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Brewing new technologies 1st Edition Bamforth Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Bamforth, Charles W
ISBN(s): 9780849391590, 0126692017
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 12.40 MB
Year: 2006
Language: english
Brewing Microbiology
Related titles
Brewing: New technologies
(ISBN 978-1-84569-003-8)
Brewing: Science and practice
(ISBN 978-1-85573-490-6)
Beer: A quality perspective
(ISBN 978-0-12669-201-3)
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science,
Technology and Nutrition: Number 289

Brewing Microbiology
Managing Microbes, Ensuring Quality
and Valorising Waste

Edited by

Annie E. Hill

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • CAMBRIDGE • HEIDELBERG

LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
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Contents

List of contributors xi
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xiii
Prefacexxv
Introduction to brewing microbiology xxvii
Acknowledgmentsxxxi

Part One Yeast: properties and management 1

1 Yeast: an overview 3
A. Speers and J. Forbes
1.1 Yeast species/strains used in brewing and distilling 3
1.2 Yeast cell structure 4
1.3 Comparison of lager and ale yeast 6
1.4 Flocculation 7
References 8

2 Yeast quality assessment, management and culture

maintenance11
G.G. Stewart
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Objectives of wort fermentation 11
2.3 Brewer’s yeast species 12
2.4 Yeast management 14
2.5 Storage of yeast stock cultures between propagations 15
2.6 Preservation of yeast strains 15
2.7 Yeast propagation 16
2.8 Yeast collection 18
2.9 Yeast storage 19
2.10 Yeast washing 23
2.11 Yeast stress 24
2.12 Dried yeast 25
2.13 Conclusions 26
Acknowledgments 26
References 27
vi Contents

3 Modelling yeast growth and metabolism for optimum performance 31

A.J. MacIntosh
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 Parameters influencing yeast growth and
fermentation of barley malt 31
3.3 Modelling: techniques and applications 33
3.4 Advanced fermentation techniques 43
3.5 Future trends and sources for further information 44
3.6 Closing remarks 44
References 45

4 Advances in metabolic engineering of yeasts 47

C.A. Boulton
4.1 Introduction 47
4.2 Metabolic engineering 48
4.3 Tools for metabolic engineering 51
4.4 Strategies for metabolic engineering 54
4.5 Brewing yeast genetics 55
4.6 Targets for engineering of brewing yeast 56
4.7 Future perspective 59
4.8 Additional sources of further information 60
References 60

5 Yeast identification and characterization 65

M. Hutzler, J. Koob, R. Riedl, H. Schneiderbanger,
K. Mueller-Auffermann and F. Jacob
5.1 Biodiversity and characterization of yeast species and strains from
a brewing environment 65
5.2 Microbiological, physiological, identification, and typing methods 70
5.3 Brewing yeast cell count/viability/vitality methods 88
5.4 Monitoring yeast and fermentation 93
References 97

Part Two Spoilage bacteria and other contaminants 105

6 Toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in the barley-to-beer chain 107

A. Laitila
6.1 Introduction 107
6.2 Barley malt: a key raw material in brewing 108
6.3 Evolution of fungi in the barley–malt ecosystem 109
6.4 Impacts of barley-associated fungi on malt quality 111
6.5 Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium mycotoxins 112
6.6 Fate of mycotoxins in the barley-to-beer chain 116
6.7 Regulation of mycotoxins in Europe 122
6.8 Emerging mycotoxin issues 123
6.9 Preventive actions 126
Contents vii

6.10 Future trends 131

6.11 Sources of further information and advice 132
References 132

7 Gram-positive spoilage bacteria in brewing 141

K. Suzuki
7.1 Introduction 141
7.2 Beer-spoilage LAB 141
7.3 Hop resistance mechanisms in beer-spoilage LAB 151
7.4 Subculture and preservation methods of beer-spoilage LAB 162
7.5 Other Gram-positive bacteria in brewing 166
7.6 Concluding remarks 167
References 169

8 Gram-negative spoilage bacteria in brewing 175

A.D. Paradh
8.1 Introduction: Gram-negative bacteria in brewing 175
8.2 Acetic acid bacteria 175
8.3 Zymomonas 182
8.4 Brewery-related Enterobacteriaceae 184
8.5 Conclusion 188
8.6 Further reading 189
Acknowledgements 189
References 189

9 Strictly anaerobic beer-spoilage bacteria 195

R. Juvonen
9.1 Introduction 195
9.2 The types of strictly anaerobic beer-spoilage bacteria 195
9.3 Occurrence in artificial and natural environments 198
9.4 Appearance of cells and laboratory cultures 201
9.5 General physiology and metabolism 204
9.6 Growth and effects in beer 208
9.7 Management of contaminations 211
9.8 Future outlook and research needs 213
9.9 Sources of further information and advice 214
References 214

Part Three Reducing microbial spoilage: design

and technology 219

10 Hygienic design and Cleaning-In-Place (CIP) systems in breweries 221

S. Davies, T. Sykes, M. Philips and J. Hancock
10.1 Introduction 221
10.2 Brewery contamination 222
viii Contents

10.3 The main principles of hygienic design as applied in the

brewery 224
10.4 An overview of CIP systems used in the brewery 229
10.5 Conclusions 236
10.6 Future trends 237
10.7 Sources of further information and advice 238
References 238

11 Reducing microbial spoilage of beer using filtration 241

G.J. Freeman
11.1 Introduction 241
11.2 Filtration technologies in brewing 241
11.3 Filter aid filtration 242
11.4 Crossflow microfiltration 243
11.5 Sterile filtration 245
11.6 Improving filtration performance 248
11.7 Future trends 250
11.8 Sources of further information and advice 250
References 251

12 Reducing microbial spoilage of beer using pasteurisation 253

E. Wray
12.1 Introduction 253
12.2 History 253
12.3 Principles of pasteurisation 254
12.4 D value, z value, P value, process time, Pasteurisation Units
and L value 255
12.5 Spoilage hurdles 256
12.6 Microorganism heat resistance 259
12.7 Tunnel pasteurisation 260
12.8 Flash pasteurisation 263
12.9 Flavour change 265
12.10 Good practice and quality control 266
12.11 Future trends 267
12.12 Sources of further information and advice 268
References 268

13 Traditional methods of detection and identification of brewery

spoilage organisms 271
A.E. Hill
13.1 Detection of brewery spoilage organisms 271
13.2 Identification of brewing spoilage organisms 283
13.3 Summary 284
References 286
Contents ix

14 Rapid detection and identification of spoilage bacteria in beer 287

J. Siegrist, M. Kohlstock, K. Merx and K. Vetter
14.1 Introduction 287
14.2 Hygiene tests (ATP bioluminescence, oxidoreductase) 288
14.3 Direct epifluorescence filter technique 290
14.4 Antibody-direct epifluorescent filter technique 295
14.5 Oligonucleotide-direct epifluorescent filter technique 296
14.6 In situ hybridization detection systems 296
14.7 Polymerase chain reaction 299
14.8 MALDI-TOF mass spectroscopy 311
14.9 Conclusions 312
References 312

15 Beer packaging: microbiological hazards and considerations 319

R. Hofmann and J. Fischer
15.1 Introduction 319
15.2 Microbiological hazards in the filling hall 319
15.3 Biofilm growth in the packaging hall 328
15.4 Minimization of risks 331
15.5 Future trends 332
Further reading 333

16 Assuring the microbiological quality of draught beer 335

D.E. Quain
16.1 Introduction 335
16.2 Draught beer quality 337
16.3 Microbiology of draught beer 340
16.4 Managing the microbiological risk 344
16.5 Innovation 348
References 352

Part Four Impact of microbiology on sensory quality 355

17 Impact of yeast and bacteria on beer appearance and flavour 357

S.-Q. Liu
17.1 Introduction 357
17.2 Impact of yeast on beer appearance 357
17.3 Impact of yeast on beer flavour 358
17.4 Impact of bacteria on beer appearance and flavour 367
17.5 Future trends 368
17.6 Further information 369
References 369
x Contents

18 Sensory analysis as a tool for beer quality assessment with an

emphasis on its use for microbial control in the brewery 375
G. Spedding and T. Aiken
18.1 Introduction 375
18.2 Part 1: microbes, flavors, off-flavors, and taints in brewing 376
18.3 The microbiology of “atypical flavor” production in brewing—
an overview 378
18.4 Specialty beer production and processes 389
18.5 Conclusion—part 1 391
18.6 Part 2: sensory evaluation 392
18.7 Gathering data for sensory evaluation 395
18.8 Sensory training 400
18.9 Conclusion—part 2 401
References 401

Part Five Valorisation of microbiological brewing waste 405

19 Anaerobic treatment of brewery wastes 407

J.C. Akunna
19.1 Introduction 407
19.2 Key factors affecting the anaerobic digestion process 408
19.3 Factors affecting the application of anaerobic digestion
in waste treatment 414
19.4 Anaerobic treatment of brewery wastes 416
19.5 Conclusion and perspectives 420
References 421

20 Water treatment and reuse in breweries 425

G.S. Simate
20.1 Introduction 425
20.2 Production and composition of brewery wastewater 426
20.3 Pretreatment of brewery wastewater 427
20.4 Advanced treatment of brewery wastewater 431
20.5 Challenges and future prospects 448
20.6 Conclusions 450
References 450

Index457
List of contributors

T. Aiken Data Collection Solutions, Lexington, KY, USA

J.C. Akunna Abertay University, Dundee, United Kingdom
C.A. Boulton University of Nottingham, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
S. Davies Briggs of Burton Plc, Burton on Trent, Staffordshire, England, UK
J. Fischer VLB Berlin, Berlin, Germany
J. Forbes Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
G.J. Freeman Campden BRI, Nutfield, Surrey, UK
J. Hancock Briggs of Burton Plc, Burton on Trent, Staffordshire, England, UK
A.E. Hill The International Centre for Brewing & Distilling, Heriot-Watt
University, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
R. Hofmann VLB Berlin, Berlin, Germany
M. Hutzler Research Center Weihenstephan for Brewing and Food Quality, TU
München, Munich, Germany
F. Jacob Research Center Weihenstephan for Brewing and Food Quality, TU
München, Munich, Germany
R. Juvonen VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
M. Kohlstock Scanbec, Bitterfeld-Wolfen, Germany
J. Koob Research Center Weihenstephan for Brewing and Food Quality, TU
München, Munich, Germany
A. Laitila VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
S.-Q. Liu National University of Singapore, Singapore; and National University of
Singapore (Suzhou) Research Institute, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China
A.J. MacIntosh Dalhousie University, NS, Canada
K. Merx Scanbec, Bitterfeld-Wolfen, Germany
K. Mueller-Auffermann Research Center Weihenstephan for Brewing and Food
Quality, TU München, Munich, Germany
xii List of contributors

