we have the names of no less than
twenty-one. Bordering on the Brigantes were the Otadeni,
inhabiting the coast from the Tyne to the Firth of Forth. ...
Next to them were the Gadeni. ... The Selgovæ inhabited
Annandale, Nithsdale and Eskdale, in Dumfriesshire, with the
East of Galloway. The Novantes inhabited the remainder of
Galloway. The Damnii, a larger tribe, held the country from
the chain of hills separating Galloway from Carrick, northward
to the river Ern. These tribes lay to the south of the Forth
and Clyde. Beyond the narrow boundary formed by these rivers
lay [the Horestii, the Venricones or Vernicomes, the Taixali
or Taexali, the Vacomagi, the Albani, the Cantæ, the Logi, the
Carnabii, the Catini, the Mertæ, the Carnonacæ, the Creones,
the Cerones, and the Epidii]. The ferocious tribe of the
Attacotti inhabited part of Argyleshire, and the greater part
of Dumbartonshire. The wild forest country of the interior,
known as the Caledonia Sylva (or Forest of Celyddon), extended
from the ridge of mountains between Inverness and Perth,
northward to the forest of Balnagowan, including the middle
parts of Inverness and Ross, was held by the Caledonii, which
appears to have been at this time [of the conquests of
Agricola] the most important and powerful of all the tribes
north of the Brigantes."

T. Wright, The Celt, the Roman and the Saxon, chapter 2.

ALSO IN:
J. Rhys, Celtic Britain.

J. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland, book 1, chapter 2.

BRITAIN: B. C. 55-54.
Cæsar's invasions.
Having extended his conquests in Gaul to the British Channel
and the Strait of Dover (see GAUL: B. C. 58-51), Cæsar crossed
the latter, in August, B. C. 55, and made his first landing in
Britain, with two legions, numbering 8,000 to 10,000 men.
Portus Itius, from which he sailed, was probably either
Wissant or Boulogne, and his landing place on the British
coast is believed to have been near Deal. The Britons disputed
his landing with great obstinacy, but were driven back, and
offered to submit; but when a few days afterwards, Cæsar's
fleet suffered greatly from a storm, they reconsidered their
submission and opened hostilities again. Routed in a second
battle, they once more sued for peace, and gave hostages;
whereupon Cæsar reembarked his troops and returned to the
continent, having remained in Britain not more than three
weeks and penetrated the island a short distance only. The
following summer he crossed to Britain again, determined on
making a thorough conquest of the country. This time he had
five legions at his back, with two thousand horse, and the
expedition was embarked on more than eight hundred ships. He
sailed from and landed at the same points as before. Having
established and garrisoned a fortified camp, he advanced into
the country, encountering and defeating the Britons, first, at
a river, supposed to be the Stour which flows past Canterbury.
A storm which damaged his fleet then interrupted his advance,
compelling him to return to the coast. When the disaster had
been repaired he marched again, and again found the enemy on
the Stour, assembled under the command of Cassivelaunus, whose
kingdom was north of the Thames. He dispersed them, after much
fighting, with great slaughter, and crossed the Thames, at a
point, it is supposed, near the junction of the Wey. Thence he
pushed on until he reached the "oppidum" or stronghold of
Cassivelaunus, which is believed by some to have been on the
site of the modern town of St. Albans,--but the point is It
disputed one. On receiving the submission of Cassivelaunus,
and of other chiefs, or kings, fixing the tribute they should
pay and taking hostages, Cæsar returned to the coast,
 reembarked his army and withdrew. His stay in Britain on this
occasion was about sixty days.

Cæsar, Gallic War, book 4, chapter 20-36,

and book 7, chapter 7-33.

ALSO IN:
H. M. Scarth, Roman Britain, chapter 2.

G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 4, chapter 9 and

11-12.

T. Lewin, Invasion of Britain by Cæsar.

F. T. Vine, Cæsar in Kent.

E. Guest, Origines Celticæ, volume 2.

BRITAIN: A. D. 43-53.
Conquests of Claudius.

