International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive System (IJPEDS)

Vol. 15, No. 4, December 2024, pp. 2526∼2534

ISSN: 2088-8694, DOI: 10.11591/ijpeds.v15.i4.pp2526-2534 ❒ 2526

Optimal sizing and economic assessment of diesel and solar

mills for cereal milling in rural areas of Senegal
Moustapha Diop1,2 , Mouhamadou Falilou Ndiaye2,3 , Ibrahima Gueye1,2 , Abdoulaye Kebe1,2 ,
Omar Dia1,2
1 Department STI, Ecole Normale Supérieure d’Enseignement Technique et Professionnel, Universite Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal
2 Laboratoire L3EPI, Ecole Supérieure Polytechnique, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal
3 Department of Electrical Engineering, Ecole Supérieure Polytechnique, Universite Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: This paper aims at using life cycle costing (LCC) to assess the economic via-
bility of solar and diesel mills for cereal milling, adopting several scenarios of
Received Sep 25, 2023
village sizes in Senegal and time perspectives. This work is intended to pro-
Revised Dec 25, 2023 vide decision-makers and stakeholders with valuable information for selecting
Accepted Apr 22, 2024 optimal milling systems, taking into account both economic and village size
considerations. The methodology adopted is based on system specifications and
Keywords: daily cereal consumption profiles. To determine the economic performance of
systems, three types of villages are evaluated and analyzed in detail from short,
Diesel mill medium, and long-term perspectives. The results indicate that solar mills are the
Economic comparison most economical systems for milling cereals in remote villages in the long term,
Life cycle cost with a potential economic gain of 10%, 31%, and 41% for small, medium, and
Solar mill big villages respectively, compared to diesel mills. However, solar mills are less
Village size promising in the short term.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.

Corresponding Author:
Moustapha Diop
Ecole Normale Supérieure d’Enseignement Technique et Professionnel, Universite Cheikh Anta Diop
Dakar, Senegal
Email: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
Pearl millet, maize and sorghum, are the staple food crops of rural households in Senegal, with an
annual consumption of 64.8 kg per capita [1]-[3]. This high demand makes traditional cereal milling inefficient.
With this trend, the mechanization of cereal milling with the use of hammer mills driven by induction motors
due to their advantages has become a reliable alternative [4]-[6]. In this paper, we focus on cereal mills in
Senegal’s rural areas because, despite the efforts, the issue of cereal milling remains unresolved and needs to
be addressed. On the one hand, many villages are not electrified, and on the other hand, cereal milling in
Senegal mainly serves the domestic market and making an essential contribution to food security in rural areas.
To achieve this, it is necessary to equip rural areas with mills that can only be powered by diesel or solar power.
Although both systems meet the requirements of cereal milling, there are significant differences in
terms of cost, reliability and environmental impact. Thus, several works [7]-[9] have been carried out to high-
light solar and diesel systems. For diesel systems, the steady diesel supply and maintenance are problematic,
even if capital costs are low. In contrast, solar systems are highly appropriate due to the high solar potential in
Senegal. However, the high capital costs are the main limits. Based on classic analyses, the high capital cost
of solar systems is often daunting to donors and project implementers in rural areas on the one hand. On the

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Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 ❒ 2527

other hand, with diesel systems, beneficiaries are often faced with the high running costs. Thus, it has become
urgent to propose a solution through a detailed study, allowing them to select the most appropriate system.
Indeed, in previous studies comparing diesel and solar systems, the time and size criteria of the village
are almost never taken into account at the same time. But, diesel and solar systems offer advantages, depending
on specific needs of each village and government’s short and medium-term rural electrification plans. Based on
the analyses, the choice of systems in rural areas must take into account economic issues, but also the context
and prospects, which consider the time and size of villages divided into small, medium, and large [10], [11].
The aim of this work is to compare solar and diesel mills through optimal sizing and economic assess-
ments based on the life cycle costing (LCC) concept. This study was carried out on the basis of milling unit
specifications, daily cereal requirements and economic parameters such as component costs, operating costs
and economic rates for three scenarios based on criteria of time and of village size, which is set at 500, 900,
and 1200 inhabitants for small, medium, and big villages. Within the context of the study, the short-term means
a period shorter than 7 years, medium-term covers a range from 7 to 12 years and long-term is a period longer
than 12 years.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: The section 2 deals with sizing and assessment method-
ologies. In section 3, the results are presented and discussed. The conclusions are highlighted in section 4.