A.D. Paradh Vasantdada Sugar Institute, Pune, Maharashtra, India

M. Philips Briggs of Burton Plc, Burton on Trent, Staffordshire, England, UK
D.E. Quain International Centre for Brewing Science, School of Biosciences,
University of Nottingham, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
R. Riedl Research Center Weihenstephan for Brewing and Food Quality, TU
München, Munich, Germany
H. Schneiderbanger Research Center Weihenstephan for Brewing and Food
Quality, TU München, Munich, Germany
J. Siegrist Sigma-Aldrich, Buchs, Switzerland
G.S. Simate School of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, University of the
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
G. Spedding Brewing and Distilling Analytical Services, LLC., Lexington, KY,
USA
A. Speers The International Centre for Brewing & Distilling, Heriot-Watt Univer-
sity, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
G.G. Stewart GGStewart Associates, Cardiff, Wales, UK; The International Centre
for Brewing & Distilling, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
K. Suzuki Quality Control Center, Asahi Breweries, Ltd., Ibaraki, Japan
T. Sykes Briggs of Burton Plc, Burton on Trent, Staffordshire, England, UK
K. Vetter Scanbec, Bitterfeld-Wolfen, Germany
E. Wray Campden BRI, Surrey, UK
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food
Science, Technology and Nutrition

1 Chilled foods: A comprehensive guide

Edited by C. Dennis and M. Stringer
2 Yoghurt: Science and technology
A. Y. Tamime and R. K. Robinson
3 Food processing technology: Principles and practice
P. J. Fellows
4 Bender’s dictionary of nutrition and food technology Sixth edition
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13 Instrumentation and sensors for the food industry
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17 Maillard reactions in chemistry, food and health
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18 The Maillard reaction in foods and medicine
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19 Encapsulation and controlled release
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xiv Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

21 Feta and related cheeses

Edited by A. Y. Tamime and R. K. Robinson
22 Biochemistry of milk products
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24 Food irradiation: A reference guide
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25 Kent’s technology of cereals: An introduction for students of food science and agriculture
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26 Biosensors for food analysis
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27 Separation processes in the food and biotechnology industries: Principles and applications
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28 Handbook of indices of food quality and authenticity
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30 Biscuit, cookie and cracker manufacturing manuals Volume 1: Ingredients
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34 Biscuit, cookie and cracker manufacturing manuals Volume 5: Secondary processing in biscuit
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35 Biscuit, cookie and cracker manufacturing manuals Volume 6: Biscuit packaging and storage
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36 Practical dehydration Second edition
M. Greensmith
37 Lawrie’s meat science Sixth edition
R. A. Lawrie
38 Yoghurt: Science and technology Second edition
A. Y. Tamime and R. K. Robinson
39 New ingredients in food processing: Biochemistry and agriculture
G. Linden and D. Lorient
40 Benders’ dictionary of nutrition and food technology Seventh edition
D. A. Bender and A. E. Bender
41 Technology of biscuits, crackers and cookies Third edition
D. Manley
42 Food processing technology: Principles and practice Second edition
P. J. Fellows
43 Managing frozen foods
Edited by C. J. Kennedy
44 Handbook of hydrocolloids
Edited by G. O. Phillips and P. A. Williams
45 Food labelling
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46 Cereal biotechnology
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Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xv

47 Food intolerance and the food industry

Edited by T. Dean
48 The stability and shelf-life of food
Edited by D. Kilcast and P. Subramaniam
49 Functional foods: Concept to product
Edited by G. R. Gibson and C. M. Williams
50 Chilled foods: A comprehensive guide Second edition
Edited by M. Stringer and C. Dennis
51 HACCP in the meat industry
Edited by M. Brown
52 Biscuit, cracker and cookie recipes for the food industry
D. Manley
53 Cereals processing technology
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54 Baking problems solved
S. P. Cauvain and L. S. Young
55 Thermal technologies in food processing
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56 Frying: Improving quality
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57 Food chemical safety Volume 1: Contaminants
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58 Making the most of HACCP: Learning from others’ experience
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59 Food process modelling
Edited by L. M. M. Tijskens, M. L. A. T. M. Hertog and B. M. Nicolaï
60 EU food law: A practical guide
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61 Extrusion cooking: Technologies and applications
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62 Auditing in the food industry: From safety and quality to environmental and other audits
Edited by M. Dillon and C. Griffith
63 Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 1
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64 Food product development: Maximising success
M. Earle, R. Earle and A. Anderson
65 Instrumentation and sensors for the food industry Second edition
Edited by E. Kress-Rogers and C. J. B. Brimelow
66 Food chemical safety Volume 2: Additives
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67 Fruit and vegetable biotechnology
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68 Foodborne pathogens: Hazards, risk analysis and control
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69 Meat refrigeration
S. J. James and C. James
70 Lockhart and Wiseman’s crop husbandry Eighth edition
H. J. S. Finch, A. M. Samuel and G. P. F. Lane
71 Safety and quality issues in fish processing
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72 Minimal processing technologies in the food industries
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73 Fruit and vegetable processing: Improving quality
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xvi Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

74 The nutrition handbook for food processors

Edited by C. J. K. Henry and C. Chapman
75 Colour in food: Improving quality
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76 Meat processing: Improving quality
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77 Microbiological risk assessment in food processing
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78 Performance functional foods
Edited by D. Watson
79 Functional dairy products Volume 1
Edited by T. Mattila-Sandholm and M. Saarela
80 Taints and off-flavours in foods
Edited by B. Baigrie
81 Yeasts in food
Edited by T. Boekhout and V. Robert
82 Phytochemical functional foods
Edited by I. T. Johnson and G. Williamson
83 Novel food packaging techniques
Edited by R. Ahvenainen
84 Detecting pathogens in food
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85 Natural antimicrobials for the minimal processing of foods
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86 Texture in food Volume 1: Semi-solid foods
Edited by B. M. McKenna
87 Dairy processing: Improving quality
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88 Hygiene in food processing: Principles and practice
Edited by H. L. M. Lelieveld, M. A. Mostert, B. White and J. Holah
89 Rapid and on-line instrumentation for food quality assurance
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90 Sausage manufacture: Principles and practice
E. Essien
91 Environmentally-friendly food processing
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92 Bread making: Improving quality
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93 Food preservation techniques
Edited by P. Zeuthen and L. Bøgh-Sørensen
94 Food authenticity and traceability
Edited by M. Lees
95 Analytical methods for food additives
R. Wood, L. Foster, A. Damant and P. Key
96 Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 2
Edited by K. V. Peter
97 Texture in food Volume 2: Solid foods
Edited by D. Kilcast
98 Proteins in food processing
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99 Detecting foreign bodies in food
Edited by M. Edwards
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xvii

100 Understanding and measuring the shelf-life of food

Edited by R. Steele
101 Poultry meat processing and quality
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102 Functional foods, ageing and degenerative disease
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103 Mycotoxins in food: Detection and control
Edited by N. Magan and M. Olsen
104 Improving the thermal processing of foods
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105 Pesticide, veterinary and other residues in food
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106 Starch in food: Structure, functions and applications
Edited by A.-C. Eliasson
107 Functional foods, cardiovascular disease and diabetes
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108 Brewing: Science and practice
D. E. Briggs, P. A. Brookes, R. Stevens and C. A. Boulton
109 Using cereal science and technology for the benefit of consumers: Proceedings of the 12th
International ICC Cereal and Bread Congress, 24–26th May, 2004, Harrogate, UK
Edited by S. P. Cauvain, L. S. Young and S. Salmon
110 Improving the safety of fresh meat
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111 Understanding pathogen behaviour: Virulence, stress response and resistance
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112 The microwave processing of foods
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113 Food safety control in the poultry industry
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114 Improving the safety of fresh fruit and vegetables
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115 Food, diet and obesity
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116 Handbook of hygiene control in the food industry
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117 Detecting allergens in food
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118 Improving the fat content of foods
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119 Improving traceability in food processing and distribution
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120 Flavour in food
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121 The Chorleywood bread process
S. P. Cauvain and L. S. Young
122 Food spoilage microorganisms
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123 Emerging foodborne pathogens
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124 Benders’ dictionary of nutrition and food technology Eighth edition
D. A. Bender
125 Optimising sweet taste in foods
Edited by W. J. Spillane
xviii Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

126 Brewing: New technologies

Edited by C. Bamforth
127 Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 3
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128 Lawrie’s meat science Seventh edition
R. A. Lawrie in collaboration with D. A. Ledward
129 Modifying lipids for use in food
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130 Meat products handbook: Practical science and technology
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131 Food consumption and disease risk: Consumer–pathogen interactions
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132 Acrylamide and other hazardous compounds in heat-treated foods
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133 Managing allergens in food
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134 Microbiological analysis of red meat, poultry and eggs
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135 Maximising the value of marine by-products
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136 Chemical migration and food contact materials
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137 Understanding consumers of food products
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138 Reducing salt in foods: Practical strategies
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139 Modelling microorganisms in food
Edited by S. Brul, S. Van Gerwen and M. Zwietering
140 Tamime and Robinson’s Yoghurt: Science and technology Third edition
A. Y. Tamime and R. K. Robinson
141 Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food processing Volume 1
Edited by K. W. Waldron
142 Improving the flavour of cheese
Edited by B. Weimer
143 Novel food ingredients for weight control
Edited by C. J. K. Henry
144 Consumer-led food product development
Edited by H. MacFie
145 Functional dairy products Volume 2
Edited by M. Saarela
146 Modifying flavour in food
Edited by A. J. Taylor and J. Hort
147 Cheese problems solved
Edited by P. L. H. McSweeney
148 Handbook of organic food safety and quality
Edited by J. Cooper, C. Leifert and U. Niggli
149 Understanding and controlling the microstructure of complex foods
Edited by D. J. McClements
150 Novel enzyme technology for food applications
Edited by R. Rastall
151 Food preservation by pulsed electric fields: From research to application
Edited by H. L. M. Lelieveld and S. W. H. de Haan
152 Technology of functional cereal products
Edited by B. R. Hamaker
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xix

153 Case studies in food product development

Edited by M. Earle and R. Earle
154 Delivery and controlled release of bioactives in foods and nutraceuticals
Edited by N. Garti
155 Fruit and vegetable flavour: Recent advances and future prospects
Edited by B. Brückner and S. G. Wyllie
156 Food fortification and supplementation: Technological, safety and regulatory aspects
Edited by P. Berry Ottaway
157 Improving the health-promoting properties of fruit and vegetable products
Edited by F. A. Tomás-Barberán and M. I. Gil
158 Improving seafood products for the consumer
Edited by T. Børresen
159 In-pack processed foods: Improving quality
Edited by P. Richardson
160 Handbook of water and energy management in food processing
Edited by J. Klemeš, R. Smith and J.-K. Kim
161 Environmentally compatible food packaging
Edited by E. Chiellini
162 Improving farmed fish quality and safety
Edited by Ø. Lie
163 Carbohydrate-active enzymes
Edited by K.-H. Park
164 Chilled foods: A comprehensive guide Third edition
Edited by M. Brown
165 Food for the ageing population
Edited by M. M. Raats, C. P. G. M. de Groot and W. A. Van Staveren
166 Improving the sensory and nutritional quality of fresh meat
Edited by J. P. Kerry and D. A. Ledward
167 Shellfish safety and quality
Edited by S. E. Shumway and G. E. Rodrick
168 Functional and speciality beverage technology
Edited by P. Paquin
169 Functional foods: Principles and technology
M. Guo
170 Endocrine-disrupting chemicals in food
Edited by I. Shaw
171 Meals in science and practice: Interdisciplinary research and business applications
Edited by H. L. Meiselman
172 Food constituents and oral health: Current status and future prospects
Edited by M. Wilson
173 Handbook of hydrocolloids Second edition
Edited by G. O. Phillips and P. A. Williams
174 Food processing technology: Principles and practice Third edition
P. J. Fellows
175 Science and technology of enrobed and filled chocolate, confectionery and bakery products
Edited by G. Talbot
176 Foodborne pathogens: Hazards, risk analysis and control Second edition
Edited by C. de W. Blackburn and P. J. McClure
177 Designing functional foods: Measuring and controlling food structure breakdown and
absorption
Edited by D. J. McClements and E. A. Decker
178 New technologies in aquaculture: Improving production efficiency, quality and environmental
management
Edited by G. Burnell and G. Allan
xx Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

