“Heaven’s Light is Our Guide”

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology (RUET)

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering (ETE)

Course No.: ETE 3215

Course Title: Digital Communication
Course Instructor:
Md. Tarek Hassan
Lecturer
Dept. of ETE, RUET
Contact: [email protected]
Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 1
 Today’s Agenda

▪ Line Coding Concept

▪ Properties and Necessity of Line Coding
▪ Line Coding Mathematics
▪ So on!!!

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 2

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Line Coding
Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals. By this technique we
convert a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender side digital data are encoded into a
digital signal and at the receiver side the digital data are recreated by decoding the digital
signal.

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 3

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Line Coding
Digital data can be transmitted by various Line codes. Line codes are waveform patterns of
voltage or current used to represent the 1s and 0s. Each line code has its advantages and
disadvantages. Among other desirable properties, a line code is preferred to have the following:
Bandwidth efficiency; the possibility of transmitting at a higher rate than other schemes over
the same bandwidth.
Power efficiency: For a given bandwidth and quality, the transmitted power should be as small
as possible.
No DC component; this allows AC coupling (capacitor or transformer) between stages (as in
telephone lines).
Spectrum shaping; this is important in telephone line applications, for example, where the
transfer characteristic has heavy attenuation below 300 Hz.
Synchronization; where bit clock recovery can be simplified.
Error detection capabilities; It should be possible to detect some patterns of errors.
ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 4
 Digital to Digital Conversion
Line Coding

Unipolar Scheme Polar Scheme Bipolar Scheme

Alternate Mark
NRZ RZ NRZ RZ Biphase Inversion (AMI)

Pseudo Ternary
Only one voltage
level other than 0 NRZ-L NRZ-I Manchester DM
(0 to +A)
Two voltage level other than zero Three voltage level other
𝑨 𝑨 than zero: Pos, Neg, Zero
( to 0 and − to 0)
𝟐 𝟐
ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 5
 Digital to Digital Conversion
Line Coding
But before learning difference between first three schemes we should first know the
characteristic of these line coding techniques:

• There should be self-synchronizing i.e., both receiver and sender clock should be
synchronized.
• There should have some error-detecting capability.
• There should be immunity to noise and interference.
• There should be less complexity.
• There should be no low frequency component (DC-component) as long-distance transfer is
not feasible for low frequency component signal.
• There should be less base line wandering.
• Unipolar scheme – In this scheme, all the signal levels are either above or below the axis.

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 6

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Unipolar Line Coding

In Unipolar line coding all the signal levels are either above or below the axis. It has only one
voltage level other than zero. The symbols 0 & 1 in digital system can represented in various
formats with different levels and wave forms.

The selection of particular format for common pulse depends on the systems band width,
system’s ability to pass DC level information, error checking facility, case of clock
regeneration & synchronization at receiver, complexity & cost etc.

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 7

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Unipolar (NRZ) Line Coding
Non-Return to Zero (NRZ): It is the simplest form of data representation. The NRZ
waveform simply goes low for one bit time to represent a data 0 & high for one bit time to
represent a data 1. It is unipolar line coding scheme in which positive voltage defines bit 1
and the zero voltage defines bit 0. Signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit thus
it is called NRZ.

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 8

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Unipolar (RZ) Line Coding
Return-to-zero (RZ or RTZ) describes a line code used in telecommunications signals in
which the signal drops (returns) to zero between each pulse. That "zero" condition is
typically halfway between the significant condition representing a 1 bit and the other
significant condition representing a 0 bit. RZ uses pulses at the start of the clock cycle to
indicate a 1 value.

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 9

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Polar (NRZ) Line Coding
In Polar line coding the voltages are on the both sides of the axis which means it will have
both positive and negative values for voltages or amplitude, it is quite like NRZ scheme but,
here we have NRZ-L (i.e., NRZ-Level) and NRZ-I (i.e., NRZ Invert).

It has two voltage level other than zero. The symbols 0 & 1 in digital system can represented
in various formats with different levels and wave forms.

The selection of particular format for common pulse depends on the systems band width,
system’s ability to pass DC level information, error checking facility, case of clock
regeneration & synchronization at receiver, complexity & cost etc.

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 10

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Polar (NRZ-L) Line Coding
NRZ-L and NRZ-I: These are somewhat similar to unipolar NRZ scheme but here we use two
levels of amplitude (voltages). For NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), the level of the voltage determines
the value of the bit, typically binary 1 map to logic-level high, and binary 0 maps to logic -
level low, and for NRZ-I (NRZ Invert), two-level signal has a transition at a boundary if the
next bit that we are going to transmit is a logical 1, and does not have a transition if the next bit
that we are going to transmit is a logical 0.