2. MATERIALS AND METHOD

The procedure for the assessment of mills, illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2, is as follows. By
considering the milling unit model developed [5], [6] the hourly flow rate is calculated on the basis of rated
power (Pn ) and rotational speed (ωn ) as given in (1). Energy requirements are calculated taking into account
input parameters such as the daily quantity of cereal required (Mc ), the number of inhabitants per village (np ),
the daily cereal consumption per inhabitant (βp ), the daily operating time (top ) and the efficiency of the milling
unit (ηmu ). These data, along with the power rating of the milling unit, are used to determine the size of solar
and diesel mills. Once the systems have been sized, the economic assessment is carried out.

Three-phase
Controller Inverter
Diesel
IM Generator
Mill
PV panels Batteries IM
Mill
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the solar mill Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the diesel mill

The relationship between load torque (Tl ) and flow rate (Q) in kg/min is given by (1).

Tl (Q) = 0.578 · Q2 + 7.621 · Q + 0.047 (1)

Hourly flow rate: Assuming that the load torque is equal to the rated motor torque at the operating point, the
flow rate in kg per hours of the considered milling unit can be calculated from.
q 
Q(Pn , ωn ) = 60 · 6.592 0.9981 + 0.0398 · Pn · ωn−1 −1 (2)

Energy requirements: The variables top , Mc and the energy requirement (El ) are calculated as (3).

Mc np · βp
top = = (3)
Q Q
 
Pn Pn βp
El (np ) = · top = · · np (4)
ηmu ηmu Q

Optimal sizing and economic assessment of diesel and solar mills for cereal ... (Moustapha Diop)
2528 ❒ ISSN: 2088-8694

2.1. Sizing of solar mill

PV panels: Based on [12]-[17], and according to (5), the power generated by PV panels (Ppv ) can be
estimated based on solar irradiation Ir (kW/m2 ) and radiation G (kWh/m2 ), and the PV system efficiency (ηs ).
 
Ir · El Ir Pn βp
Ppv (np ) = = · · · np (5)
G · ηs G ηmu · ηs Q

Given the inclusion of a battery, PV systems incur losses during the charging and discharging processes.
In [18] and [19], the performances of the batteries were evaluated. Under optimum conditions, Li-ion bat-
teries can achieve efficiencies of 99% efficiency. However, a reasonable estimate of efficiency is 95%. The
charge controller and inverter have efficiencies of 95-97%. Based on results, system efficiency is set at 80%.
Battery storage: The battery storage capacity is estimated according to the the daily energy required, the num-
ber of autonomous days (Nd ) and the depth of discharge of the battery (DOD) [20].
 
El · Nd Nd Pn βp
CWh (np ) = = · · · np (6)
DOD · ηs DOD ηmu · ηs Q

Inverter and charge controller: Ideally, the inverter size should be slightly larger than the peak AC load, and
the charge controller should be sized to handle the maximum PV current and voltage, but also to be able to
generate the required charging current. Thus, the inverter power and charge controller can be estimated using
the (7) and (8), taking into account safety factors of 10% and 15% respectively.

Pn
Pin = 1.1 · (7)
ηmu

Pin Ppv
Ict = 1.15 · max( , ) (8)
48 48

2.1.1. Sizing of diesel mill

The DG power should be equal to the power required by the milling unit. Therefore, it is obtained by:

Pm
PG = (9)
ηmu

previous studies [21]-[23] show that the diesel consumption Dc (l/h) can be calculated using (10).

Dc = k1 · PG + k2 · PGt (10)

k1 and k2 are coefficients of fuel consumption curve (l/kWh), given by 0.246 and 0.08145, respectively [24].
PG is the rated power and PGt is the output power. For our case, it is assumed that the system operates at rated
power. Therefore, the rated and the output power are equal. Thus, the daily consumption of diesel is:

Vd = (k1 + k2 ) · PG · top (11)

2.2. Economic assessment

The LCC method can be found in previous related works [25]-[28]. For this work, the remaining costs
called are ignored but the discount factor is considered. Therefore, the LCC of each milling system is the sum
of the capital cost (Cc ), the operating and maintenance costs (O&Mc ) and the replacement costs (Rc ). The
LCC can be calculated using (12).
LCC = Cc + O&Mc + Rc (12)

According to [29], [30] the discount factor (γ) is estimated from the inflation (i) and discount (d) rates.