179 More baking problems solved

S. P. Cauvain and L. S. Young
180 Soft drink and fruit juice problems solved
P. Ashurst and R. Hargitt
181 Biofilms in the food and beverage industries
Edited by P. M. Fratamico, B. A. Annous and N. W. Gunther
182 Dairy-derived ingredients: Food and neutraceutical uses
Edited by M. Corredig
183 Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food processing Volume 2
Edited by K. W. Waldron
184 Innovations in food labelling
Edited by J. Albert
185 Delivering performance in food supply chains
Edited by C. Mena and G. Stevens
186 Chemical deterioration and physical instability of food and beverages
Edited by L. H. Skibsted, J. Risbo and M. L. Andersen
187 Managing wine quality Volume 1: Viticulture and wine quality
Edited by A. G. Reynolds
188 Improving the safety and quality of milk Volume 1: Milk production and processing
Edited by M. Griffiths
189 Improving the safety and quality of milk Volume 2: Improving quality in milk products
Edited by M. Griffiths
190 Cereal grains: Assessing and managing quality
Edited by C. Wrigley and I. Batey
191 Sensory analysis for food and beverage quality control: A practical guide
Edited by D. Kilcast
192 Managing wine quality Volume 2: Oenology and wine quality
Edited by A. G. Reynolds
193 Winemaking problems solved
Edited by C. E. Butzke
194 Environmental assessment and management in the food industry
Edited by U. Sonesson, J. Berlin and F. Ziegler
195 Consumer-driven innovation in food and personal care products
Edited by S. R. Jaeger and H. MacFie
196 Tracing pathogens in the food chain
Edited by S. Brul, P. M. Fratamico and T. A. McMeekin
197 Case studies in novel food processing technologies: Innovations in processing, packaging, and
predictive modelling
Edited by C. J. Doona, K. Kustin and F. E. Feeherry
198 Freeze-drying of pharmaceutical and food products
T.-C. Hua, B.-L. Liu and H. Zhang
199 Oxidation in foods and beverages and antioxidant applications Volume 1: Understanding
mechanisms of oxidation and antioxidant activity
Edited by E. A. Decker, R. J. Elias and D. J. McClements
200 Oxidation in foods and beverages and antioxidant applications Volume 2: Management in
different industry sectors
Edited by E. A. Decker, R. J. Elias and D. J. McClements
201 Protective cultures, antimicrobial metabolites and bacteriophages for food and beverage
biopreservation
Edited by C. Lacroix
202 Separation, extraction and concentration processes in the food, beverage and nutraceutical
industries
Edited by S. S. H. Rizvi
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xxi

203 Determining mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in food and feed

Edited by S. De Saeger
204 Developing children’s food products
Edited by D. Kilcast and F. Angus
205 Functional foods: Concept to product Second edition
Edited by M. Saarela
206 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 1: Fundamental
issues
Edited by E. M. Yahia
207 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 2: Açai to citrus
Edited by E. M. Yahia
208 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 3: Cocona to
mango
Edited by E. M. Yahia
209 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 4: Mangosteen to
white sapote
Edited by E. M. Yahia
210 Food and beverage stability and shelf life
Edited by D. Kilcast and P. Subramaniam
211 Processed Meats: Improving safety, nutrition and quality
Edited by J. P. Kerry and J. F. Kerry
212 Food chain integrity: A holistic approach to food traceability, safety, quality and authenticity
Edited by J. Hoorfar, K. Jordan, F. Butler and R. Prugger
213 Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products Volume 1
Edited by Y. Nys, M. Bain and F. Van Immerseel
214 Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products Volume 2
Edited by F. Van Immerseel, Y. Nys and M. Bain
215 Animal feed contamination: Effects on livestock and food safety
Edited by J. Fink-Gremmels
216 Hygienic design of food factories
Edited by J. Holah and H. L. M. Lelieveld
217 Manley’s technology of biscuits, crackers and cookies Fourth edition
Edited by D. Manley
218 Nanotechnology in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries
Edited by Q. Huang
219 Rice quality: A guide to rice properties and analysis
K. R. Bhattacharya
220 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging
Edited by J. P. Kerry
221 Reducing saturated fats in foods
Edited by G. Talbot
222 Handbook of food proteins
Edited by G. O. Phillips and P. A. Williams
223 Lifetime nutritional influences on cognition, behaviour and psychiatric illness
Edited by D. Benton
224 Food machinery for the production of cereal foods, snack foods and confectionery
L.-M. Cheng
225 Alcoholic beverages: Sensory evaluation and consumer research
Edited by J. Piggott
226 Extrusion problems solved: Food, pet food and feed
M. N. Riaz and G. J. Rokey
227 Handbook of herbs and spices Second edition Volume 1
Edited by K. V. Peter
xxii Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

228 Handbook of herbs and spices Second edition Volume 2

Edited by K. V. Peter
229 Breadmaking: Improving quality Second edition
Edited by S. P. Cauvain
230 Emerging food packaging technologies: Principles and practice
Edited by K. L. Yam and D. S. Lee
231 Infectious disease in aquaculture: Prevention and control
Edited by B. Austin
232 Diet, immunity and inflammation
Edited by P. C. Calder and P. Yaqoob
233 Natural food additives, ingredients and flavourings
Edited by D. Baines and R. Seal
234 Microbial decontamination in the food industry: Novel methods and applications
Edited by A. Demirci and M.O. Ngadi
235 Chemical contaminants and residues in foods
Edited by D. Schrenk
236 Robotics and automation in the food industry: Current and future technologies
Edited by D. G. Caldwell
237 Fibre-rich and wholegrain foods: Improving quality
Edited by J. A. Delcour and K. Poutanen
238 Computer vision technology in the food and beverage industries
Edited by D.-W. Sun
239 Encapsulation technologies and delivery systems for food ingredients and nutraceuticals
Edited by N. Garti and D. J. McClements
240 Case studies in food safety and authenticity
Edited by J. Hoorfar
241 Heat treatment for insect control: Developments and applications
D. Hammond
242 Advances in aquaculture hatchery technology
Edited by G. Allan and G. Burnell
243 Open innovation in the food and beverage industry
Edited by M. Garcia Martinez
244 Trends in packaging of food, beverages and other fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG)
Edited by N. Farmer
245 New analytical approaches for verifying the origin of food
Edited by P. Brereton
246 Microbial production of food ingredients, enzymes and nutraceuticals
Edited by B. McNeil, D. Archer, I. Giavasis and L. Harvey
247 Persistent organic pollutants and toxic metals in foods
Edited by M. Rose and A. Fernandes
248 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
E. Arendt and E. Zannini
249 Viruses in food and water: Risks, surveillance and control
Edited by N. Cook
250 Improving the safety and quality of nuts
Edited by L. J. Harris
251 Metabolomics in food and nutrition
Edited by B. C. Weimer and C. Slupsky
252 Food enrichment with omega-3 fatty acids
Edited by C. Jacobsen, N. S. Nielsen, A. F. Horn and A.-D. M. Sørensen
253 Instrumental assessment of food sensory quality: A practical guide
Edited by D. Kilcast
254 Food microstructures: Microscopy, measurement and modelling
Edited by V. J. Morris and K. Groves
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xxiii

255 Handbook of food powders: Processes and properties

Edited by B. R. Bhandari, N. Bansal, M. Zhang and P. Schuck
256 Functional ingredients from algae for foods and nutraceuticals
Edited by H. Domínguez
257 Satiation, satiety and the control of food intake: Theory and practice
Edited by J. E. Blundell and F. Bellisle
258 Hygiene in food processing: Principles and practice Second edition
Edited by H. L. M. Lelieveld, J. Holah and D. Napper
259 Advances in microbial food safety Volume 1
Edited by J. Sofos
260 Global safety of fresh produce: A handbook of best practice, innovative commercial solutions
and case studies
Edited by J. Hoorfar
261 Human milk biochemistry and infant formula manufacturing technology
Edited by M. Guo
262 High throughput screening for food safety assessment: Biosensor technologies, hyperspectral
imaging and practical applications
Edited by A. K. Bhunia, M. S. Kim and C. R. Taitt
263 Foods, nutrients and food ingredients with authorised EU health claims: Volume 1
Edited by M. J. Sadler
264 Handbook of food allergen detection and control
Edited by S. Flanagan
265 Advances in fermented foods and beverages: Improving quality, technologies and health
benefits
Edited by W. Holzapfel
266 Metabolomics as a tool in nutrition research
Edited by J.-L. Sébédio and L. Brennan
267 Dietary supplements: Safety, efficacy and quality
Edited by K. Berginc and S. Kreft
268 Grapevine breeding programs for the wine industry
Edited by A. G. Reynolds
269 Handbook of antimicrobials for food safety and quality
Edited by T. M. Taylor
270 Managing and preventing obesity: Behavioural factors and dietary interventions
Edited by T. P. Gill
271 Electron beam pasteurization and complementary food processing technologies
Edited by S. D. Pillai and S. Shayanfar
272 Advances in food and beverage labelling: Information and regulation
Edited by P. Berryman
273 Flavour development, analysis and perception in food and beverages
Edited by J. K. Parker, S. Elmore and L. Methven
274 Rapid sensory profiling techniques and related methods: Applications in new product development
and consumer research,
Edited by J. Delarue, J. B. Lawlor and M. Rogeaux
275 Advances in microbial food safety: Volume 2
Edited by J. Sofos
276 Handbook of antioxidants for food preservation
Edited by F. Shahidi
277 Lockhart and Wiseman’s crop husbandry including grassland: Ninth edition
H. J. S. Finch, A. M. Samuel and G. P. F. Lane
278 Global legislation for food contact materials
Edited by J. S. Baughan
279 Colour additives for food and beverages
Edited by M. Scotter
xxiv Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

280 A complete course in canning and related processes 14th Edition: Volume 1
Revised by S. Featherstone
281 A complete course in canning and related processes 14th Edition: Volume 2
Revised by S. Featherstone
282 A complete course in canning and related processes 14th Edition: Volume 3
Revised by S. Featherstone
283 Modifying food texture: Volume 1: Novel ingredients and processing techniques
Edited by J. Chen and A. Rosenthal
284 Modifying food texture: Volume 2: Sensory analysis, consumer requirements and preferences
Edited by J. Chen and A. Rosenthal
285 Modeling food processing operations
Edited by Serafim Bakalis, Kai Knoerzer and Peter J. Fryer
286 Foods, Nutrients and Food Ingredients With Authorised EU Health Claims Volume 2
Edited by Michele Sadler
287 Feed and Feeding Practices in Aquaculture
Edited by D. Allen Davis
288 Foodborne Parasites in the Food Supply Web: Occurrence and Control
Edited by Alvin Gajadhar
289 Brewing Microbiology: Managing Microbes, Ensuring Quality and Valorising Waste
Edited by Annie Hill
Preface

