ROUTING :

Basic Routing Now it’s time for some basic routing rules. Routing is also known as “tracking”.
Routing is the process of laying down tracks to connect components on your board. An electrical
connection between two or more pads is known as a “net”.  Keep nets as short as possible. The
longer your total track length, the greater it’s resistance, capacitance and inductance. All of
which can be undesirable factors.  Tracks should only have angles of 45 degrees. Avoid the use
of right angles, and under no circumstances use an angle greater than 90 degrees. This is
important to give a professional and neat appearance to your board. PCB packages will have a
mode to enforce 45 degree movements, make use of it. There should never be a need to turn it
off. Contrary to popular belief, sharp right angle corners on tracks don’t produce measurable
EMI or other problems. The reasons to avoid right angles are much simpler - it just doesn’t look
good, and it may have some manufacturing implications.  Forget nice rounded track corners,
they are harder and slower to place and have no real advantage. Stick to 45 degree increments.
Rounded track bends belong to the pre-CAD taped artwork era.  “Snake” your tracks around
the board, don’t just go “point to point”. Point to point tracking may look more efficient to a
beginner at first, but there are a few reasons you shouldn’t use it. The first is that it’s ugly,
always an important factor in PCB design! The second is that it is not very space efficient when
you want to run more tracks on other layers.  Enable your Electrical grid, which is sometimes
referred to as a “snap to center” or “snap to nearest” option. Let the software find the centers of
pads and ends of tracks automatically for you. This is great for when you have pads and tracks
which aren’t lined up to your current snap grid. If you don’t have these options enabled then you
may have to keep reducing your snap grid until you find one that fits. Far more trouble than it’s
worth. There is almost never a reason to have these options disabled.  Always take your track to
the center of the pad, don’t make your track and pad “just touch”. There are few reasons for this.
The first is that it’s sloppy and unprofessional. The second is that your program may not think
that the track is making electrical connection to the pad. Proper use of a snap grid and electrical
grid will avoid problems here.  Use a single track, not multiple tracks tacked together end to
end. It may make no difference to the look of your final board, but it can be a pain for future
editing. Often you’ll have to extend a track a bit. In this case it’s best to delete the old one and
place a new one. It may take a few extra seconds, but it’s worth it. People looking at your
finished board may not know, but YOU’LL know! It’s the little touches like this that set good
PCB designers apart.  Make sure your tracks go right through the exact center of pads and
components, and not off to one side. Use of the correct snap grid will ensure that you get this
right every time. If your track doesn’t go through the exact center then you are using the wrong
snap grid. Why do you need to do this? It makes your board neater and more symmetrical, and it
gives you the most clearance.  Only take one track between 100 thou pads unless absolutely
necessary. Only on large and very dense designs should you consider two tracks between pads.
Three tracks between pads is not unheard of, but we are talking seriously fine tolerances here. 
For high currents, use multiple vias when going between layers. This will reduce your track
impedance and improve the reliability. This is a general rule whenever you need to decrease the
impedance of your track or power plane.  Don’t “drag” tracks to angles other than 45 degrees 
“Neck down” between pads where possible. Eg, a 10 thou track through two 60 thou pads gives a
generous 15 thou clearance between track and pad.  If your power and ground tracks are
deemed to be critical, then lay them down first. Also, make your power tracks as BIG as
possible.  Keep power and ground tracks running in close proximity to each other if possible,
don’t send them in opposite directions around the board. This lowers the loop inductance of your
power system, and allows for effective bypassing.  Keep things symmetrical. Symmetry in
tracking and component placement is really nice from a professional aesthetics point of view. 
Don’t leave any unconnected copper fills (also called “dead copper”), ground them or take them
out

Grounding Concept

Grounding Good grounding is a system-level design consideration. It should be planned into the
product from the first conceptual design reviews.