1+i
γ= (13)
1+d

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Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 ❒ 2529

2.2.1. LCC of solar mill

Capital cost: The Cc includes the component costs and the installation cost set at 10 % of components
costs.
CSM
c = 1.1[Cpv + Cct + Cin + Cbt + Cmu ] (14)
Cmu is the milling unit cost. Cpv , Cbt , Cct and Cin are total acquisition costs of PV panels, controller, inverter
and battery, which can be described by the following:
 
Ir Pn βp
Cpv (np , αpv ) = · · · np · αpv (15)
G ηmu · ηs Q
 
Nd Pn βp
Cbt (np , αbt ) = · · · np · αbt (16)
DOD ηmu · ηs Q
Pin Ppv
Cct (αct ) = 1.15 · max( , ) · αct (17)
48 48
Cin (αin ) = Pin · αin (18)
where αpv ($/W), αct ($/A), αin ($/W) and αbt ($/Wh) denote the acquisition cost per unit power of PV
panels, controller, inverter and battery, respectively.
Operating and Maintenance cost: It is the sum of the operating and maintenance costs associated to
PV panels (OMpv ct in bt mu
c ), controller (OMc ), inverter (OMc ), battery (OMc ) and milling unit (OMc ).

Ny  
X Ir Pn βp
OMpv
c = · · · µpv · np · γ y (19)
y=1
G ηmu · ηs Q

Ny  
X Nd Pn βp
OMbt
c = · · · µmu · np · γ y (20)
y=1
DOD ηmu · η s Q

Ny
X Pin Ppv
OMct
c = 1.15 · max( , ) · µct · γ y (21)
y=1
48 48

Ny
X
OMin
c = 1.1 · Pmax · µin · γ y (22)
y=1

Ny
X
OMmu
c = Cmu · µmu · γ y (23)
y=1

µpv ($/W), µct ($/A), µin ($/W), µbt ($/Wh) and µmu (%) are the annual O&M costs of components.
Replacement cost: The replacement cost is calculated based on the acquisition cost, the lifetime and
the number of replacement [31]. In our case, no replacement is needed for PV panels. Assuming that the
lifetime of other components ranges between 10 and 15 years, one (1) replacement is needed for each of them.
Thus, the replacement costs of batteries, inverter, controller and milling unit are calculated using the following:

Rbt
c = CWh · np · αbt · γ
Nbt
(24)

Rct
c = Ict · αct · γ
Nct
(25)

Rin
c = Pin · αin · γ
Nin
(26)

Rmu
c = Cmu · γ
Nmu
(27)
Nct , Nin , Nbt , and Nmu denote the lifetime of controller, inverter, battery, and milling unit.

Optimal sizing and economic assessment of diesel and solar mills for cereal ... (Moustapha Diop)
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2.3. LCC of diesel mill

Capital cost: The capital cost includes the milling unit, DG and installation costs. As introduces, the
installation cost is set at 10% of investment cost. Thus, the capital cost of diesel mills can be calculated as:

CDM
c = 1.1 · [αgd · PG + Cmu ] (28)

where αg ($/W) is the cost per unit power of the DG.

Operating and Maintenance: The O&M cost includes the cost to maintains the system components and
the total cost associated to diesel consumption during the life cycle of the project. The O&M can be obtained
by:
Ny Ny
" 365
# " 365 #
X X βp X X (k1 + k2 )Pm βp
OMDM
c = Cmu · µmu + µg · y
· np γ + Cd · · · np γ y (29)
y=1
Q y=1
η mu Q
i=1 i=1

µg ($/h) is the hourly cost to maintains the DG. Cd corresponds to diesel cost per litter.
Replacement cost: The replacement cost for the DG can be calculated by:
N
Xrm Lg
Rgc = αgd · PG · γ 365·top (30)
k=1

Nrm is the number of replacement needed and Lg is the diesel generator lifetime in hours.

3. SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1. Simulation program inputs
Economic rate: According to Central Bank of West African States and Media Center Statista, the
inflation and discount rates are taken as 1.5% and 4.5%. The price of diesel is about $1.12 per litter. Cereal
consumption: The daily cereal consumption per hbts is estimated at 0.18 kg. Component costs and descriptions:
Costs and descriptions of components are set out in Table 1.

Table 1. Input parameters for economic assessment

PV panels Controller Inverter Battery Milling Unit DG
Acquisition $ 1.1/Wp $ 8/A $ 0.4/W $ 0.2/Wh $ 689.66 $ 0.37/W
O&M $ 3/kW/year $ 0.1/A/year $ 10/kW/year $ 5/kWh/year $ 7/year $ 0.01/h
Lifetime 25 years 12 years 12 years 10 years 15 years 12000/h

3.2. Results
3.2.1. Sizing results
The variations of the component sizes according to number of inhabitants are presented in Figure 3. In
order to assess the economic viability of solar and diesel mills the following cases of study are selected: small
village with 500 inhabitants, medium with 900 inhabitants, and big village with 1200 inhabitants (Table 2).