The purpose of brewing is to produce beer through the hydrolysis of starch from
barley malt, together with wheat, maize, rice, sorghum, unmalted barley, sugar/
syrups, and the incorporation of hops. These raw materials are mashed into a sugary
nitrogenous fermentable liquid called wort. This medium is converted into an
alcoholic, carbonated beverage by yeast. The brewing process is essentially a microbio-
logical/biochemical series of reactions, which involves a number of complementary
disciplines including plant breeding and cultivation, chemistry, chemical/civil/
mechanical/electrical engineering, and also computer control. Although this volume
focuses on the positive microbiological aspects of brewing, it does consider, in consid-
erable detail, microbiological contamination of the process starting with raw materials
and it concludes with the quality of the finished beer (fresh and not so fresh) in both
small pack containers and on draft.
Although there are many excellent text books on brewing, their primary focus has
been the entire process with microbiological aspects being integrated into the syntax.
As a consequence, the discussion of fermentation tends to be more biochemical in
its emphasis than microbiological. This volume’s focus is decidedly microbiologi-
cal! This applies to both brewer’s yeast strains and contaminating microorganisms—
bacteria, wild yeasts, and mycelial fungi.
Five chapters are devoted to brewer’s yeast and they consider, in appropriate detail,
their taxonomy and related areas such as identification and characterization. Wort
fermentation and metabolism are discussed and, in particular, the metabolic engineer-
ing of these organisms. The fact that brewer’s yeast cultures are normally recycled
through a number of wort fermentations is emphasized and details of yeast manage-
ment between fermentations are discussed.
Contaminating fungi, both yeast and mycelial fungi, are discussed in the context
of their influence on beer characteristics and quality. It is emphasized, in a number
of chapters, that brewing is usually a sterile process (unlike distilling). This is due
to the fact that the wort is boiled and in many situations (not all) benefits from the
antiseptic properties of hop acids. It is appreciated that often wild yeasts can contam-
inate pitching yeast cultures and that acid washing does not cleanse the brewing yeast
culture of such microorganisms. Also, the stimulation of beer gushing by mycotoxins
is discussed.
Most of the remainder of the text focuses on a detailed discussion of contaminat-
ing bacteria—both Gram positive and Gram negative that occur in brewing. Some-
times, these bacteria are welcome (e.g., in Lambic beer) but usually this is not the
case. This unwelcome contamination can occur on raw materials (particularly malt
xxvi Preface

and water), during fermentation and maturation and in the final beer. Contamination in
all these production stages will influence beer flavor and stability (physical and flavor)
and the implications of these bacterial infections are considered in detail.

Graham G. Stewart
Heriot Watt University
Edinburgh, Scotland
November 2014
Introduction to brewing microbiology

It is an exciting time to be a microbiologist! Now that we are in the postgenome era,

we have more answers within reach than ever before. More knowledge brings the
realization of how much we still have to learn but also the tools to help alleviate risks,
solve problems, and manipulate microbes to improve and develop new products and
processes.
Central to brewing is of course a microbiological process and as such a brewing
microbiologist needs to understand production strain(s), in terms of flavor and aroma
profile, physical stability, handling, and conditions required for optimal fermenta-
tion. An appreciation of the vulnerability of the process and product to contamination
is also required to ensure quality and consistency. A third aspect that has become
increasingly useful in brewing microbiology is the exploitation of microbes to add
value to byproducts of the brewing process, to reduce cost of effluent discharges, and
also to generate energy. Each of these aspects is covered in detail within this volume,
but to provide some background:

Brewing yeast
Over 1500 species of yeast have been identified. These are predominantly single-celled
fungal microorganisms able to grow in both the presence and absence of oxygen.
Of these, there are basically two major strains used in brewing: Saccharomyces
cerevisiae (ale) and Saccharomyces pastorianus (lager), a hybrid of S. cerevisiae and
Saccharomyces eubayanus (Libkind et al., 2011). Ale yeast operates at around room
temperature (18–22 °C), ferments quickly, and produces the “fruitiness” characteristic
of most ales. Lager yeast works at colder temperatures (8–15 °C), ferments slowly,
and utilizes more wort sugars, leaving a cleaner, crisp taste. Ale and lager yeast are the
most commonly used worldwide, but the increase in craft brewing has led to a rise in
the use of other yeast strains such as Brettanomyces spp., which are traditionally used
in Lambic beer production.
The discovery and whole genome sequencing of S. eubayanus has caught the imag-
ination of both brewers and research microbiologists alike. It was known for some
time that Saccharomyces pastorianus was a hybrid organism involving S. cerevisiae
but the other parent(s) were unknown until the isolation of S. eubayanus. Genome
sequencing has revealed that it is an almost exact genetic match of the non-S. cerevisiae
subgenome of lager yeast (Libkind et al., 2011). First isolated in Patagonia, it was
thought that the parent S. eubayanus strain had its origin in South America but recent
xxviii Introduction to brewing microbiology

surveys have recovered S. eubayanus from China (Bing, Han, Liu, Wang, & Bai, 2014).
Future studies may uncover the exact parentage and geographical origin.
The increased research intensity over the past few years has led to the realization
that, as with S. eubayanus, many commercial yeast strains are natural yeast hybrids
(Gibson & Liti, 2015). High genetic diversity within yeasts used in the wine indus-
try suggests that hybridization events are common. The ability of yeasts to adapt to
changing conditions through hybridization not only confers evolutionary advantage
but also presents us with an opportunity to manipulate mating in order to create novel
strains without resorting to genetic modification.

Process and product integrity

There are literally millions of food spoilage organisms. However, those responsible for
beer spoilage are limited to only a few species of bacteria and “wild” yeast. Beer has a
range of properties that hinder microbial growth including low pH, high alcohol con-
centration, low nutrient level, antiseptic action of hop acids, low oxygen concentration,
and carbonation. Its production is a microbiological process though, meaning that the
medium into which the brewing yeast is pitched is an ideal environment for the growth
of a range of microorganisms. Some wild yeast and bacteria are also able to survive and
proliferate in the final beer. Molds can cause spoilage through growth on raw materials
but are not regarded as beer-spoilage organisms. Beer-spoilage organisms are defined as
those capable of multiplying in beer resulting in product deterioration.
Most brewers now take a proactive approach to beer-spoilage organisms beginning
with brewhouse design: use of closed vessels, avoiding dead legs in pipework, and use of
cleaning-in-place (CIP). These are all methods that are designed-in to new plants but can
also be retrofitted or integrated into existing breweries. A second improvement in tack-
ling spoilage is to carry out ATP testing on brewing liquor, CIP rinse water, and vessel
surfaces; this rapid method of microbiological testing does not identify bacteria or yeasts
but gives a very quick indication of plant cleanliness and the success of CIP cycles.
Raw materials and final product testing are still predominantly carried out using
traditional methods of plating and microscopy, but rapid methods, such as PCR, are
increasingly becoming affordable. Improvements in methodology mean that tests
previously consigned to research laboratories or dedicated microbiology services
are now possible without extensive training or specialized facilities. As equipment
and consumables costs fall, we will see further take up in tools to tackle microbial
spoilage within breweries and a consequent improvement in product quality and
consistency.

Waste valorization
Breweries no longer produce waste; the term “coproduct” has been adopted in recent
years to cover all nonbeer outputs such as spent grain and yeast. As our understanding
Introduction to brewing microbiology xxix

of microbial metabolism has increased and tools to manipulate specific biochemi-

cal pathways have been developed, a range of new applications have been identified,
including methods of converting “waste” to either new products or energy.
Brewery waste streams often contain high-value chemicals that can be extracted
and reused in other industries. Spent yeast and grain are most commonly used in
animal feed and human nutrition, but both can also be used as a flavoring agent, as
a source of enzymes and single cell protein, or as a filter element for beverage clarifi-
cation. Rojo et al. (2014) have discovered that “bagasse,” a residue left over from
beer brewing, could be used to create a new biomaterial capable of promoting bone
regeneration, and which could be used to treat bone diseases, assist in bone grafts, and
coat a prosthesis. Yeast may also be used as a substrate for microalgae cultivation and
for bioremediation of heavy metals, but more recently it has found use in waste water
treatment and biogas production. A number of companies have developed systems to
use microbes (both yeast and bacteria) to treat waste-water generating methane, which
can be used for power and heat.
As our knowledge grows, we will undoubtedly find further uses for microbes and
an even better understanding of how they can contribute to new product development
and process design. What is certain is that they will continue to both challenge and
reward us.

Annie E. Hill

References
Bing, J., Han, P. J., Liu, W. Q., Wang, Q. M., & Bai, F. Y. (2014). Evidence for a Far East Asian
origin of lager beer yeast. Current Biology, 24(10), R380–1.
Gibson, B., & Liti, G. (2015). Saccharomyces pastorianus: genomic insights inspiring innova-
tion for industry. Yeast, 32(1), 17–27.
Libkind, D., Hittinger, C. T., Valério, E., Gonçalves, C., Dover, J., Johnston, M., et al. (2011).
Microbe domestication and the identification of the wild genetic stock of lager-brewing
yeast. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(35), 14539–44.
Rojo, E. S., Ramos, M., Yates, M., Martin-Luengo, M. A., Serrano, A. M. M., Civantos, A.,
et al. (2014). Preparation, characterization and in vitro osteoblast growth of waste-derived
biomaterials. RSC Advances, 4(25), 12630–9.
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Acknowledgments

Many thanks to all of the contributors to this volume for sharing their great breadth of
knowledge and experience and for keeping the project on track. I am indebted to past,
present, and future students of the International Centre for Brewing & Distilling—a
constant source of enthusiasm and inspiration! Thanks also to past and present col-
leagues, in particular Emeritus Professor Graham Stewart for his unstinting support.
Thank you to my lovely family for being the wonderful people you are.
In memory of Dr Brian Watt, who led me to choose a career in microbiology.
This page intentionally left blank

     
Part One

Yeast: properties and

management
This page intentionally left blank

     
Yeast: an overview
A. Speers1, J. Forbes2
1The International Centre for Brewing & Distilling, Heriot-Watt University,
1
Edinburgh, Scotland, UK; 2Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada

1.1  Yeast species/strains used in brewing and distilling

The formal classification of brewing yeasts over the past 50 years has changed enough
that many brewing scientists (and most brewers!) avoid using the current genus and
species to identify their yeast and simply label them as either ale or lager strains. These
yeasts are used to produce most beers – that is, either ‘ales’ or ‘lagers’. Ale is nor-
mally made with Saccharomyces cerevisiae that rises to the top of the fermenter at the
cessation of fermentation while lager is made with S. carlsbergensis, which settles to
the bottom of the tank towards the end of the fermentation. In the past, Barnett, Payne
and Yarrow (1983) stated that both types of yeast should be characterized as variants
of S. cerevisiae. However, the strains differ in their DNA profiles, ability to ferment
melibiose, (ale strains lack melibiase activity) and their maximum growth temperature
(lager strains do not grow above 34 °C (Webb, 1977)) and for these reasons, Stewart
(1990) has argued that the two types of yeast should be classified as separate species.
Additionally, the increasing importance of a third species, Brettanomyces, has been
recognized following the massive growth of the craft brewing movement in the United
States. ‘Brets’, as they are termed in the industry, are used in various stages in the
production of lambic-type beers. They are considered a spoilage yeast in lager and
ale fermentations as they produce volatile phenolic flavours and acetic acid due to
their ability to produce off flavours by the production of volatile phenols (Libkind
et al., 2011), their ability to produce acetic acid (Wijsman, van Dijken, van Kleeff, &
Scheffers, 1984) and their ability to over attenuate products below 1 °Plato (Kumara &
Verachtert, 1991). Those involved with the wine industry have spent significant
amounts of time and money learning to isolate and characterize Brettanomyces spp. to
develop better methods of early detection and eradication (Conterno, Joseph, Arvik,
Henick-Kling, & Bisson, 2006; Dias et al., 2003; Oevelen, Spaepen, Timmermans,
& Verachtert, 1977). Despite the large amount of negative attention Brettanomyces
receives, this interesting microbe has been shown to contribute favourable organolep-
tic qualities to a number of products and to be of use in several industrial applications.
Belgian lambic beer producers have promoted the unique organoleptic characteris-
tics of Brettanomyces species in concert with other microbes for hundreds of years to
produce a beer that is crisp, acidic and refreshing (De Keersmaecker, 1996; Oevelen
et al., 1977). However, in comparison to ale and lager yeast less is known about Bret-
tanomyces species employed in brewing.
Since the early 2000s the advances in molecular biology have added to our under-
standing of the lager yeasts (Libkind et al., 2011; Walther, Hesselbart, & Wendland,