The Most Important Rule: Keep Grounds Separate Separate grounding for analog and digital
portions of circuitry is one of the simplest and most effective methods of noise suppression. One
or more layers on multi-layer PCBs are usually devoted to ground planes. If the designer is not
careful, the analog circuitry will be connected directly to these ground planes. The analog
circuitry return, after all, is the same net in the netlist as digital return. Autorouters respond
accordingly and connect all of the grounds together, creating a disaster. After the fact separation
of grounds on a mixed digital and analog board is almost impossible. Every ground connection in
the analog circuitry must be lifted from the board and connected together. For surface mount
boards, this results in a colossal mess of “tombstoned” passive components and floating IC leads.
Other Ground Rules Ground and power planes are at the same ac potential, due to decoupling
capacitors and distributed capacitance. Therefore, it is important to isolate the power planes as
well. Do not overlap digital and analog planes (Figure 17–2). Place analog power coincident
with analog ground, and digital power coincident with digital ground. If any portion of analog
and digital planes overlap, the distributed capacitance between the overlapping portions will
couple high-speed digital noise into the analog circuitry. This defeats the purpose of isolated
planes.

Grounding is fundamental to the operation of many circuits. Good or bad grounding techniques
can make or break your design. There are several grounding techniques which are always good
practices to incorporate into any design.  Use copper, and lots of it. The more copper you have
in your ground path, the lower the impedance. This is highly desirable for many electrical
reasons. Use polygon fills and planes where possible.  Always dedicate one of your planes to
ground on multi-layer boards. Make it the layer closest to the top layer.  Run separate ground
paths for critical parts of your circuit, back to the main filter capacitor(s). This is known as “star”
grounding, because the ground tracks all run out from a central point, often looking like a star. In
fact, try and do this as matter of course, even if your components aren’t critical. Separate ground
lines keep current and noise from one component from affecting other components.  If using a
ground plane, utilise “split” plane techniques to give effective star grounding.  “stitch” required
points straight through to your ground plane, don’t use any more track length than you need. 
Use multiple vias to decrease your trace impedance to ground.

1. Voltage n current rating should be note using PSPICE software

2. Component size should be known
3. Traces and pad size should be noted depend on components size
4. Values of each component should be given before execution
5.track connection from one component to another should be connected properly

What is layout planning.

The PCB layout stage includes setting up the design tool, board outline, import of netlist,
component placement, routing, silkscreen cleanup, DRC check, and generation of documents for
production (Gerbers, netlist, etc.).

SETTING UP THE STACK-UP

The board layout is started by setting the stack-up and design rules. The stack-up is set up in the
tool using the Layer Stackup Manager tool. The stack-up design generated by the stack-up tool
from the PCB manufacturer is used as a reference to set up the stack-up in the layout tool.

Steps to design your PCB stack-up:

1. A single layer stack-up by default is defined when a new board is created.

2. The currently selected stack is duplicated if you click on the Add Stack button. Once the
new stack is added, the name and the properties can be changed in the stack properties
tab of the dialog box.
3. Click on the Add Layer button to add a separate solder mask and over layers.
4. The order of the stack-up can be changed using the Move Left and Move Right buttons
that are present at the bottom right of the stack-up tab.
5. For flexible PCBs, the flex stack-up should have its Flex option enabled. Flex bending is
defined by placing a Bending Line across the flex region (Design » Board Shape menu)

What do you mean by Ground plane in PCB Designing .

A ground plane on a printed circuit board (PCB) is a large area or layer of copper foil connected
to the circuit's ground point, usually one terminal of the power supply It serves as the return path
for current from many different components.

A ground plane is often made as large as possible, covering most of the area of the PCB which is
not occupied by circuit traces. In multilayer PCBs, it is often a separate layer covering the entire
board. This serves to make circuit layout easier, allowing the designer to ground any component
without having to run additional traces; component leads needing grounding are routed directly
through a hole in the board to the ground plane on another layer. The large area of copper also
conducts the large return currents from many components without significant voltage drops,
ensuring that the ground connection of all the components are at the same reference potential.