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 11

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Polar (RZ) Line Coding
Return to Zero (RZ): One solution to NRZ problem is the RZ scheme, which uses three values
positive, negative, and zero. In this scheme signal goes to 0 in the middle of each bit. The logic
we are using here to represent data is that for bit 1 half of the signal is represented by +V and
half by zero voltage and for bit 0 half of the signal is represented by -V and half by zero
voltage.

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 12

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Polar (Biphase) Line Coding
Biphase Line Coding: Manchester encoding is somewhat combination of the RZ (transition at
the middle of the bit) and NRZ-L schemes. The duration of the bit is divided into two halves.
The voltage remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other level in the second
half. The transition at the middle of the bit provides synchronization. Manchester encoding is
two types: Dr. Thomas and IEEE format (Default).

Differential Manchester is somewhat combination of the RZ and NRZ-I schemes. There is

always a transition at the middle of the bit but the bit values are determined at the beginning of
the bit. If the next bit is 0, there is a transition, if the next bit is 1, there is no transition.

Note – 1. The logic we are using here to represent data using Manchester is that for bit 1 there
is transition form -V to +V volts in the middle of the bit and for bit 0 there is transition from
+V to -V volts in the middle of the bit. 2
ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 13
 Digital to Digital Conversion
Polar (Manchester – Dr. Thomas & D M) Line Coding

Dr. Thomas:
For 1: Positive to Negative
For 0: Negative to Positive
𝑇𝑏
Duration:
2

IEEE:
For 0: Positive to Negative
For 1: Negative to Positive
𝑇𝑏
Duration:
2

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 14

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Bipolar (AMI & Pseudo Ternary) Line Coding
Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI): A neutral zero voltage represents binary 0. Binary 1’s are
represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.

Pseudo ternary: Bit 1 is encoded as a zero voltage and the bit 0 is encoded as alternating
positive and negative voltages i.e., opposite of AMI scheme. Example: Data = 010010.

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 15

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Line Coding PYQ

Problem 01: Consider the following bit stream 101100101. Using the following line coding
techniques, convert the above mentioned bit stream into digital signal.
(i) Unipolar RZ, (ii) Bipolar RZ, (iii) Split Phase Manchester, and (iv) Polar Quaternary.

Problem 02: Consider the binary data stream of 1011010. Draw the resulting waveforms for
the following line coding schemes:
(i) ON-OFF, (ii) Manchester, (iii) Bipolar RZ, and (iv) Differential Manchester

Problem 03: If a binary data stream is 100110101. Draw the resulting waveforms for the
following schemes:
(i) Unipolar NRZ, (ii) Unipolar RZ, (iii) Polar RZ, (iv) AMI-RZ, and (v) Manchester.

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 16

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Line Coding Problems: Assignment

Problem 01: Draw the following data formats for the bit stream 1100110;
(i) Polar NRZ, (ii) Unipolar RZ, (iii) AMI, and (iv) Manchester.

Problem 02: Given that the bit sequence given below is to be transmitted bit sequence =
10110010. Draw the resulting waveforms, if the sequence is transmitted using:
(i) Polar NRZ, (ii) Unipolar RZ, (iii) AMI, (iv) Split Phase Manchester, and (v) Polar
Quaternary.

Problem 03: Which are the desirable properties of Digital waveform? To transmit a bit
sequence of 10011011. Draw the resulting waveforms:
(i) Unipolar NRZ, (ii) Unipolar RZ, (iii) Polar RZ, (iv) AMI-RZ, and (v) Manchester.

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 17

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Line Coding Problems: Assignment
Problem 04: The bit sequence 1011101011 is to be transmitted using following formats:
(i) Polar NRZ and RZ, (ii) Unipolar NRZ and RZ, (iii) Split Phase Manchester, and (iv) AMI
and Pseudo ternary.
Problem 05: The binary data 101100110101 is transmitted over a baseband channel. Draw the
resulting waveforms, if the sequence is transmitted using:
(i) Unipolar NRZ, (ii) Unipolar RZ, (iii) Bipolar RZ, (iv) Split Phase Manchester.
Compare above schemes for their BW requirements.
Problem 06: The binary data 101100110101 is transmitted over a baseband channel. Draw the
resulting waveforms, if the sequence is transmitted using:
(i) Unipolar NRZ, (ii) Polar RZ, (iii) Split Phase Manchester, (iv) Polar Quaternary NRZ
signaling.
Compare above schemes for their BW requirements.
ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 18
 Digital to Digital Conversion

▪ Line Coding Concept

▪ Properties and Necessity of Line Coding
Summary ▪ Line Coding Mathematics
▪ So on!!!

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 19

 Today’s Actual Agenda

▪ Line Coding Concept (Rest of the part)

▪ Line Coding Mathematics (Rest of the part)
▪ Baseband Transmission Concept

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 20

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Line Coding Issues
Baseline Wandering: In decoding a digital signal, the receiver calculates a running average of
the received signal power. This average is called the baseline. The incoming signal power is
evaluated against this baseline to determine the value of the data element. A long string of 0s or
1s can cause a drift in the baseline (baseline wandering) and make it difficult for the receiver to
decode correctly. A good line coding scheme needs to prevent baseline wandering.