Brewing Microbiology. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-78242-331-7.00001-0

Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
4 Brewing Microbiology

2014). It appears that a newly discovered and sequenced species, S. eubayanus, and
S. cerevisiae have combined to form the hybrid lager yeast genome. It is hypothe-
sized that materials containing S. eubayanus strains were imported from Patagonia to
Europe where hybridization events have occurred to form the S. carlsbergensis prog-
eny, but more recent studies suggest that the origin of the S. eubayanus strain may be
Asia (Bing, Han, Liu, Wang, & Bai, 2014).
Two types of lager yeast are in common use in the brewing industry. The first, Group I,
the so-called Saaz type (i.e. ‘Unterhefe No. 1’ isolated by the Carlsberg brewery in 1883)
is principally a triplod strain with an almost complete copy of the Saccharomyces cere-
visiae genome and slightly more than a diploid copy of S. eubayanus genome (Walther
et al., 2014). These same researchers noted that the Group II lager (i.e. the Froberg type,
Weihenstephan WS34/70) has a tetraplod with roughly two copies of chromosomes from
S. cerevisiae and two from S. eubayanus. It has been suggested that the low fermentation
temperatures (e.g. as low as 5 °C) that Group I lagers were exposed to may have driven
the difference between Group I and II lager yeasts (Walther et al., 2014).

1.2  Yeast cell structure

Yeast is the most important part of the brewing fermentation process. Yeast converts
sugar to alcohol, carbon dioxide and other compounds that influence the flavour and
aroma of beer. Brewer’s yeast is a eukaryote and belongs to the kingdom Fungi. By
some scientific classifications, all beer-brewing strains of yeast are placed in the genus
Saccharomyces (sugar fungus) and species cerevisiae (Walker, 1998). However, the
brewing industry uses a classification which divides yeast into two types: ale yeast
(S. cerevisiae) and lager yeast (S. carlsbergensis). The distinction is kept so as to
separate yeasts used to make ales from those used to make lagers (Briggs, Boulton,
Brooks, & Stevens, 2004).
Most of the organisms in the kingdom Fungi are multicellular; however, yeast is a
single-cell organism. A single yeast cell measures about 5–10 μm in diameter and is
usually spherical, cylindrical or oval in shape (Boulton & Quain, 2001, pp. 5–360).
Yeast occurs in single, pairs, chains and clusters (Stewart & Russell, 1998). Figure 1.1
is a simplified diagram of yeast cell structure. The cell wall is a barrier that is mostly
composed of carbohydrates surrounding the cell (Boulton & Quain, 2001). It is a rigid
structure which is 250 nm thick and constitutes approximately 25% of the dry weight
of the cell (Stewart & Russell, 1998). There are three cross-linked layers comprising
the cell wall (Figure 1.2). The inner layer is a chitin (a long-chain polymer of an
N-acetylglucosamine) layer, composed mostly of glucans; the outer layer is mostly
mannoproteins while the intermediate layer is a mixture of both the inner and outer
layer (White & Zainasheff, 2010).
To reproduce asexually, a yeast cell clones itself, thereby creating a new daughter
cell. Cell separation is achieved when the layers of the cell wall separate, leaving the
bud scar on the mother cell and the birth scar on the daughter cell (Stewart & Russell,
1998). The bud scar is composed mainly of chitin. The average ale yeast cell will
not bud more than 30 times over its lifetime while lager yeast will bud only 20 times
before they are unable to bud further (Wyeast Laboratories, 2009).
Yeast: an overview 5

Bud

Actin Nucleus
cable

Secretory Endoplasmic
vesicles reticulum

Fat
Mitochondroin
globule

Golgi

Cell
wall
Vacuole

Cell
membrane
Figure 1.1 Main features of a typical yeast cell (Stewart & Russell, 1998).

*3,&:3 *3,&:3

β*F β*F
2XWVLGHZDOO 3LU&:3
&HOOZDOO
,QVLGHZDOO
&KLWLQ &KLWLQ
Figure 1.2 Molecular organization of the cell wall of S. cerevisiae. GPI-CWP are GPI-
dependent cell wall proteins, Pir-CWP are pir proteins on the cell wall and β1-6-Glc are
glucan molecules, which are highly branched. Therefore, they are water soluble, which tethers
GPI-CWPS to the cell wall (Kils, Mol, Hellingwerf, & Brul, 2002).

The plasma membrane is a semipermeable lipid bilayer between the cell wall and
the inside of the cell. There are several distinct roles that the plasma membrane car-
ries out such as to provide a barrier to free diffusion of solutes, to catalyse specific
exchange reactions, to store energy dissipation, to provide sites for binding specific
molecules involved in metabolic signalling pathways and to provide an organized sup-
port matrix for the site of enzyme pathways involved in the biosynthesis of other
cell components (Hazel & Williams, 1990). The plasma membrane is quite fluid and
6 Brewing Microbiology

flexible due to its constituents of lipids, sterols and proteins. Additionally, these con-
stituents allow for the creation of a daughter cell.
The formation of double bonds in fatty acids controls their level of saturation. The
saturation level determines the ease and extent of hydrogen bonding that can occur
between fatty acids (Briggs et al., 2004). Membrane fluidity is necessary for proper
membrane function. Lipid bilayers are by their nature fluid and that fluidity is deter-
mined by the extent to which the lipids bind to one another (White & Zainasheff,
2010). By controlling the level of saturation in their lipid membranes, yeast cells are
able to maintain proper membrane fluidity at different temperatures, which is important
during fermentation. Without proper aeration yeast cells are unable to control mem-
brane fluidity through to the end of fermentation which leads to halted fermentations
and off-flavours of the final product (White & Zainasheff, 2010).
The cytoplasm is that portion of the cell enclosed by the plasma membrane and
excluding other membrane-bound organelles. It is an aqueous colloidal liquid contain-
ing a multitude of metabolites (Briggs et al., 2004). The cytoplasm contains intercel-
lular fluid known as the cytosol. The cytosol contains enzymes involved in anaerobic
fermentation that enable the cell to convert glucose into energy immediately after it
enters the cell (White & Zainasheff, 2010).
The mitochondrion is an organelle where aerobic respiration occurs. Mitochondria
consist of a double membrane that is the location of the conversion of pyruvate (a
metabolic compound) and the tricarboxylic acid cycle. The nucleus stores the cell
DNA and is delineated by a lipid membrane that envelopes the nucleus and is similar
to the plasma membrane. The cell uses mRNA to transfer the information out into the
cytoplasm for use in protein synthesis (White & Zainasheff, 2010).
The vacuole is a membrane-bound structure that stores nutrients and is also where the
cell breaks down proteins. Brewer’s yeast vacuoles are large enough to be seen through
light microscopy (White & Zainasheff, 2010). The major site for proteolysis is the cell
vacuole. Much of the regulation of both specific and nonspecific proteolysis involves
the sequestration of target proteins into vacuoles where they are exposed to proteinases
(Briggs et al., 2004). The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes and is
usually where the cell manufactures proteins, lipids and carbohydrates for membranes
and secretion (White & Zainasheff, 2010). Other microbodies are mainly made up by
glycogen bodies and lipid granules (Boulton & Quain, 2001).

1.3  Comparison of lager and ale yeast

The distinctions between the yeast used in ale and lager brewing are small. Tradi-
tionally, ale yeast were regarded as top fermenters that formed a frothy yeast head
on the surface of the fermenting beer, which was skimmed off to be used for sub-
sequent brews, while lager yeasts were bottom fermenters that formed little surface
head and were recovered from the bottom of the fermenter (Briggs et al., 2004).
Today, this is a less useful distinction as many types of ale yeast now have the
capacity to fall out of solution and settle at the bottom of the fermenter (Adams &
Moss, 2008).
Yeast: an overview 7

The optimal growth temperature of lager and ale yeast differs and this is reflected in
the different temperatures used for lager fermentations, 8–15 °C, and for ale fermenta-
tions, 18–22 °C (Adams & Moss, 2008). Lager and ale yeasts can also be distinguished
by the ability of lager strains to ferment the disaccharide melibiose because they have
α-d-galactosidase activity, which hydrolyses melibiose to galactose and glucose while
ale strains cannot. However, this is of no practical importance since the sugar does
not occur in wort (Briggs et al., 2004). Additionally, lager yeast strains can utilize
maltotriose more rapidly than ale strains. Lager strains utilize mixtures of galactose
and maltose simultaneously, whereas ale strains prefer to utilize maltose (Boulton &
Quain, 2001).