In digital and radio frequency PCBs, the major reason for using large ground planes is to
reduce electrical noise and interference through ground loops and to prevent crosstalk between
adjacent circuit traces. When digital circuits switch state, large current pulses flow from the
active devices (transistors or integrated circuits) through the ground circuit. If the power supply
and ground traces have significant impedance, the voltage drop across them may create noise
voltage pulses that disturb other parts of the circuit (ground bounce). The large conducting area
of the ground plane has much lower impedance than a circuit trace, so the current pulses cause
less disturbance.

Where does microwave PCBs are used.

 Radio Frequency (RF) and microwave PCBs consist of components that can sustain the
transmission of high-frequency signals.
 In industrial applications like aerospace electronic circuitry, electronic setups exposed to
high noise and vibration, electronic equipment located in electromagnetic/radio
frequencies/microwave frequencies, etc these PCBs are of great significance.
 These PCBs can sustain wave frequencies between 3 kHz and 300 GHz. The frequency
range is categorized into the following subcategories.
o Low-Frequency Signals: Signals up to 50 MHz frequencies fall under this
category.
o RF Signals: Radio frequency signals between 50 MHz and 1 GHz frequencies fall
under this category.
o Microwave Signals: High-frequency microwave signals between 1 GHz to 30GHz
frequencies fall under this category.
o

Write a note on Photo resist in PCB

Photoresist is an organic polymer which changes its chemical structure when exposed to
ultraviolet light.
It contains a light-sensitive substance whose properties allow image transfer onto a printed
circuit board.
There are two types of photoresist: positive and negative
Positive photoresist:

1. A positive resist is a type of photoresist in which the portion of the photoresist that is
exposed to light becomes soluble to the photoresist developer.
2. The unexposed portion of the photoresist remains insoluble to the photoresist developer.
3. The exposed resist is then washed away by the developer solution, leaving windows of
the bare underlying material.
4. The mask, therefore, contains an exact copy of the pattern which is to remain on the
wafer, as a stencil for subsequent processing.

Negative photoresist:

1. A negative photoresist is a type of photoresist in which the portion of the photoresist that
is exposed to light becomes insoluble to the photoresist developer.
2. The unexposed portion of the photoresist is dissolved by the photoresist developer.
3. The developer solution removes only the unexposed areas.
4. Masks used for negative photoresists, therefore, contain the inverse or photographic
"negative" of the pattern to be transferred.

Write an note on Manual routing.

The manual routing technique is certainly the one that offers the greatest personal satisfaction,
even if it requires a lot of time and patience. It consists in manually placing the traces that
connect the components, defining technical properties such as thickness, width, distance and
angle of curvature. In this operation, the designer is helped by a specialized software tool, able to
report any violations of the routing rules.

The PCB characteristics that lead many designers to prefer manual routing over the other
techniques are the following:

 short length traces: if the distance between the pins to be connected is very small,
manual routing is the technique that produces the most reliable and accurate results; as
well as being satisfying, it can be performed almost mechanically;
 traces angle: on the traces, right angles must absolutely be avoided as, during
manufacturing, the etching process could create dangerous short circuits; sharp angles
should also be avoided. With manual routing, the designer can shape the trace by
applying the appropriate degree of curvature. In Figure 2 we can see an example of PCB
where the correct routing angle has been respected;
 highly complex circuit: the PCB areas where the components density and the number of
interconnections are particularly high require special attention. In these cases, the
designer can brilliantly solve many routing problems that could put an automatic tool in
crisis.

What is meant by Net listing

Description:
The netlist contains the electrical connections between the components on the circuit board, and
is usually held in textual format

In printed circuit board production a netlist (generated from the production data) is used to carry
out an electrical test (E-test) to find incorrect or missing connections. The (formerly) common
format does contain no netlist, as opposed to the more modern format

Explain in details PCB layout designing using SPICE/PSPICE environment.

