Plasticity of Brain : Neuropsychological aspect of plasticity of brain • Cerebral cortex and lateralization /

localization of functions

Neuropsychological aspect of plasticity of Brain

Neural plasticity, also known as neuroplasticity or brain plasticity, can be defined as the ability of
the nervous system to change its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by
reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections. A fundamental property of neurons is their
ability to modify the strength and efficacy of synaptic transmission through a diverse number of
activity-dependent mechanisms, typically referred to as synaptic plasticity. Brains exposed to
different environmental events such as sensory stimuli, stress, injury, diet, drugs, and social
relationships show a unique developmental trajectory. These changes are referred to as brain
plasticity, and they are associated with functional changes that include phenomena such as
memory, addiction, and recovery of function. The idea goes back even farther - the “father of
neuroscience”, Santiago Ramόn y Cajal, talked about “neuronal plasticity” in the early 1900s

Two main types of neuroplasticity-

Functional plasticity- involves changes in some physiological aspect of nerve cell function,
such as the frequency of nerve impulses or the probability of release of a chemical signal- both
of which act to make synaptic connections stronger or weaker.

Structural plasticity- includes volumetric changes in discrete brain regions and the formation of
new neural pathways, brought about either by the formation of new nerve fiber branches and
synapses or by the growth and addition of new cells.

Factors affecting brain plasticity: Factors that are now known to affect neuronal structure and
behavior include the following: experience (both leading pre- and post-natal); psychoactive
drugs (e.g. amphetamine, morphine); gonadal hormones (e.g.estrogen, testosterone);
anti-inflammatory agents; growth factors; dietary factors (e.g. vitamin and mineral); genetic
factors; disease (e.g. Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia); stress; brain injury.

CEREBRAL CORTEX
The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain, approximately 2-4 mm thick, consisting of
gray matter made up of neuronal cell bodies. It is divided into four primary lobes: frontal,
parietal, temporal, and occipital. The cerebral cortex is considered the "crowning feature" of the
human brain, linked to our most advanced mental capabilities. Its intricate structure and
organization enable the processing of vast amounts of information, contributing to complex
behaviors and higher-level thinking.
Structure
● Highly folded, with bulges known as **gyri** and deep furrows called **sulci**. This
folding increases the surface area, allowing for more neurons and greater cognitive
processing capacity.
● Divided into two hemispheres (right & left) separated by medial longitudinal fissure. The
two hemispheres communicate through the corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers.

Functions -It Plays a crucial role in higher mental functions, including perception, cognition,
decision-making, and emotional regulation. Each lobe of the cortex has specialized functions but
works collaboratively for integrated brain activity. It supports various cognitive processes,
making it essential for human thought, emotion, and behavior.

The cerebral cortex can be divided into 3 main regions:

● Neocortex: The evolutionarily newest part, with 6 layers.It is responsible for higher
cognitive functions like sensory perception, generation of motor commands, spatial
reasoning, language, and conscious thought.
● Allocortex: The older part with fewer than 6 layers. It includes the olfactory cortex and
hippocampus and plays a role in olfaction and memory.
● Archicortex: The oldest part with only 3 cortical layers which forms the hippocampus
and is involved in memory and spatial navigation.

LOBES
The cerebral cortex controls a vast array of functions through the use of the lobes, which are
divided based on the location of gyri and sulci. These lobes together serve many conscious and
unconscious functions, such as movement, processing language, intelligence , personality.

1. Frontal Lobe

Structure: Located at the front of the brain, the frontal lobe is the largest of the four lobes. It
includes the prefrontal cortex, motor cortex, and Broca's area (typically in the left hemisphere).

Functions:

● Executive Functions: Involved in higher-order processes like decision-making,

problem-solving, planning, and reasoning.
● Emotional Regulation: The prefrontal cortex interacts with the limbic system, helping to
manage emotions and impulses.
● Motor Control: The primary motor cortex coordinates voluntary movements.
● Language Production: Broca’s area is crucial for producing speech and language.
2. Parietal Lobe
Structure: Positioned behind the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe contains the somatosensory
cortex that integrates sensory information.

Functions:
● Sensory Processing: Responsible for processing tactile information, such as touch, pain,
temperature, and proprioception (sense of body position).
● Spatial Awareness: Helps in understanding spatial relationships and navigation, allowing
for coordination of movement in relation to the environment.
● Attention: Plays a role in selective attention, filtering relevant sensory inputs while
ignoring distractions.

3. Temporal Lobe
Structure: Located beneath the frontal and parietal lobes, the temporal lobe houses the auditory
cortex, Wernicke's area, and structures related to memory.

Functions:
● Auditory Processing: The primary auditory cortex processes sound information,
including pitch and volume.
● Language Comprehension: Wernicke's area is essential for understanding spoken and
written language.
● Memory Formation: The hippocampus, located in the medial temporal lobe, is critical
for forming new memories and recalling past experiences.
● Emotional Responses: The amygdala, also within the temporal lobe, is involved in
processing emotions, especially fear and pleasure.