1.4  Flocculation
One functional definition of flocculation is that it describes the ability of yeast strains
to clump together and fall out of solution. Near the end of fermentation, single cells
aggregate into clumps of thousands of cells. Different strains of yeast have different
flocculation characteristics. Some strains flocculate earlier during fermentation and
subsequently do not attenuate (i.e. finish the fermentation) normally. Flocculating too
early results in a beer that is under attenuated and sweet; however, when yeast fails to
flocculate entirely, it results in a beer that is cloudy with a yeasty flavour (Speers, 2012).
Flocculation has been studied for many years and the exact mechanism is still
debated. Cell wall composition is a key factor in the ability of adjacent cells to stick
to each other. Yeast has a thick cell wall made up of protein and polysaccharides with
a net negative surface charge due to phosphates in the cell wall (Briggs et al., 2004).
The extent of the negative charge depends on the yeast strain, phase of growth, oxygen
availability, starvation, generation number, dehydration and cell age. Yeast cells are
also hydrophobic due to exposed hydrophobic peptides and lipids (Akiyama-Jibiki,
Ishibiki, Yamashita, & Eto, 1997). The primary determinant of flocculation is the yeast
strain itself (Speers, Smart, Stewart, & Jin, 1998).
The minute differences in cell wall composition play a key role in flocculation
behaviour and determine the degree of flocculation for a strain. Factors that influ-
ence the degree of flocculation include the original gravity of the wort, temperature
of fermentation, pH of the wort, pitching rate, initial oxygen content, calcium and
inorganic ion concentration, and cell age. Additionally, anything that affects the health
and growth rate of the yeast affects flocculation (Speers et al., 1998).
The mechanism of lectin-like cell–cell interactions has been established to explain
yeast flocculation (Speers et al., 1998). Lectins are a structurally diverse group of pro-
teins that are capable of binding carbohydrates while zymolectin is an anchored yeast
cell wall protein that contains one or more mannose binding sites (Boulton & Quain,
2001). This mechanism proposes that specific surface proteins known as zymolectins,
which are present on flocculent yeast cells, bind to mannose residues of mannan mol-
ecules on neighbouring cell surfaces (Speers et al., 1998). The involvement of this
protein–carbohydrate interaction was suggested by Taylor and Orton (Taylor & Orton,
1978), as flocculation can be inhibited specifically by mannose.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
people at large, Mr. Gregg indicates by his statement of what
advantages they possess who have come to Graniteville.
“When they were first brought together, the seventy-nine
out of a hundred grown girls who could neither read nor
write were a by-word around the country; that reproach
has long since been removed. We have night, Sunday,
and week-day schools. Singing-masters, music-teachers,
writing-masters, and itinerant lecturers all find patronage
in Graniteville where the people can easily earn all the
necessaries of life, and are in the enjoyment of the usual
luxuries of country life.” * * *
“To get a steady supply of workmen, a population must be
collected which will regard themselves as a community;
and two essential elements are necessary to the building
up, moral growth, and stability of such a collection of
people, namely, a church and a school-house.” * * *
“I can safely say that it is only necessary to make
comfortable homes in order to procure families, that will
afford labourers of the best kind. A large manufacturing
establishment located anywhere in the State, away from a
town and in a healthy situation, will soon collect around it
a population who, however poor, with proper moral
restraints thrown around them, will soon develope all the
elements of good society. Self-respect and attachment to
the place will soon find their way into the minds of such,
while intelligence, morality, and well directed industry, will
not fail to acquire position.”
What the poor people of Edgefield, Barnwell, and Lexington districts
needed was, in the first place, to be led “to regard themselves as a
community;” for this purpose the nuclei of “a church and a
schoolhouse” are declared to be essential, to which must be added,
such other stimulants to improvement as “singing and writing
schools, itinerant lecturers,” etc., etc. In short, the power of
obtaining, as the result of their labour, “the necessaries of life,” “the
usual luxuries of country life,” or, in two words, which cover and
include church, school, music and lecture, as well as bread,
cleanliness, luxuries and necessities, “comfortable homes.” It was
simply by making possible to them what before had not been
possible, the essential conditions of a comfortable civilized home,
that Mr. Gregg was enabled in a few years to announce, as he did,
that, “from extreme poverty and want, they have become a thrifty,
happy, and contented people.”
The present system of American slavery, notwithstanding the
enormous advantages of wealth which the cotton monopoly is
supposed to offer, prevents the people at large from having
“comfortable homes,” in the sense intended by Mr. Gregg. For nine-
tenths of the citizens, comfortable homes, as the words would be
understood by the mass of citizens of the North and of England, as
well as by Mr. Gregg, are, under present arrangements, out of the
question.
Examine almost any rural district of the South, study its history, and
this will be as evident as it was to Mr. Gregg in the case of those to
which his attention was especially called. These, to be sure,
contained, probably, a large proportion of very poor soil. But how is it
in a district of entirely rich soil? Suppose it to be of twenty square
miles, with a population of six hundred, all told, and with an ordinarily
convenient access by river navigation to market. The whole of the
available cotton land in this case will probably be owned by three or
four men, and on these men the demand for cotton will have had, let
us suppose, its full effect. Their tillage land will be comparatively well
cultivated. Their houses will be comfortable, their furniture and their
food luxurious. They will, moreover, not only have secured the best
land on which to apply their labour, but the best brute force, the best
tools, and the best machinery for ginning and pressing, all
superintended by the best class of overseers. The cotton of each will
be shipped at the best season, perhaps all at once, on a boat, or by
trains expressly engaged at the lowest rates of freight. It will
everywhere receive special attention and care, because it forms
together a parcel of great value. The merchants will watch the
markets closely to get the best prices for it, and when sold the cash
returns to each proprietor will be enormously large. As the expenses
of raising and marketing cotton are in inverse ratio to the number of
hands employed, planters nearly always immediately reinvest their
surplus funds in slaves; and as there is a sufficient number of large
capitalists engaged in cotton-growing to make a strong competition
for the limited number of slaves which the breeding States can
supply, it is evident that the price of a slave will always be as high as
the product of his labour, under the best management, on the most
valuable land, and with every economical advantage which money
can procure, will warrant.
But suppose that there are in the district besides these three or four
large planters, their families and their slaves, a certain number of
whites who do not own slaves. The fact of their being non-
slaveholders is evidence that they are as yet without capital, in this
case one of two tendencies must soon be developed. Either being
stimulated by the high price of cotton they will grow industrious, will
accumulate capital and purchase slaves, and owning slaves will
require a larger amount of land upon which to work them than they
require for their own labour alone, thus being led to buy out one of
the other planters, or to move elsewhere themselves before they
have acquired an established improvement of character from their
prosperity; or, secondly, they will not purchase slaves, but either
expend currently for their own comfort, or hoard the results of their
labour. If they hoard they will acquire no increase of comfort or
improvement of character on account of the demand. If they spend
all their earnings, these will not be sufficient, however profitable their
cotton culture may be supposed, to purchase luxuries much superior
to those furnished to the slaves of the planters, because the local
demand, being limited to some fifty white families, in the whole
district of twenty square miles, is not enough to draw luxuries to the
neighbourhood, unless they are brought by special order, and at
great expense from the nearest shipping port. Nor is it possible for
such a small number of whites to maintain a church or a newspaper,
nor yet a school, unless it is one established by a planter, or two or
three planters, and really of a private and very expensive character.
Suppose, again, another district in which either the land is generally
less productive or the market less easy of access than in the last, or
that both is the case. The stimulus of the cotton demand is, of
course, proportionately lessened. In this case, equally with the last,
the richest soils, and those most convenient to the river or the
railroad, if there happens to be much choice in this respect, will
assuredly be possessed by the largest capitalists, that is, the largest
slaveholders, who may nevertheless be men of but moderate wealth
and limited information. If so, their standard of comfort will yet be
low, and their demand will consequently take effect very slowly in
increasing the means of comfort, and rendering facilities for
obtaining instruction more accessible to their neighbours. But
suppose, notwithstanding the disadvantages of the district in its
distance from market, that their sales of cotton, the sole export of the
district, are very profitable, and that the demand for cotton is
constantly increasing. A similar condition with regard to the chief
export of a free labour community would inevitably tend to foster the
intelligence and industry of a large number of people. It has this
effect with only a very limited number of the inhabitants of a
plantation district consisting in large part as they must of slaves.
These labourers may be driven to work harder, and may be
furnished with better tools for the purpose of increasing the value of
cotton which is to be exchanged for the luxuries which the planter is
learning to demand for himself, but it is for himself and for his family
alone that these luxuries will be demanded. The wages—or means
of demanding home comfort—of the workmen are not at all
influenced by the cotton demand: the effect, therefore, in enlarging
and cheapening the local supply of the means of home comfort will
be almost inappreciable, while the impulse generated in the planter’s
mind is almost wholly directed toward increasing the cotton crop
through the labour of his slaves alone. His demand upon the whites
of the district is not materially enlarged in any way. The slave
population of the district will be increased in number, and its labour
more energetically directed, and soon the planters will find the soil
they possess growing less productive from their increasing drafts
upon it. There is plenty of rich unoccupied land to be had for a dollar
an acre a few hundred miles to the West, still it is no trifling matter to
move all the stock, human, equine, and bovine, and all the
implements and machinery of a large plantation. Hence, at the same
time, perhaps, with an importation from Virginia of purchased slaves,
there will be an active demand among the slaveholders for all the
remaining land in the district on which cotton can be profitably
grown. Then sooner or later, and with a rapidity proportionate to the
effect of the cotton demand, the white population of the district
divides, one part, consisting of a few slaveholders, obtains
possession of all the valuable cotton land, and monopolizes for a few
white families all the advantages of the cotton demand. A second
part removes with its slaves, if it possess any, from the district, while
a third continues to occupy the sand hills, or sometimes perhaps
takes possession of the exhausted land which has been vacated by
the large planters, because they, with all their superior skill and
advantages of capital, could not cultivate it longer with profit.[56]
The population of the district, then, will consist of the large
landowners and slaveowners, who are now so few in number as to
be unnoticeable either as producers or consumers; of their slaves,
who are producers but not consumers (to any important extent), and
of this forlorn hope of poor whites, who are, in the eyes of the
commercial world, neither producers nor consumers. The
contemplation from a distance of their condition, is a part of the price
which is paid by those who hold slavery to be justifiable on the
ground that it maintains a race of gentlemen. Some occasionally
flinch for a moment, in observing it, and vainly urge that something
should be done to render it less appalling. Touching their ignorance,
for instance, said Governor Seabrooke of South Carolina,
addressing the Legislature of that State, years ago:—
“Education has been provided by the Legislature, but for
one class of the citizens of the State, which is the wealthy
class. For the middle and poorer classes of society it has
done nothing, since no organized system has been
adopted for that purpose. You have appropriated seventy-
five thousand dollars annually to free schools; but, under
the present mode of applying it, that liberality is really the
profusion of the prodigal, rather than the judicious
generosity which confers real benefit. The few who are
educated at public expense in those excellent and truly
 useful institutions, the Arsenal and Citadel Academies
[military schools], form almost the only exception to the
truth of this remark. Ten years ago, twenty thousand
adults, besides children, were unable to read or write, in
South Carolina. Has our free-school system dispelled any
of this ignorance? Are there not any reasonable fears to
be entertained that the number has increased since that
period?”
Since then, Governor Adams, in another message to the South
Carolina Legislature, vainly urging the appointment of a
superintendent of popular education, said:—
“Make, at least, this effort, and if it results in nothing—if, in
consequence of insurmountable difficulties in our
condition, no improvement can be made on the present
system, and the poor of the land are hopelessly doomed
to ignorance, poverty, and crime—you will, at least, feel
conscious of having done your duty, and the public anxiety
on the subject will be quieted.”
It is not unnatural that there should be some anxiety with at least that
portion of the public not accustomed to look at public affairs in the