Nearly a hundred years passed after Cæsar's hasty invasion of

Britain before the Romans reappeared on the island, to enforce
their claim of tribute. It was under the fourth of the
imperial successors of Julius Cæsar, the feeble Claudius, that
the work of Roman conquest in Britain was really begun. Aulus
Plautius, who commanded in Gaul, was sent over with four
legions, A. D. 43, to obtain a footing and to smooth the way
for the Emperor's personal campaign. With him went one,
Vespasian, who began in Britain to win the fame which pushed
him into the imperial seat and to a great place in Roman
history. Plautius and Vespasian made good their occupation of
the country as far as the Thames, and planted their forces
strongly on the northern bank of that river; before they
summoned the Emperor to their aid. Claudius came before the
close of the military season, and his vanity was gratified by
the nominal leading of an advance on the chief oppidum, or
 stronghold of the Britons, called Camulodunum, which occupied
the site of the modern city of Colchester. The Trinobantes,
whose capital it was, were beaten and the place surrendered.
Satisfied with this easy victory, the Emperor returned to
Rome, to enjoy the honors of a triumph; while Vespasian, in
command of the second legion, fought his way, foot by foot,
into the southwest of the island, and subjugated the obstinate
tribes of that region. During the next ten years, under the
command of Ostorius Scapula, who succeeded Plautius, and
Avitus Didius Gallus, who succeeded Ostorius, the Roman power
was firmly settled in southern Britain, from the Stour, at the
East, to the Exe and the Severn at the West. The Silures, of
South Wales, who had resisted most stubbornly, under
Caractacus, the fugitive Trinobantine prince, were subdued and
Caractacns made captive. The Iceni (in Suffolk, Norfolk and
Cambridge-shire) were reduced from allies to sullen
dependents. The Brigantes, most powerful of all the tribes,
and who held the greater part of the whole north of modern
England, were still independent, but distracted by internal
dissensions which Roman influence was active in keeping alive.
This, stated briefly, was the extent to which the conquest of
Britain was carried during the reign of Claudius, between A.
D. 43 and 54.

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 51.

ALSO IN:
E. Guest, Origines Celticæ, volume 2, part 2, chapter 13.

H. M. Scarth, Roman Britain, chapter 4.

See, also, COLCHESTER, ORIGIN OF.

{320}

BRITAIN: A. D. 61.
Campaigns of Suetonius Paulinus.
From A. D. 50 to 61, while Didius Gallus and his successor
Veranius commanded in Britain, nothing was done to extend the
Roman acquisitions. In the latter year, Suetonius Paulinus
came to the command, and a stormy period of war ensued. His
first movement was to attack the Druids in the isle of Mona,
or Anglesey, into which they had retreated from Gaul and
Britain, in successive flights, before the implacable
hostility of Rome. "In this gloomy lair, secure apparently,
though shorn of might and dignity, they still persisted in the
practice of their unholy superstition. ... Here they retained
their assemblies, their schools, and their oracles; here was
the asylum of the fugitives; here was the sacred grove, the
abode of the awful deity, which in the stillest noon of night
or day the priest himself scarce ventured to enter lest he
should rush unwittingly into the presence of its lord." From
Segontium (modern Caernarvon) Suetonius crossed the Menai
Strait on rafts and boats with one of his legions, the
Batavian cavalry swimming their horses. The landing was
fiercely disputed by women and men, priests and worshippers;
but Roman valor bore down all resistance. "From this moment
the Druids disappear from the page of history; they were
exterminated, we may believe, upon their own altars; for
Suetonius took no half measures." This accomplished, the Roman
commander was quickly called upon to meet a terrific outburst
of patriotic rage on the part of the powerful nation of the
Iceni, who occupied the region now forming the counties of
Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and Huntingdon. They had been
allies of the Romans, first; then tributaries, under their own
king, and finally subjects, much oppressed. Their last king,
Prasutagus, had vainly hoped to win favor for his wife and
children, when he died, by bequeathing his kingdom to the
Roman State. But the widowed queen, Boudicea, or Boadicea, and
her daughters, were only exposed with more helplessness to the
insolence and the outrages of a brutal Roman officer. They
appealed to their people and maddened them by the exposure of
indescribable wrongs. The rising which ensued was fierce and
 general beyond precedent. "The Roman officials fled, or, if
arrested, were slaughtered; and a vast multitude, armed and
unarmed, rolled southward to overwhelm and extirpate the
intruders. To the Colne, to the Thames, to the sea, the
country lay entirely open." The colony at Camulodunum
(Colchester), was destroyed; Verulamium (St. Albans), and
Londinium (London), were sacked and burned; not less than
70,000 of the Romans in Britain were slaughtered without
mercy. Suetonius made haste to quit Anglesey when the dreadful
news reached him, and pressed, with all speed, along the great
highway of Watling Street--gathering up his forces in hand as
he went--to reach the awful scene of rage and terror. He had
collected but 10,000 men when he confronted, at last, the vast
swarm of the insurgents, on a favorable piece of ground that
he had secured, in the neighborhood of Camulodunum. But, once
more, the valor of undisciplined semi-barbarism wrecked itself
on the firm shields of the Roman cohorts, and 80,000 Britons
are said to have fallen in the merciless fight. The
insurrection was crushed and Roman authority in Britain
reaffirmed. But the grim Suetonius dealt so harshly with the
broken people that even Rome remonstrated, and he was,
presently, recalled, to give place to a more pacific
commander.