SPICE has the ability to simulate components ranging from the most basic passive elements such
as resistors and capacitors to sophisticated semiconductor devices such as MESFETs and
MOSFETs. Using these intrinsic components as the basic building blocks for larger models,
designers and chip manufacturers have been able to define a truly vast and diverse number of
SPICE models. Most commercially available simulators include more than 15,000 different
components.
 The quality of SPICE models can vary, and not all SPICE models are applicable to every
application. It is important to consider this when using the models supplied with a SPICE
simulation package. Using a SPICE model inappropriately can lead to inaccurate results, or even
generate an error in some circumstances. One of the most common errors made by even seasoned
engineers is confusing a SPICE model with a PSPICE model. PSPICE is a commercially
available program that uses proprietary languages to define components and models.

The PCB layout stage includes setting up the design tool, board outline, import of netlist,
component placement, routing, silkscreen cleanup, DRC check, and generation of documents for
production (Gerbers, netlist, etc.).

SETTING UP THE STACK-UP

The board layout is started by setting the stack-up and design rules. The stack-up is set up in the
tool using the Layer Stackup Manager tool. The stack-up design generated by the stack-up tool
from the PCB manufacturer is used as a reference to set up the stack-up in the layout tool.

Steps to design your PCB stack-up:

1. A single layer stack-up by default is defined when a new board is created.

2. The currently selected stack is duplicated if you click on the Add Stack button. Once the
new stack is added, the name and the properties can be changed in the stack properties
tab of the dialog box.
3. Click on the Add Layer button to add a separate solder mask and over layers.
4. The order of the stack-up can be changed using the Move Left and Move Right buttons
that are present at the bottom right of the stack-up tab.
5. For flexible PCBs, the flex stack-up should have its Flex option enabled. Flex bending is
defined by placing a Bending Line across the flex region (Design » Board Shape menu)

Explain in detail the screen printing process with respect to PCB

The silkscreen is a layer of ink trace used to identify the PCB components, marks, logos,
symbols, and so on. If you see, a PCB comprises two parts – components and soldering. Mostly,
the silkscreen is applied to the component part of the PCB. Nowadays, it is also applied to the
soldering part. The silkscreen printing helps both – the manufacturer and the engineer to identify
different parts easily.
A silkscreen may not have any role in the functioning of a PCB; however, it is valued for the
information that it delivers. For instance, it will help anyone to:
 Understand the warning symbols
 Polarity of parts
 Identify the test points
 Locate the parts through reference designators
 Identify the numbers that are unique to the printed circuit board.
 Identify manufacturer marks, version numbers, and so on
Methods of Silk Screen Printing
The silkscreen is applied on the PCB in three ways:
1. Manual Screen Printing:
This is done for PCBs when the registration tolerance is 0.005" or line widths are greater than
0.007". Manual screen printing is performed using a stencil comprising text and traces. The
traces are made using nylon. The ink is directed through the stencil on to the layer or laminate.
Next, the ink is cured in the baking oven. This is one of the easiest ways of creating a silkscreen
layer and it supports large text size, too. It may take years to perfect this art.
2. Liquid Photo Imaging (LPI):
This method is used for screen printing the lines that are greater than 4 mil. The process of LPI is
almost the same as the solder mask application. However, in this method, the laminate is coated
with epoxy, and then it is brought under the UV light. The board is cured and developed after it.
This method ensures higher accuracy than manual screen printing.
LPI uses white color, and it requires more ink than the other two types of silk screen printing.
The setup time for this type of printing is high.
3. Direct Legend Printing (DLP):
This is one of the most expensive processes among the other three. During this process, inkjet
projector and acrylic inks are used. The ink is applied to the PCB using the CAD software. The
ink is then exposed to the UV light. The acrylic link is not suited for the PCBs that may have
silver finishes.

What is PCB Plating?

When the topic of circuit board plating is discussed, it is immediately assumed that a multilayer
PCB, which may have various via types, is the focus. Although it certainly could be, this is too
narrow a perspective. A more comprehensive definition of PCB plating is given below.