DC Components: When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the
spectrum creates very low frequencies (results of Fourier analysis). These frequencies around
zero, called DC (direct-current) components, present problems for a system that cannot pass
low frequencies or a system that uses electrical coupling (via a transformer). For example, a
telephone line cannot pass frequencies below 200 Hz. Also a long-distance link may use one or
more transformers to isolate different parts of the line electrically. For these systems, we need a
scheme with no DC component.

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 21

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Line Coding Issues
Self Synchronization: To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender, the receiver's
bit intervals must correspond exactly to the sender's bit intervals. If the receiver clock is faster
or slower, the bit intervals are not matched and the receiver might misinterpret the signals.
Figure shows a situation in which the receiver has a shorter bit duration. The sender sends
10110001, while the receiver receives 110111000011

Figure: Effect of lack of synchronization

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 22
 Digital to Digital Conversion
Basic Parameters of D/D Conversion
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate: The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in
Is. The unit is bits per second (bps). The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate.

The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in Is. The unit is the baud. There are
several common terminologies used in the literature. The signal rate is sometimes called the
pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate.

One goal in data communications is to increase the data rate while decreasing the signal rate.
Increasing the data rate increases the speed of transmission; decreasing the signal rate
decreases the bandwidth requirement. In our vehicle-people analogy, we need to carry more
people in fewer vehicles to prevent traffic jams. We have a limited bandwidth in our
transportation system.

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 23

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Basic Parameters of D/D Conversion
We can formulate the relationship between Data Rate Versus Signal Rate:

𝟏
𝑺=𝒄×𝑵× baud…………………………….(1)
𝒓
Where:
N = data rate (bps)
c = case factor which varies for each case
S = Number of signal elements
r = data elements [need to understand better]

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 24

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Basic Parameters of D/D Conversion

Problem 01: A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as one signal
element (r = 1). If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is
between 0 and l?

Hints:

Data Rate Versus Signal Rate:

𝟏
𝑺=𝒄×𝑵× baud…………………………….(1)
𝒓

Possible Answer: 50 kbaud

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 25

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Basic Parameters of D/D Conversion

Problem 02: “Although the actual bandwidth of a digital signal is infinite, the effective
bandwidth is finite” Justify the statement with your own opinion.

We can say that the baud rate, not the bit rate, determines the required bandwidth for a digital
signal. For the moment, we can say that the bandwidth (range of frequencies) is proportional
to the signal rate (baud rate). The minimum bandwidth can be given as:
𝟏
𝑩𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒄 × 𝑵 × baud…………………………….(2)
𝒓

We can solve for the maximum data rate if the bandwidth of the channel is given.
𝟏
𝑵𝒎𝒂𝒙 = × 𝑩 × 𝒓 …………………………….(3)
𝒄

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 26

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Basic Parameters of D/D Conversion

Problem 03: The maximum data rate of a channel is 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 × 𝐵 × log 2 (𝐿) (defined by
the Nyquist formula). Does this agree with the previous formula for 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 ?

Hints:

Data Rate Versus Signal Rate:

𝟏
𝑵𝒎𝒂𝒙 = × 𝑩 × 𝒓 …………………………….(3)
𝒄

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 27

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Basic Parameters of D/D Conversion

Problem 04: A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 10-Mbps data. What are the average signal
rate and minimum bandwidth?

Hints:

𝟏
𝑺=𝒄×𝑵× baud…………………………….(2)
𝒓

𝟏
𝑩𝒎𝒊𝒏 = × 𝑩 × 𝒓 …………………………………….(3)
𝒄

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 28

 Digital to Digital Conversion
Summary of Line Coding Scheme

Category Scheme Bandwidth (Avg) Characteristics

NRZ B = N/2 Costly, no self-synchronization if long 0s or Is, DC
Unipolar RZ B = N/2 Costly, no self-synchronization if long 0s or Is, DC
NRZ-L B = N/2 No self-synchronization if long 0s or 1s, DC
NRZ-I B = N/2 No self-synchronization if long 0s, DC
Polar
Biphase 𝐵=𝑁 Self-synchronization, no DC, high bandwidth
RZ B=? Costly, no self-synchronization if long 0s or Is, DC
AMI B = N/2 No self-synchronization for long 0s, DC
Bipolar Pseudo Ternary B = N/2 No self-synchronization for long 0s, DC
Manchester ? ?
Polar Differential ? ?
Manchester
ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 29
 Digital to Digital Conversion

▪ Line Coding Mathematics (Rest of)

▪ Line Coding Issues and Basic Params
Summary ▪ Related Problems
▪ So on!!!

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 30

Digital to Digital Conversion

ETE 3215: Digital Communication Prepared By: M. T. Hassan 31