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 51.

ALSO IN: H. M. Scarth, Roman Britain, chapter 5.

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 5.

BRITAIN: A. D. 78-84.
Campaigns of Agricola.

For seventeen years after the recall of Suetonius Paulinus (A.

D. 61) there was a suspension of Roman conquest in Britain.
The military power in the island suffered great
demoralization, resulting naturally from the chaos of affairs
at Rome, between Nero and Vespasian. These conditions ceased
soon after the accession of the Flavian Emperor, and he, who
had attained first in Britain the footing from which he
climbed to the throne, interested himself in the spreading of
his sovereignty over the whole of the British island. C. Julius
Agricola was the soldier and statesman--a great man in each
character--whom he selected for the work. Agricola was made
prefect or Governor of Britain, A. D. 78. "Even in his first
summer, when he had been but a few months in the island, and
when none even of his own officers expected active service,
Agricola led his forces into the country of the Ordovices, in
whose mountain passes the war of independence still lingered,
drove the Britains across the Menai Straits and pursued them
into Anglesey, as Suetonius had done before him, by boldly
crossing the boiling current in the face of the enemy. Another
summer saw him advance northward into the territory of the
Brigantes, and complete the organization of the district,
lately reduced, between the Humber and Tyne. Struck perhaps
with the natural defences of the line from the Tyne to the
Solway, where the island seems to have broken, as it were, in
the middle and soldered unevenly together, he drew a chain of
forts from sea to sea. ... In the third year of his command,
Agricola pushed forward along the eastern coast, and, making
good with roads and fortresses every inch of his progress,
reached, as I imagine, the Firth of Forth. ... Here he
repeated the operations of the preceding winter, planting his
camps and stations from hill to hill, and securing a new belt
of territory, ninety miles across, for Roman occupation." The
next two years were spent in strengthening his position and
organizing his conquest. In A. D. 83 and 84 he advanced beyond
the Forth, in two campaigns of hard fighting, the latter of
which was made memorable by the famous battle of the
Grampians, or Graupius, fought with the Caledonian hero
Galgacus. At the close of this campaign he sent his fleet
northward to explore the unknown coast and to awe the remoter
tribes, and it is claimed that the vessels of Agricola
circumnavigated the island of Britain, for the first time, and
 saw the Orkneys and Shetlands. The further plans of the
successful prefect were interrupted by his sudden recall.
Vespasian, first, then Titus, had died while he pursued his
victorious course in Caledonia, and the mean Domitian was
envious and afraid of his renown.

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 61.

ALSO IN:
Tacitus, Agricola.

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 5.

{321}

BRITAIN: 2d-3d Centuries.

Introduction of Christianity.

See Christianity: A. D. 100-312.

BRITAIN: A. D. 208-211.
Campaigns of Severus.

A fresh inroad of the wild Caledonians of the north upon Roman

Britain, in the year 208, caused the Emperor Severus to visit
the distant island in person, with his two worthless sons,
Caracalla and Geta. He desired, it is said, to remove those
troublesome youths from Rome and to subject them to the
wholesome discipline of military life. The only result, so far
as they were concerned, was to give Caracalla opportunities
for exciting mutiny among the troops and for making several
attempts against his father's life. But Severus persisted in
his residence in Britain during more than two years, and till
his death, which occurred at Eboracum (York) on the 4th of
February, A. D. 211. During that time he prosecuted the war
against the Caledonians with great vigor, penetrating to the
northern extremity of the island, and losing, it is said;
 above 50,000 men, more by the hardships of the climate and the
march than by the attacks of the skulking enemy. The
Caledonians made a pretence of submission, at last, but were
soon in arms again. Severus was then preparing to pursue them
to extermination, when he died.