Table 2. Sizing results of the selected cases of study

Daily requirements Component sizes
Village People Cereal Time Energy Diesel PV panels Battery Inverter Controller Generator
Small 500 90 kg 1.7 h 5123.3 Wh 1.68 l 1184.6 Wp 11994.4 Wh 3315 W 79.42 3014 W
Medium 900 162 kg 3.1 h 9221.9 Wh 3.02 l 2132.3 Wp 21589.9 Wh 3315 W 79.42 3014 W
Big 1200 216 kg 4.1 h 12296 Wh 4.03 l 2843.1 Wp 28786.5 Wh 3315 W 79.42 3014 W

The aim of the results is to validate the sizing model. From results, it is apparent that the sizes of DG,
inverter and controller are independent to village size. In contrast, PV panels and battery sizes vary according
to village size. Thus, 1184 Wp, 2132 Wp, and 2843 Wp with storage capacities of 11994 Wh, 21590 Wh, and
28786 Wh are required for small, medium, and large villages. For diesel mills, the diesel consumption varies
according to the size of the village. Thus, 1.68, 3.02, and 4.03 liters per day are required for small, medium,
and large villages. These results validate the sizing model and enable us to tackle the life cycle analysis.

Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst, Vol. 15, No. 4, December 2024: 2526–2534
Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 ❒ 2531

Figure 3. Variations of the component sizes versus number of inhabitants

3.2.2. LCC results

This section presents the LCC results for the solar and diesel mills. Table 3 and Figure 4 show a
comparison for solar and diesel mills for three types of village. Life-cycle costs (LCC) were calculated over
a 20-year period, taking into account capital costs, operating costs, maintenance costs, and replacement costs.
The results show that solar mills are much cheaper on a LCC basis. The solar mills have a high capital cost, but
very low operating and maintenance costs. Comparatively for diesel mills, the O&M costs required for small,
medium and large villages are $11162, $20008, and $26642 versus $6988, $10246, and $12689.

Table 3. Life cycle costs of solar and diesel mills

Solar mill Diesel mill
Capital ($) O&M ($) Repl.($) LCC ($) Capital ($) O&M ($) Repl.($) LCC ($)
Small village 6988.3 1667.4 3621.1 12276.8 1985.2 11161.9 445.5 13592.6
Medium village 10246.1 2426.6 5055.2 17727.8 1985.2 20007.7 1239.7 23232.6
Big village 12689.3 2996.1 6130.8 21816.2 1985.2 26642.1 2174.5 30801.7

This ratio, which varies from 6.69 to 9 depending on village size, explains the profitability of mills on
life-cycle costs. However, although the solar mill is the most advantageous option in the long term prespective,
the capital costs could justify the use of diesel mills in rural areas. But, economic lifetime can have a significant
impact on the choice of diesel versus solar mills. This aspect is investigated by graphically comparing the LCC.
Figure 4 shows the graphical comparison to analyze their economic viability in short, medium and long-term
perspectives according to village sizes. Results show that the solar mill is the most economical option only in
medium and long term, and diesel-powered mills are likely to be the best option in the short term due to their
low capital cost. This result correlates with the capital costs, which are $6988, $10246, and $12689 compared
with only $1985 for solar mills. However, for the medium and long-term perspectives, the overall comparison
shows that solar mills are more competitive than diesel mills, even if some correspondence can be noted for
small villages due to the fact that during this period some components need to be replaced.
3.3. Discussion
This paper compares solar and diesel mills for different scenarios relating to village sizes for short,
medium and long-term perpectives. The results are discussed, while a comparison with the literature cannot
be made, since there is hardly any work in the recent literature that provides a comparable in-depth analysis

Optimal sizing and economic assessment of diesel and solar mills for cereal ... (Moustapha Diop)
2532 ❒ ISSN: 2088-8694

of milling systems. However, there are some closely related works that talk about pumping systems. In our
work, we have come to same conclusions, but we have indicated that the choice should be based on technical
and economic evaluations of each case. In fact, solar mills are economically viable for medium and long-term
prospects, whatever the size of the village, as shown by the comparison between diesel and solar systems. These
results can be explained by the considerable financial effort required to set up these systems, in contrast to diesel
systems, which do not require as much financial effort. Inversely, for medium and long term prospects, the
maintenance and operating costs of diesel systems will become very high, making them unprofitable. However,
the use of diesel systems may be a viable option for relatively small villages, where demand is lower, making
the payback period close to the replacement time of some PV components. So, choosing the diesel system in
this case will not be absurd. The reliability of our results can be justified by the use of consumption and market
data, but taking into account size and time parameters, which can influence system performances. However, the
limits of this work lie in the lack of comparative work in the literature that would allow us to highlight results.
As a recommendation, we have provided evidence that solar mill is the most reliable and cost-effective
option for cereal milling in remote areas of developing countries, where access to energy is often problematic.
Indeed, rising diesel prices obviously change economic calculations, and these increases have a considerable
impact on LCC and a reduction in the number of years it takes to break even on PV systems compared with
diesel systems. Added to this is the decline price in PV systems, making solar systems more attractive.