4. Occipital Lobe
Structure: Situated at the back of the brain, the occipital lobe contains the primary visual cortex
and several visual association areas.
Functions:
● Visual Processing: The primary visual cortex interprets visual stimuli such as light,
color, and movement.
● Visual Recognition: Association areas in the occipital lobe integrate visual information
to recognize objects, faces, and patterns.
● Spatial Orientation: Helps in understanding the spatial arrangement of visual
information, contributing to depth perception and visual memory.

BRAIN LOCALISATION
Localization of brain function is the concept that specific cognitive processes and functions, such
as language, memory, and motor skills, are associated with particular areas of the brain. This idea
is fundamental in neuropsychology and is supported by modern neuroimaging techniques. For
instance, one part of the brain might be involved in storing memories, another in recognizing
faces, another in producing language.

Historical Overview: Early thinkers, like Plato, believed the soul resided in the head,
establishing the brain as the seat of reason. Franz Joseph Gall suggested that different parts of the
brain control specific personality traits, which helped popularize the idea of brain localization.
However, phrenology itself was later discredited as unscientific. Then later, Paul Broca identified
a brain area linked to language production, reinforcing localization theory. Fritsch and Hitzig
animal studies in 1870 confirmed that distinct brain areas control motor functions.

One such case study is that of Phineas Gage, who in 1848 while working on a rail line,
experienced a drastic accident in which a piece of iron went through his skull. Although Gage
survived this ordeal, he did experience a change in personality, such as loss of inhibition and
anger. This change provided evidence to support the theory of localisation of brain function, as it
was believed that the area the iron stake damaged was responsible for personality.

There are four key areas that you need to be aware of: motor, somatosensory, visual and
auditory areas.

Motor Area - It is located in the frontal lobe and is responsible for voluntary movements by
sending signals to the muscles in the body.

Somatosensory Area- It is located in the parietal lobe and receives incoming sensory
information from the skin to produce sensations related to pain, temperature, etc.

Visual Area- At the back of the brain, in the occipital lobe is the visual area, which receives
and processes visual information. Information from the right-hand side visual field is processed
in the left hemisphere, and information from the left-hand side visual field is processed in the
right hemisphere.

Auditory Area- It is located in the temporal lobe and is responsible for analyzing and
processing acoustic information. Information from the left ear goes primarily to the right.

BRAIN LATERALISATION
In 1836, Marc Dax presented a short report at a medical society. Dax was struck by the fact that
of the 40 or so brain damaged patients with speech problems he had seen during his career, not a
single one had been damaged or restricted to the right hemisphere. His report aroused interest
among the researchers and this later became the most important area of modern neuroscience.

Lateralisation theory : Brain lateralization, also known as cerebral lateralization of hemispheric

specialization, or cerebral lateralization, refers to how cognitive functions are divided between
the left and right hemispheres of the brain which are the cerebral hemispheres of the cerebral
cortex, each specializing in different types of information processing. The brain consists of two
hemispheres, connected by the corpus callosum, a thick band of neural fibers that facilitates
communication between them. Each hemisphere is further divided into four lobes.

Contralateral Organization: This means that the left hemisphere controls the right side of the
body and vice versa. Sensory information from one side of the body is processed by the opposite
hemisphere.

Bilateral processing occurs when information is sent to both hemispheres, as seen in hearing
and vision.
Ipsilateral processing involves information transmitted to only one side of the brain, such as
taste and olfaction.

Left Hemisphere: The left hemisphere is more analytical in nature and pays attention to details,
handles assignments or processes information sequentially and takes care of the tasks like
writing, reading and speaking. This hemisphere of the brain is also concerned with reasoning,
rationality, logic, discipline & rules and dealing with hard facts. People with a strong left
hemisphere have an inclination for science, math and technology, have a clear picture of their
goals due to a clear sense of planning, are physically quite active and extroverted in nature. The
left hemisphere controls the right portion of the body.

Functions –
● Language processing: The left hemisphere is dominant for language functions in most
individuals, including speech production, comprehension, reading, and writing.
● Logical and analytical thinking: It excels in tasks involving reasoning, logic, and
problem-solving, such as mathematics.
● Sequential processing: It enables individuals to follow step-by-step instructions and organise
information in a logical sequence.
● Fine motor skills: The left hemisphere controls fine motor movements on the right side of the
body, such as writing and intricate hand movements.