large way of South Carolina legislators, when the travelling agent of
a religious tract society can read from his diary in a church in
Charleston, such a record as this:—
“Visited sixty families, numbering two hundred and twenty-
one souls over ten years of age; only twenty-three could
read, and seventeen write. Forty-one families destitute of
the Bible. Average of their going to church, once in seven
years. Several, between thirty and forty-five years old, had
heard but one or two sermons in their lives. Some grown-
up youths had never heard a sermon or prayer, until my
visit, and did not know of such a being as the Saviour; and
boys and girls, from ten to fifteen years old, did not know
who made them. All of one family rushed away when I
knelt to pray, to a neighbour’s, begging them to tell what I
 meant by it. Other families fell on their faces, instead of
kneeling.”[57]
The following is written by a gentleman, “whose name,” says the
editor of De Bow’s “Review,” “has long been illustrious for the
services he has rendered to the South.”
“All of you must be aware of the condition of the class of
people I allude to. What progress have they made in the
last hundred years, and what is to be their future
condition, unless some mode of employment be devised
to improve it? A noble race of people! reduced to a
condition but little above the wild Indian of the forest, or
the European gipsy, without education, and, in many
instances, unable to procure the food necessary to
develop the natural man. They seem to be the only class
of people in our State who are not disposed to emigrate to
other countries, while our wealthy and intelligent citizens
are leaving us by scores, taking with them the treasures
which have been accumulated by mercantile thrift, as well
as by the growth of cotton and the consequent exhaustion
of the soil.”
Says Governor Hammond, also of South Carolina, in an address
before the South Carolina Institute:—
“According to the best calculations which, in the absence
of statistic facts, can be made, it is believed that, of the
300,000 white inhabitants of South Carolina, there are not
less than 50,000, whose industry, such as it is, and
compensated as it is, is not, in the present condition of
things, and does not promise, hereafter, to be, adequate
to procure them, honestly, such a support as every white
person in this country is and feels himself entitled to.
“Some cannot be said to work at all. They obtain a
precarious subsistence by occasional jobs, by hunting, by
fishing, sometimes by plundering fields or folds, and, too
often, by what is, in its effects, far worse—trading with
slaves, and seducing them to plunder for their benefit.”
In another part of the same address, Governor Hammond says, that
“$18 or, at the most $19, will cover the whole necessary annual cost
of a full supply of wholesome and palatable food, purchased in the
market;” meaning, generally, in South Carolina. From a comparison
of these two extracts, it will be evident that $19 per annum is high
wages for the labour of one-sixth of all the white population of South
Carolina—and that one-sixth exclusive of the classes not obliged to
labour for their living.
South Carolina affords the fairest example of the tendency of the
Southern policy, because it is the oldest cotton State, and because
slavery has been longest and most strongly and completely
established there. But the same laws are seen in operation leading
to the same sure results everywhere. Some carefully compiled
statistics of the seaboard district of Georgia will be found in Appendix
(D), showing the comparative condition of the people in the rich sea-
island counties, and those in their rear, the latter consisting in large
proportion of poor or worn-out lands. I recapitulate here the more
exact of these statistics:—
Population.—A large majority of the whole white population resides
within the barren counties, of which the slave population is less than
one-fourteenth that of the aggregate slave population of the whole.
Wealth.—The personal estate of the whites of these upper counties
is, on an average, less than one-sixth that of the others.
Education.—As the wealthy are independent of public schools, the
means of education are scarcely more available for those who are
not rich in one than the other, the school-houses being, on an
average, ten and a half miles apart in the less populous, thirteen and
three-quarters miles apart in the more populous.
Religion.—It is widely otherwise as to churches. In the planting
counties, there is a house of worship for every twenty-nine white
families; in the poor white counties, one for every one hundred and
sixty-two white families. Notwithstanding the fact, that to
accommodate all, the latter should be six times as large, their
average value is less than one-tenth that of the others; the one being
eight hundred and ninety-eight dollars, the other eighty-nine dollars.
Commerce.—So wholly do the planters, in whose hands is the
wealth, depend on their factors for direct supplies from without, the
capital invested in trade, in the coast counties, is but thirty-seven and
a half cents to each inhabitant, and in the upper counties it is but one
dollar and fifty cents. From the remarks on temperance it would
seem that the most of this capital must be held in the form of
whiskey. One “store” in Liberty county, which I myself entered,
contained, so far as I could see, nothing but casks, demijohns,
decanters, a box of coffee, a case of tobacco, and some powder and
lead; and I believe that nine-tenths of the stock in trade referred to in
these statistics is of this character. It was mentioned to me by a
gentleman who had examined this district with a commercial
purpose, that, off the plantations, there was no money in the country
—almost literally, no money. The dealings even of the merchants or
tradesmen seemed to be entirely by barter. He believed there were
many full-grown men who had never seen so much as a dollar in
money in their lives.
The following is a graphic sketch by a native Georgian of the present
appearance of what was once the most productive cotton land of the
State:—
“The classic hut occupied a lovely spot, overshadowed by
majestic hickories, towering poplars, and strong-armed
oaks. The little plain on which it stood was terminated, at
the distance of about fifty feet from the door, by the brow
of a hill, which descended rather abruptly to a noble
spring, that gushed joyously forth from among the roots of
a stately beech, at its foot. The stream from this fountain
scarcely burst into view, before it hid itself in the dark
shade of a field of cane, which overspread the dale
through which it flowed, and marked its windings, until it
turned from sight, among vine-covered hills, at a distance
far beyond that to which the eye could have traced it,
without the help of its evergreen belt. A remark of the
captain’s, as we viewed this lovely country, will give the
reader my apology for the minuteness of the foregoing
description: ‘These lands,’ said he, ‘will never wear out.
 Where they lie level, they will be just as good, fifty years
hence, as they are now.’ Forty-two years afterwards, I
visited the spot on which he stood when he made the
remark. The sun poured his whole strength upon the bald
hill which once supported the sequestered school-house;
many a deep-washed gully met at a sickly bog, where had
gushed the limpid fountain; a dying willow rose from the
soil which had nourished the venerable beech; flocks
wandered among the dwarf pines, and cropped a scanty
meal from the vale where the rich cane had bowed and
rustled to every breeze, and all around was barren, dreary,
and cheerless.”[58]
I will quote from graver authority: Fenner’s Southern Medical
Reports:—
“The native soil of Middle Georgia is a rich argillaceous
loam, resting on a firm clay foundation. In some of the
richer counties, nearly all the lands have been cut down,
and appropriated to tillage; a large maximum of which
have been worn out, leaving a desolate picture for the
traveller to behold. Decaying tenements, red, old hills,
stripped of their native growth and virgin soil, and washed
into deep gullies, with here and there patches of Bermuda
grass and stunted pine shrubs, struggling for subsistence
on what was once one of the richest soils in America.”
Let us go on to Alabama, which was admitted as a State of the
Union only so long ago as 1818.
In an address before the Chunnenuggee Horticultural Society, by
Hon. C. C. Clay, Jr., reported by the author in De Bow’s “Review,”
December, 1815, I find the following passage. I need add not a word
to it to show how the political experiment of the Carolinas, and
Georgia, is being repeated to the same cursed result in young
Alabama. The author, it is fair to say, is devoted to the sustentation
of Slavery, and would not, for the world, be suspected of favouring
any scheme for arresting this havoc of wealth, further than by
chemical science:—
“I can show you, with sorrow, in the older portions of
Alabama, and in my native county of Madison, the sad
memorials of the artless and exhausting culture of cotton.
Our small planters, after taking the cream off their lands,
unable to restore them by rest, manures, or otherwise, are
going further west and south, in search of other virgin
lands, which they may and will despoil and impoverish in
like manner. Our wealthier planters, with greater means
and no more skill, are buying out their poorer neighbours,
extending their plantations, and adding to their slave force.
The wealthy few, who are able to live on smaller profits,
and to give their blasted fields some rest, are thus pushing
off the many, who are merely independent.
“Of the twenty millions of dollars annually realized from the
sales of the cotton crop of Alabama, nearly all not
expended in supporting the producers is reinvested in land
and negroes. Thus the white population has decreased,
and the slave increased, almost pari passu in several
counties of our State. In 1825, Madison county cast about
3,000 votes; now she cannot cast exceeding 2,300. In
traversing that county one will discover numerous farm-
houses, once the abode of industrious and intelligent
freemen, now occupied by slaves, or tenantless, deserted,
and dilapidated; he will observe fields, once fertile, now
unfenced, abandoned, and covered with those evil
harbingers—fox-tail and broom-sedge; he will see the
moss growing on the mouldering walls of once thrifty
villages: and will find ‘one only master grasps the whole
domain’ that once furnished happy homes for a dozen
white families. Indeed, a country in its infancy, where, fifty
years ago, scarce a forest tree had been felled by the axe
of the pioneer is already exhibiting the painful signs of
senility and decay apparent in Virginia and the Carolinas;
the freshness of its agricultural glory is gone; the vigour of
its youth is extinct, and the spirit of desolation seems
brooding over it.”
What inducement has capital in railroads or shops or books or tools
to move into districts like this, or which are to become like this? Why,
rather, I shall be asked, does it not withdraw more completely? Why
do not all, who are able, remove from a region so desolate? Why
was not its impoverishment more complete, more simultaneous?
How is it that any slaveholders yet remain? The “venerable Edmund
Ruffin,” president of the Virginia State Agricultural Society, shall
answer:[59]
“The causes are not all in action at once, and in equal
progress. The labours of exhausting culture, also, are
necessarily suspended as each of the cultivators’ fields is
successively worn out. And when tillage so ceases, and
any space is thus left at rest, nature immediately goes to
work to recruit and replace as much as possible of the
wasted fertility, until another destroyer, after many years,
shall return, again to waste, and in much shorter time than
before, the smaller stock of fertility so renewed. Thus the
whole territory, so scourged, is not destroyed at one
operation. But though these changes and partial
recoveries are continually, to some extent counteracting
the labours for destruction, still the latter work is in general
progress. It may require (as it did in my native region)
more than two hundred years, from the first settlement, to
reach the lowest degradation. But that final result is not
the less certainly to be produced by the continued action
of the causes.”
As to the extent to which the process is carried, Mr. Gregg says:[60]
“I think it would be within bounds to assume that the
planting capital withdrawn within that period [the last
twenty-five years] would, judiciously applied, have drained
every acre of swamp land in South Carolina, besides
resuscitating the old, worn-out land, and doubling the
crops—thus more than quadrupling the productive power
of the agriculture of the State.”
It would be consoling to hope that this planters’ capital in the new
region to which it is driven were used to better results. Does the
average condition of the people of western Louisiana and Texas, as I
have exhibited it to the reader in a former chapter, justify such a
hope? When we consider the form in which this capital exists, and
the change in the mode of its investment which is accomplished
when it is transferred from South Carolina, we perceive why it does
not.
If we are told that the value of one hundred thousand dollars has
been recently transferred from Massachusetts to a certain young
township of Illinois, we reasonably infer that the people of this
township will be considerably benefited thereby. We think what an
excellent saw mill and grist mill, what an assortment of wares, what a
good inn, what a good school, what fine breeding stock, what
excellent seeds and fruit trees, what superior machinery and
implements, they will be able to obtain there now; and we know that
some of these or other sources of profit, convenience, and comfort to
a neighbourhood, are almost certain to exist in all capital so
transferred. In the capital transferred from South Carolina, there is
no such virtue—none of consequence. In a hundred thousand
dollars of it there will not be found a single mill, nor a waggon load of
“store goods;” it will hardly introduce to the neighbourhood whither it
goes a single improvement, convenience, or comfort. At least ninety
thousand dollars of it will consist in slaves, and if their owners go
with them it is hard to see in what respect their real home comfort is
greater.
We must admit, it is true, that they are generally better satisfied, else
this transfer would not be so unremitting as it is. The motive is the
same at the North as at the South, the prospect of a better interest
from the capital, and if this did not exist it would not be transferred.
Let us suppose that, at starting, the ends of the capitalist are
obtained equally in both cases, that a sale of produce is made,
bringing in cash twenty thousand dollars; suppose that five thousand
dollars of this is used in each case for the home comfort of the
owners, and that as much immediate comfort is attainable with it in
the one case as in the other. What, then, is done with the fifteen