Small village
15000
12000 Solar mill Diesel mill
LCC ($)

9000
6000
3000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
years
Medium village
25000
20000 Solar mill Diesel mill
LCC ($)

15000
10000
5000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
years
Big village
30000
25000 Solar mill Diesel mill
LCC ($)

20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
years
Figure 4. LCCs of solar and diesel mills according the village categories

4. CONCLUSION
This paper comparatively assesses the economic aspects of solar and diesel mills for three different
village sizes using the LCC concept. Based on the comparative analysis for a 20-year life cycle, the solar
mill is more economical. But for a shorter life cycle, the diesel mill becomes more affordable due to the very
high capital cost of solar mills. In the medium and long terms, the overall comparison shows that, for remote
villages, the solar mill seems more competitive if we take into account the decrease in the price of PV systems
and the fluctuating price of diesel. The financial results determined through an economic analysis can help
decision-makers in strategic choices aimed at supporting the development of the milling systems in rural areas.

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Optimal sizing and economic assessment of diesel and solar mills for cereal ... (Moustapha Diop)
2534 ❒ ISSN: 2088-8694

BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Moustapha Diop holds a Ph.D. in electrical systems and renewable energies. He is cur-
rently Associate Professor in the Department of Science and Industrial Technology at the Higher
Normal School of Technical and Vocational Education (ENSETP) at Cheikh Anta Diop Univer-
sity in Dakar, Senegal, and a permanent researcher in the energy, water, environment, and indus-
trial processes Laboratory (L3EPI). His current research focuses on power converters, control and
modeling systems, and renewable energies. He is the author or co-author of several papers, pub-
lished in international scientific journals and conference proceedings. He can be contacted at e-mail:
[email protected].

Mouhamadou Falilou Ndiaye is an electrical engineer and doctor in Electrical systems

and renewable energies of Cheikh Anta Diop university. He is currently professor of Power Elec-
tronics, Electric drives, automation in the Electrical Engineering department at ESP, UCAD, and a
permanent researcher at the Energy, Water, Environment, and Industrial Processes Laboratory of ESP
of Dakar. His current research is basically focused on power converter, induction machine control
systems, control systems, automation, and renewable energies (PV and wind energy). He can be
contacted at email: [email protected].

Ibrahima Gueye hold a Ph.D. in Automation, Production, Signal and Image, and Cog-
nitive Engineering from the University of Bordeaux. Currently, He is an associate professor at the
Higher National School of Technical and Vocational Education. In addition to his pedagogical ac-
tivities, He is affiliated with the Energy, Water, Environment, and Industrial Processes Laboratory
(L3EPI) at the Polytechnic Superior School of Dakar, where I collaborate with a team of researchers
on the design of electronic systems involved in the energy chain of photovoltaic solar systems. Our
aim is to optimize the transfer of electrical energy produced and promote the local manufacturing of
electronic systems. He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Abdoulaye Kebe is professor in the Department of Science and Industrial Technology at

the Higher Normal School of Technical and Vocational Education (ENSETP) at Cheikh Anta Diop
University in Dakar, Senegal. He holds a Ph.D. in physics from the University of Paris Sud in 2013,
and a master’s degree in Analysis, Design and Research in the Field of Engineering Technologies in
Education (ACREDITE) at the University of Cergy Pontoise in 2016. His research is mainly oriented
towards renewable energies. He is author of several publications in the field of energy conversion.
He is currently Director of ENSETP. He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Oumar Dia is a teacher-researcher in the Department of Industrial Sciences and Technolo-

gies (STI) at the Higher National School of Technical and Vocational Education of Cheikh Anta Diop
University in Dakar (ENSETP/UCAD). He holds a Doctorate degree from Iba Der THIAM University
of Thiès in Science and Technology, specializing in Photovoltaic Solar Energy. His research is mainly
focused on renewable energies, power converters, signal processing, and intelligent systems. He has
published in several international journals. He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst, Vol. 15, No. 4, December 2024: 2526–2534