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Chapter 4:
Data collection, analysis and description

Most research needs data; without data the report cannot be written. If I
have a choice, I will not carry out research if data are not available.
Sometimes you are forced to carry out research even if data are not
available - collect data through field surveys (for socio-economic data),
interviews, etc., or contact experts in the field. Of course, such data are
not as accurate as actual data. Remember all the time, if data are not
good, the results will not be good. Unfortunately, in the developing
countries, data are not usually available. If they are available, they are not
highly organized. Also, usually they are not accessible, obtainable. All
these elements raise questions about the validity and accuracy of data.
Therefore, my advice to students is to be careful with their needed data.
In the West, they assume data are available in the developing countries of
students. Some students encounter problems with data collection, and
committee find data to be not acceptable.

Data are of three types.

1. Field work data (survey, overall pictures, collecting samples: soil,

surface water, ground water)

What to prepare to go to the field? Make sure you describe everything for
unforeseen circumstances. Study well before you embark. One researcher
must be a highly experienced expert, and another who is familiar with the
area.

2. Lab data

The lab technician should be professional. Many things will depend on

the results of experimental work (tests). The materials used in the lab
should not be expired.

Safety is very important in lab work, esp., in hazardous materials. That is

why we insist on professional technicians.

37
3. Data from official sources (arch ives)

They are usually numerical.

• Availability
Make sure data are available.

• Accessibility:

Data are available but they woul dn't coope rate and give you data, esp., in
under -deve loped and devel oping count ries.

·• Cred ibilit y of data (validity and reliab ility)

The resea rcher must have a way to check if the data usual ly are credible.
Reme mber that results of invali d data will give only invali d results.
Expe rienc ed advis ers can detec t invali d data.

• Offic e work:

It mean s analy zing data. Descriptive statistics help conve rt raw data into
tables , figures, estim ating basic param eters such as mean , median, mode,
SD (stand ard deviation), etc., in other word s, prepa ring data for
mode ling.

• Modeling:

Selec t a mode l which fits your goal, using avail able data. Make sure you
under stand the conce pt of the mode l, its pract icalit y, application,
limitations. Unde rstand ing a mode l is a must. This is the reaso n you may
have to carry out the sensi tivity analy sis and/o r risk analysis.
(Abu rizaiz a, informal notes, Janua ry, 2017 )
Experimental resea rch and field visits

Acco rding to McM illan and Weye rs (2011 p. 135) ' many resear ch
'
• the ·scien ces, invol ve labor
• ularly m
• cts, partic d fl
atory work an ie
Id
proJe
----- ----- ----- ----- ----
Theses, Proposals and Reports: A Manual for International Students 39

visits. These practical experiences provide valuable opportunities to

observe speci1nens, carry out experiments and obtain measurements.
Proper cond~ct_ a~d accurate data col!e~tio~ are both vital.
In many d1sc1phnes, research activity 1s undertaken in laboratory
sessions and/or field visits, especially in the sciences. Practical research
work is emphasized because it:

• Allows you to see and interact with real examples of organisms,

specimens, artefacts, processes and reactions.
• Helps you to develop new skills in areas such as observation,
measurement, manipulation and data analysis.
• Lets you gain an appreciation of "scientific method," by designing,
carrying out and reporting original experiments in your field.
• Gives you hands-on experience of using equipment.
• Allows you to explore field locations relevant to your research.
• Gives you practice in writing up your work in formats that you may
later use to report your research at a higher level.

Skills developed in laboratory and field visits:

• Observation
• Handling samples and organisms
• Using equipment
• Designing experiments
• Working safely
• Measuring and recording
• Creating tables and graphs
• Data analysis
• Reporting in written and spoken forms
•• Teamwork (McMillan & Weyers. 2011, p. 136)

Appropriate conduct in the lab and field

Any rules associated with lab or fieldwork will have safety as the
Primary concern. The researcher must pay attention to it. You may have
to work with toxic chemicals, dangerous instruments or in hazardous
40 Theses, Propo Sais an d Reports·• A Manual for International Students

environn1ents so care is essential. It will be assumed you are

with basic s;fety 111easures and legislation, about the fire
relevant hazard syinbols. 1

Jn the lab, you will be expected to wear a l~b coat - which _sh~uld
be buttoned up - and, if you have long hair, expected to tie 1t
protection goggles may be necessary for some procedures, and t
nonnally wear contact lenses may be subject to special rules
vapors of corrosive laboratory chemicals may be trapped be
lens and the cornea of the eye. You should never eat or sm k
All such rules are common sense and should be part of you
practice. However, be sure that you keep safety as a priority a
become complacent just because you have become familiar
environment. (McMillan & Weyers. 2011, p. 136)

When working with chemicals or live organisms like bacte

appropriate precautions:

• be aware of possible modes of ingestion, including inhal

nose or mouth, ingestion ,by mouth, absorption through
skin/or inoculation through skin;
• take special care with procedur~ssuch as pipetting or tr
samples between vessels;
• note where eye washes and emergency showers are locate
lab and understand the appropriate procedures when you c
contact with chemicals
• know what to do if you spill any chemicals;
• make sure you know the location and type of fire extinguish
blanket to use for the reagents being used;
• always wash your hands thoroughly after each lab
(McMillan & Weyers. 2011, p. 138)

For field visits, you should ask about appropriate clothing. Yo

take special care to use appropriate footwear and be prepar
change of weather conditions. Try always to work with a partn
than alone. You should:

• take a first aid kit;

 • •• - - - - , - - - r - I I

■ leave full details of where you are going and when you expect to
return;
■ consult a weather forecast before you leave, and if working on the
seashore, find out about the state of the tides. (McMillan & Weyers,
2011, 138)

Carrying out instructions and noting results

Often, you will need to follow procedures as indicated from a series of

instructions, or detailed in the Materials and Methods section of a
research paper.

Make sure you have a good. grasp of the theoretical background to a

procedure or technique before starting. This may be provided as an
introduction to the instructions, or you may be expected to research it for
yourself. Having a deeper understanding of what you are doing and why
it will help you to work safely, make sure you do not waste resources
through mistakes in procedure and ensure you obtain more accurate
results. For these reasons, don't be tempted to skip this stage and move
directly to the procedure itself.

Always read instructions right through before starting as this may help
you organize your activities. You may wish to highlight key points or lay
out tables ready to record your data. The language of instructions will be
very precise and should be followed to the letter or number - for
example, success will often depend on the precision with which you
measure out reagents, carry out timing or control temperature.

Being able to record accurately what you see and measure is a vital skill
in the sciences. The following are the key tips for recording your
observations:

Don't rely on your memory - write down everything.

Never write on scraps of paper (you'll lose them) - use a proper lab
book.
j
orts· AManual for International Students
Theses, Proposals and Rep •
42

and provide full details of the specim

Always date each page
en or
experiment.
. . develo the skill of writin
If recording data, (l ) a! sevens (7s) are usug this information clear! _
ally confused and You Y
for example, onhes s tice of crossing the latt
wish to adopt t e prac er (i.e., 7.) . lllay

If you are record1·ng numbers' use an. appropriate number of significa

figures to take account of the precision (or, h nt
per aps more strictly, the
lack of precision) of your method.

If drawing diagrams, make sure these hav

e a descriptive title and are
well labelled.

In the field, be prepared for bad weather

- buy a special wet-weather
notebook or take a clear plastic bag to enc
lose your notebook, use a
pencil as this will write on damp paper.

Write down any final results in the form nor

mally used in your discipline
- you may lose marks otherwise.

Draw any graphs or tables according

to the normal scientific
conventions. (McMillan & Weyers, 2011, 139
)