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 6.

https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717

ALSO IN: T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 5.

BRITAIN: A. D. 288-297.
Rebellion of Carausius.

"During the reign of Gallienus [A. D. 260-268] ... the pirate

fleets of the Franks infested the British seas, and it became
needful to have a fleet to protect the coast. The command of
this fleet had been conferred on Carausius, a Menapian by
birth; but he was suspected of conniving at piracy, in order
that he might enrich himself by becoming a sharer in their
booty, when they returned laden with plunder. To save himself,
therefore, from punishment, he usurped the imperial power, A.
D. 288, and reigned over Britain for seven years. A vast
number of his coins struck in Britain have been preserved, so
many that the history of Carausius has been written from his
medals. He was slain at length by his minister Allectus, who
usurped his power. The Franks [as allies of Allectus] had
well-nigh established their power over the south portion of
Britain when it was broken by Constantius, the father of
Constantine the Great, who defeated Allectus in a decisive
battle, in which that usurper was slain. ... Allectus held the
government of Britain for three years. Many of his coins are
found."

H. M. Scarth, Roman Britain, chapter 10.

ALSO IN: T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 4.

BRITAIN: A. D. 323-337.
Constantine's Organization.

Under the scheme of government designed by Diocletian and

amended by Constantine, "Britain formed part of a vast
pro-consulate, extending from Mount Atlas to the Caledonian
deserts, and was governed by the Gallic prefect, through a
'vicar' or deputy at York. The island was divided into five
new provinces. ... Britain was under the orders of the Count
of Britain, assisted by the subordinate officers. The Duke of
Britain commanded in the north. The Count of the Saxon Shore,
governed the 'Maritime Tract' and provided for the defence of
the southeastern coast. The Saxon Shore on the coast of
Britain must not be mistaken for the Saxon Shore on the
opposite coast of France, the headquarters of which were the
harbour of Boulogne. The names of the several provinces into
which Britain was divided are given in the 'Notitia,' viz:--

1. Britannia Prima, which included all the south and west of

England, from the estuary of the Thames to that of the Severn.

2. Britannia Secunda, which included the Principality of

Wales, bounded by the Severn on the east and the Irish Channel
on the west.

3. Flavia Cæsariensis,--all the middle portion of Britain,

from the Thames to the Humber and the· estuary of the Dee.

4. Maxima Cæsariensis,--the Brigantian territory, lying

between the estuaries of the Humber and Dee, and the Barrier
of the Lower Isthmus.

5. Valentia,--the most northern portion, lying between the

barrier of Hadrian and that of Antoninus."

H. M. Scarth. Roman Britain, chapter 10.

Britain: A. D. 367-370.
Deliverance By Theodosius.

The distracted condition of affairs in the Roman Empire that

soon followed the death of Constantine, which was relieved by
Julian for a brief term, and which became worse at his death,
proved especially ruinous to Roman Britain. The savage tribes
of Caledonia--the Picts, now beginning to be associated with
the Scots from Ireland--became bolder from year to year in
their incursions, until they marched across the whole extent
of Britain. "Their path was marked by cruelties so atrocious,
that it was believed at the time and recorded by St. Jerome
that they lived on human flesh. London, even, was threatened
by them, and the whole island, which, like all the other
provinces of the Empire, had lost every spark of military
virtue, was incapable of opposing any resistance to them.
Theodosius, a Spanish officer, and father of the great man of
the same name who was afterwards associated in the Empire, was
charged by Valentinian with the defence of Britain. He forced
the Scots to fall back (A. D. 367-370), but without having
been able to bring them to an engagement."

J. C. L. de Sismondi, Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 5.

"The splendour of the cities and the security of the

fortifications were diligently restored by the paternal care
of Theodosius, who with a strong hand confined the trembling
Caledonians to the northern angle of the island, and
perpetuated, by the name and settlement of the new province of
Valentia, the glories of the reign of Valentinian."

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 25.

https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717

BRITAIN: A. D. 383-388.
Revolt of Maximus.
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