PCB plating may be defined as one or both of the following:

1.
1. Via plating - the process of filling a drilled hole with copper to provide a path for
current from a surface of the board to an inner layer, between two inner layers or
from one surface to the other. These plated through holes (PTHs) are better
known as vias.
2. Surface plating or finishing - the process of covering surface copper traces to
protect against the environment, oxidation, moisture, and contamination, and to
provide a more suitable surface for soldering components during printed circuit
board assembly (PCBA).
 Both of the processes listed above may be referred to as PCB plating. And although the primary
objective of both is to help facilitate good current flow along board circuit paths, there are
differences in the materials used.

Types of Materials used for PCB Plating

PCB plating material is typically a metallic alloy, mostly composed of the following metals:

 Via plating

 Copper
 Surface finishing

 Gold
 Silver
 Tin
 Nickel

What are the factors to be considered while choosing equipment for etching.

PCB is an acronym that stands for Printed Circuit Board that helps to connect active & passive
electronic components with pads, tracks, and lines incorporated on a laminated copper sheet. A
number of stages are involved in proper PCB fabrications which include designing, layout,
routing, etching & troubleshooting. In this article, we will take a deep dive into the step by step
process on How to Etch a PCB.

PCB Etching is the process of copper-clad being removed from another substrate surface. The
etching process involves using liquid chemicals to take off the substrate material before they are
used in fabrication. Alternative methods include plasma etching and laser etching. Mostly,
Chemical etching is used in PCB fabrication which is a subtractive process that utilizes chemical
baths.

 Copper Clad Board w/ Fiber sheet Base. 100x70mm. ...

 Glossy Photo paper. – ...
 Rubbing Alcohol. – ...
 Acetone. – ...
 Flat Iron (In case you want to use heating method for circuit transfer) – ...
 Ferric Chloride Solution (FeCl3) – ...
 Etching Tray. – ...
 Scratch Pen. –

In soldering of metals, flux serves a threefold purpose: it removes any oxidized metal from the
surfaces to be soldered, seals out air thus preventing further oxidation, and by
facilitating amalgamation improves wetting characteristics of the liquid solder.[6] Some fluxes
are corrosive, so the parts have to be cleaned with a damp sponge or other absorbent material
after soldering to prevent damage. Several types of flux are used in electronics.[7]
A number of standards exist to define the various flux types. The principal standard is J-STD-
004.
Various tests, including the ROSE test, may be used after soldering to check for the presence of
ionic or other contaminants that could cause short circuits or other problems.
Brazing and silver soldering
Brazing(sometimes known as silver soldering or hard soldering) requires a much higher
temperature than soft soldering, sometimes over 850 °C. As well as removing existing oxides,
rapid oxidation of the metal at the elevated temperatures has to be avoided. This means that
fluxes need to be more aggressive and to provide a physical barrier. Traditionally borax was used
as a flux for brazing, but there are now many different fluxes available, often using active
chemicals such as fluorides as well as wetting agents. Many of these chemicals are toxic and due
care should be taken during their use.
Smelting
In the process of smelting, inorganic chlorides, fluorides (see fluorite), limestone and other
materials are designated as "fluxes" when added to the contents of a smelting furnace or
a cupola for the purpose of purging the metal of chemical impurities such as phosphorus, and of
rendering slag more liquid at the smelting temperature. The slag is a liquid mixture of ash, flux,
and other impurities. This reduction of slag viscosity with temperature, increasing the flow of
slag in smelting, is the original origin of the word flux in metallurgy.
The flux most commonly used in iron and steel furnaces is limestone, which is charged in the
proper proportions with the iron and fuel

What is PCB material ? list the types of PCBs.

Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) are classified into various types based on manufacturing
processes, design specifications, and application requirements such as medical, automotive,
defense, and space. More complex designs based on consumers’ needs and requirements pave
the way for manufacturing different types of PCB boards. Before you pick a PCB, you must look
for a few considerations like space required, stress handling, and mechanical and electrical
stability.
 The different types of PCBs available are

 Single-Sided PCBs
 Double-Sided PCBs
 Multilayer PCBs
 Rigid PCBs
 Flex PCBs
 Rigid-Flex PCBs

Single-Sided PCBs

A single-sided PCB is the most common type of printed circuit board. It has a single conductive
copper layer above the substrate. The electrical components are soldered or placed on one side of
the board, and the entire etched circuit is visible on the other. Since these boards only have one
conducting layer, the conductive paths cannot intersect or overlap and hence take up a lot of
space.