thousand dollars? At the South, it goes to pay for a farther transfer of
slaves purchased in the East, a trifle also for new tools. At the North,
nearly all of it will go to improvement of machinery of some kind,
machinery of transfer or trade, if not of manufacture, to the
improvement of the productive value of whatever the original capital
had been invested in, much of it to the remuneration of talent, which
is thus enabled to be employed for the benefit of many people other
than these capitalists—for the home comfort of many people. If five
thousand dollars purchased no more comfort in the one case than
the other, at starting, in a few years it will purchase double as much.
For the fifteen thousand dollars which has gone East in the one case
to pay for more labour, will, in the other, have procured good roads
and cheap transportation of comforts, or shops and machinery, and
thus the cheap manufacture of comforts on the spot where they are
demanded. But they who sell the reinforcement of slaves, and to
whom comes the fifteen thousand dollars, do they have no increase
of home comfort? Taking into consideration the gradual destruction
of all the elements of home comfort which the rearing and holding of
those slaves has occasioned in the district from which they are sold,
it may be doubtful if, in the end, they do. Whither, then, does this
capital go? The money comes to the country from those who buy
cotton, and somebody must have a benefit of it. Who? Every one at
the South says, when you ask this, it is the Northern merchant, who,
in the end, gets it into his own hands, and it is only him and his
whom it benefits. Mr. Gregg apparently believes this. He says, after
the sentence last quoted from him, describing the transfer of capital
to the West from South Carolina:—
“But this is not all. Let us look for a moment at the course
of things among our mercantile classes. We shall not have
to go much further back than twenty-five years to count up
twenty-five millions of capital accumulated in Charleston,
and which has left us with its enterprising owners, who
have principally located in northern cities. This sum would
build factories enough to spin and weave every pound of
cotton made in the State, besides making railroads to
intersect every portion of the up-country, giving business
facilities to the remotest points.”
How comes this capital, the return made by the world for the cotton
of the South, to be so largely in the hands of Northern men? The true
answer is, that what these get is simply their fair commercial
remuneration for the trouble of transporting cotton, transporting
money, transporting the total amount of home comfort, little as it is,
which the South gets for its cotton, from one part of the country to
the other (chiefly cotton to the coast, and goods returned instead of
money from the coast to the plantations), and for the enormous risks
and advances of capital which are required in dealing with the South.
Is this service over paid? If so, why do not the planters transfer
capital and energy to it from the plantations? It is not so. Dispersed
and costly labour makes the cost of trade or transfer enormous (as it
does the cost of cotton producing). It is only when this wealth is
transferred to the Free States or to Europe that it gives great results
to human comfort and becomes of great value. The South, as a
whole, has at present no advantage from cotton, even planters but
little. The chief result of the demand for it, as far as they are
concerned, is to give a fictitious value to slaves.
Throughout the South-west I found men, who either told me
themselves, or of whom it was said by others, that they settled where
I found them, ten or fifteen years ago, with scarcely any property
beyond half a dozen negroes, who were then indeed heavily in debt,
but who were now quite rich men, having from twenty to fifty
negroes. Nor is this at all surprising, when it is considered that cotton
costs nothing but labour, the value of the land, however rich, being
too inconsiderable to be taken into account, and that the price of
cotton has doubled in ten years. But in what else beside negroes
were these rich men better off than when they called themselves
poor? Their real comfort, unless in the sense of security against
extreme want, or immunity from the necessity of personal labour to
sustain life, could scarcely have been increased in the least. There
was, at any rate, the same bacon and corn, the same slough of a
waggon channel through the forest, the same bare walls in their
dwellings, the same absence of taste and art and literature, the
same distance from schools and churches and educated advisers,
and—on account of the distance of tolerable mechanics, and the
difficulty of moving without destruction, through such a rough
country, anything elaborate or finely finished—the same make-shift
furniture. There were, to be sure, ploughs and hoes, and gins and
presses, and there were scores of very “likely negroes.” Whoever
sold such of these negroes as had been bought must have been the
richer, it will be said. But let us see.
The following picture of the condition of Virginia, the great breeding
ground of slaves, is drawn by the last governor of that State, Henry
A. Wise. It was addressed to a Virginia audience, who testified to its
truthfulness.
“You have had no commerce, no mining, no manufactures.
“You have relied alone on the single power of agriculture—
and such agriculture! Your sedge-patches outshine the
sun. Your inattention to your only source of wealth has
scared the very bosom of mother earth. Instead of having
to feed cattle on a thousand hills, you have had to chase
the stump-tailed steer through the sedge-patches to
procure a tough beef-steak.
“The present condition of things has existed too long in
Virginia. The landlord has skinned the tenant, and the
tenant has skinned the land, until all have grown poor
together. I have heard a story—I will not locate it here or
there—about the condition of the prosperity of our
agriculture. I was told by a gentleman in Washington, not
long ago, that he was travelling in a county not a hundred
miles from this place, and overtook one of our citizens on
horseback, with, perhaps, a bag of hay for a saddle,
without stirrups, and the leading line for a bridle, and he
said: ‘Stranger, whose house is that?’ ‘It is mine,’ was the
reply. They came to another. ‘Whose house is that?’ ‘Mine,
too, stranger.’ To a third: ‘And whose house is that?’
‘That’s mine, too, stranger; but don’t suppose that I’m so
darned poor as to own all the land about here.’”
But more to the purpose is the following statement of “the venerable
Edmund Ruffin,” President of the Virginia Agricultural Society.
 “A gang of slaves on a farm will increase to four times their
original number in thirty or forty years. If a farmer is only
able to feed and maintain his slaves, their increase in
value may double the whole of his capital originally
invested in farming before he closes the term of an
ordinary life. But few farms are able to support this
increasing expense, and also furnish the necessary
supplies to the family of the owner; whence very many
owners of large estates, in lands and negroes, are
throughout their lives too poor to enjoy the comforts of life,
or to incur the expenses necessary to improve their
unprofitable farming. A man so situated may be said to be
a slave to his own slaves. If the owner is industrious and
frugal, he may be able to support the increasing numbers
of his slaves, and to bequeath them undiminished to his
children. But the income of few persons increases as fast
as their slaves, and, if not, the consequence must be that
some of them will be sold, that the others may be
supported, and the sale of more is perhaps afterwards
compelled to pay debts incurred in striving to put off that
dreaded alternative. The slave at first almost starves his
master, and at last is eaten by him—at least, he is
exchanged for his value in food.”
A large proportion of the negroes sold to these South-western
planters, then, had probably been bought by traders at forced sales
in the older States, sales forced by merchants who had supplied the
previous owners of the negroes, and who had given them credit, not
on account of the productive value of their property as then situated,
but in view of its cash value for sale, that is, of the value which it
would realize when applied to cotton on the new soils of the South-
west.
The planters of the South-west are then, in fact, supplying the deficit
of Eastern production, taking their pay almost entirely in negroes.
The free West fills the deficit of the free Eastern cereal production,
but takes its pay in the manufactured goods, the fish, the oil, the
butter, and the importations of the free East.
Virginia planters owning twenty to forty slaves, and nominally worth
as many thousand dollars, often seem to live generously; but
according to Northern standards, I do not think that the comforts and
advantages for a rationally happy life, which they possess, compare
with those of the average of Northern farmers of half that wealth.
When they do, they must be either supplying slaves for the new
cotton fields or living on credit—credit based on an anticipation of
supplying that market.
Of course it cannot be maintained that no one, while living at the
South, is actually richer from the effects of the cotton demand. There
are a great many very wealthy men at the South, and of planters, as
well as land dealers, negro dealers, and general merchants, but,
except in or near those towns which are, practically, colonies of free
labour, having constant direct communication and intimate
relationship with free countries, the wealth of these more fortunate
people secures to them but a small proportion of the advantages
which belong to the same nominal wealth anywhere in the Free
States, while their number is so small that they must be held of no
account at all in estimating the condition of the people, when it is
compared with the number of those who are exceedingly destitute,
and at whose expense, quite as much as at the expense of their
slaves, the wealth of the richer class has been accumulated.
This cannot be rightly deemed extravagant or unjust language. I
should not use it if I did not feel satisfied that it was warranted, not
only by my own personal observations, but by the testimony of
persons whose regard for the pride of the South, whose sympathy
with wealthy planters, and whose disposition not to underrate the
good results of slavery, if not more sincere than mine, is more certain
not to be doubted. I quote, for instance, a single passage from the
observations of Mr. Russell, an English gentleman, who, travelling
with a special view of studying the agricultural condition and
prospects of the country, was, nevertheless, so much limited in time
that he was obliged to trust in a great degree to the observations of
planters for his facts.
“In travelling through a fertile district in any of the Southern
States, the appearance of things forms a great contrast to
 that in similar districts in the Free States. During two days’
sail on the Alabama river from Mobile to Montgomery, I did
not see so many houses standing together in any one spot
as could be dignified with the appellation of village:[61] but
I may possibly have passed some at night. There were
many places where cotton was shipped and provisions
were landed, still there were no signs of enterprise to
indicate that we were in the heart of a rich cotton region.
* * * The planters supply themselves directly through
agents in the large towns, and comparatively little of the
money drawn for the cotton crop is spent in the Southern
States. Many of the planters spend their incomes by
travelling with their families in the Northern States or in
Europe during the summer, and a large sum is required to
pay the hog-raiser in Ohio, the mule-breeder in Kentucky,
and, above all, the Northern capitalists who have vast
sums of money on mortgage over the estates. Dr. Cloud,
the editor of the Cotton Plant [Alabama], assured me that
after all these items are paid out of the money received for
the whole cotton crop and sugar crops of the South, there
did not remain one-fourth part of it to be spent in the
Southern States. Hence, the Slave States soon obtain a
comparatively stationary condition, and, further, the
progress they make is in proportion to the increase of
freemen, whose labour is rendered comparatively
unproductive, seeing that the most fertile land is occupied
by slaveholders.”[62]
I questioned the agent of a large land speculation in Mississippi, a
Southerner by birth, with regard to the success of small farmers. In
reply he made the following statement, allowing me to take notes of
it, understanding they were for publication:—
“The majority of our purchasers have been men without
capital. To such we usually sell one hundred and sixty
acres of land, at from two to three dollars an acre, the
agreement being to pay in one, two, and three years, with
six per cent. interest. It is very rare that the payments are
made when due, and much the largest proportion of this
class fail even to pay their interest punctually. Many fail
altogether, and quit their farms in about ten years. When
crops are generally good, and planters in the same
neighbourhood make seven bales to a hand, poor people
will not make over two bales, with their whole family. There
is —— ——, in —— county, for instance. We sold him one
hundred and sixty acres of land in 1843. He has a family
of good-sized boys—young men now. For ten years he
was never able to pay his interest. He sold from two to
four bales a year, but he did not get much for it, and after
taking out the cost of bagging and rope, and ginning and
pressing, he scarcely ever had two hundred dollars a year
coming to him, of which he had to pay his store bills,
chiefly for coffee and molasses, sometimes a little clothing
—some years none at all. They made their own cloth
mostly in the house, but bought sheeting sometimes. He
has made one payment on the principal, from a sale of
hogs. Almost the only poor people who have kept up to
their agreement have been some near ——, since the
cotton factory was started there. It is wonderful what a
difference that has made, though it’s but a picayune affair.
People who have no negroes in this country generally
raise corn enough to bread them through the year, and
have hogs enough ranging in the swamps to supply them
with bacon. They do not often buy anything except coffee
and molasses and tobacco. They are not generally
drunkards, but the men will spend all the money they may
have and get gloriously drunk once or twice a year, at
elections or at court time, when they go to the county
town. I think that two bales of cotton a year is as much as
is generally made by people who do not own negroes.
They are doing well if they net over fifty dollars a year from
their labour, besides supplying themselves with corn. A
real smart man, who tends his crop well, and who knows
how it ought to be managed, can make five bales, almost
always. Five bales are worth two hundred and fifty dollars,
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