Discovery of specific contributions of left hemisphere -

1. Paul Broca reported post examination of two aphasic patients. Both the patients had a
left hemisphere lesion. By 1864, he had performed postmortem examinations on seven
more patients and he was amazed by the fact that all the patients had damage to the
inferior prefrontal cortex which came to be known as Broca’s Area.
2. In the 1900s, Hugo-Keil Liepmann discovered that apraxia (difficulty with movement)
was usually linked to damage in the left hemisphere, similar to how aphasia works. This
led to the idea that the left hemisphere controls important functions like language and
movement, calling it the "dominant hemisphere." The right hemisphere was then referred
to as the "minor hemisphere" because it was seen as less involved in these functions.
Right Hemisphere: The right hemisphere deals with the softer facets of life. This hemisphere of
the brain is concerned with emotions, feelings, intuitions, visualization, spatial knowledge,
creativity and recognizing patterns. Right hemisphere also helps in making inferences and
provides a holistic perception, as a result of which the right hemisphere is helpful in developing a
strong self perception or sense of self-awareness. Right hemisphere controls the left side of the
body, looks after the motor skills, sports & play, risk enduring capabilities, variety, flexibility and
people with a strong right hemisphere are mostly introverts. Certain Tests of cerebral
lateralization include Sodium amytal test , Dichtoic Listening Test , Functional brain imaging.
Some of the functions are –

● Spatial awareness: The right hemisphere plays a key role in spatial perception, including
understanding distances, spatial relationships, and navigation.
● Visual processing: It specializes in processing visual information, such as recognizing faces,
interpreting visual scenes, and understanding non-verbal cues.
● Creativity and imagination: The right hemisphere is associated with creative thinking, artistic
expression, and musical abilities.
● Emotional processing: It is involved in recognizing and expressing emotions, empathy, and
understanding social cues.

Examples of cerebral lateralization

Kim et al. (1993) found that damage to the left hemisphere is more likely to cause motor issues
on the same side of the body.
Specialization of the Right Hemisphere for Emotion _Unilateral brain lesion studies reveal
that the right hemisphere is better at identifying emotions, particularly in recognizing facial
expressions (Bowler et al., 1985).
Hemispheric Differences in Memory _Both hemispheres can perform memory tasks, but the
left is specialized for verbal and episodic memory, while the right excels in non-verbal memory.

SPLIT BRAIN
Roger Sperry performed experiments on cats, monkeys, and humans to study functional
differences between the two hemispheres of the brain in the United States. To do so he studied
the corpus callosum. Sperry severed the corpus callosum in cats and monkeys to study the
function of each side of the brain. He found that if hemispheres were not connected, they
functioned independently of one another, which he called a split-brain. The split-brain enabled
animals to memorise double the information.

Later, Sperry tested the same idea in humans with their corpus callosum serving as treatment for
epilepsy. He found that the hemispheres in human brains had different functions. The left
hemisphere interpreted language but not the right. These experiments provided crucial insights
into brain lateralization. They also helped advance our understanding of conditions such as
epilepsy and how certain treatments, like corpus callosotomy, can affect brain function. For
instance, in split-brain patients, each hemisphere may process information independently, leading
to phenomena such as one hand not knowing what the other is doing or the two halves of the
brain having different interpretations of stimuli presented to them.

Experiment of Sperry and Gazzaniga: Neuropsychologists Vogel and Bogen developed a new
treatment for severe epilepsy by separating the brain’s two hemispheres, despite a previous
failure. Sperry and Gazzaniga studied the patients, discovering how the two brain halves work
separately. This groundbreaking research earned Sperry the Nobel Prize in 1981.

- Each Split Brain Patient was asked to fixate on the center of a display screen, then visual
stimuli was flashed onto the left or right side of the screen for 0.1 second. The 0.1 exposure
time was long enough for the subjects to perceive stimuli. All stimuli presented in the left
visual field were transmitted to the right visual cortex and vica versa.

- Tests on split-brain patients confirmed that, similar to laboratory animals, humans with split
brains appear to have two distinct consciousnesses, each with its own abilities, memories,
and emotions. However, unlike the animal studies, the two hemispheres in humans are not
equal in their capabilities. The left hemisphere is typically responsible for speech and
language tasks, while the right hemisphere lacks this ability. This demonstrates a significant
difference in how each side of the human brain functions.

DISCOVERY OF RELATION BETWEEN SPEECH LATERALITY AND HANDEDNESS

Fetal Hand Preference: Research using ultrasound has found that hand preference can be
detected as early as 15 weeks of gestation, indicated by fetuses’ preference for sucking either
their right or left hand digits (Hepper, Shahidullah, & White, 1991).

Language and Hemisphere Damage:Left-handers with right hemisphere damage are more
likely to experience language problems compared to right-handers with similar damage.

Spatial Skills and Hemisphere Damage: Right-handers are more affected in spatial skills after
right hemisphere damage than left-handers.

Less Lateralization in Left-Handers: Left-handers tend to show less lateralization and

functional asymmetry in both language and spatial skills, as supported by tests of dichotic
listening and divided visual attention (Springer & Deutsch, 1998).