Double-Sided PCBs

A thin layer of conducting material, such as copper, is added to both the top and bottom sides of
the board in a double-sided PCB. Holes in the circuit board allow metal parts to be connected
from one side to the other. These PCBs connect the circuits on either side using one of two
mounting methods, through-hole technology or surface mount technology. Through-hole
technology entails installing lead components into pre-drilled holes on the circuit board, which
are then soldered to pads on opposite sides. Surface mount technology entails the precise
placement of electrical components on the surface of circuit boards.

Double-sided PCBs are used in a variety of applications such as cell phone systems, power
monitoring, test equipment, amplifiers, HVAC application, UPS system, and many more.

Multi-Layer PCBs

Multilayer PCBs have more than two copper layers. In general, any board featuring at least three
conductive layers is included in this category. Multilayer PCBs are designed in a ‘sandwich’
fashion, with several double-sided conductive layers divided by an equal number of insulating
material sheets. All of these must be bonded and laminated together under high pressures and
temperatures to ensure that no air gaps exist and that the final PCB assembly is properly stable.
Multi-layer PCBs are used in computers, laptops, mobile phones, tablets, medical equipment,
GPS trackers, and many other more complex circuits and devices.

Rigid PCBs

As the name implies, a rigid PCB is a circuit board that cannot be twisted or folded. The board’s
base material is a rigid substrate, which gives the board rigidity and strength. They are composed
of multiple layers including a substrate layer, a copper layer, a solder mask layer, and a silk
screen layer which are adhered together with adhesive and heat. Although some circuit boards
are either single-sided, double-sided, or multi-layered, rigid PCBs may be any of these
depending on the needs. However, once made, they cannot be modified or changed.

Rigid PCBs are used in GPS equipment, computer, laptops, tablets, mobile phones, X-rays, heart
monitors, CAT scans, MRI systems, temperature sensors, control tower instrumentation, etc.

Flex PCBs

A flexible printed circuit board is made up of many printed circuits and components that are
arranged on a flexible substrate. Flexible PCBs are commonly made from polyamide, PEEK
(Polyether ether ketone), or a transparent conductive polyester film. Flex circuit boards, flex
PCBs, flex circuits, and versatile printed circuits are other names for these circuit boards. These
printed circuit boards are made using the same components as rigid printed circuit boards. The
main distinction is that the board is designed to flex to the desired form throughout the
application. These PCBs are available in single-sided, double-sided, and multilayer
configurations. This contributes to a reduction in the complexity of the unit assembly.

Flex PCBs are used in organic light emitting diode (OLED) fabrication, LCD fabrication, flex
solar cell, automotive industries, cellular telephones, cameras, and complex electronics products
such as laptop computers.

Write a notes Recycling techniques of PCB

Commercial resource recycling process Due to years of study by research institutes, the recycling
industry and government promotions, the recycling wastes from printed circuit board processes
that contain valuable resources has been very fruitful in Taiwan. Some examples that have been
reported as successful are described below.

 Recovery of copper metal from edge trim of printed circuit boards

 Recovery of tin metal from tin/lead solder dross
 Recovery of copper oxide from wastewater sludge
 Recovery of copper from spent basic etching solution
  Recovery of copper hydroxide from copper sulfate solution in PTH process
 Recovery of copper from the rack stripping process
 Recovery of copper from spent tin/lead stripping solution in the solder stripping process

Mention the rules for digital circuit design

Printed circuit boards are typically made with copper. Depending on the requirements, the
copper is plated to a substrate and carved away to expose the design of the board. Since there are
multiple layers, they must be lined up and bonded together for a secure fit.

Step 1 – The Design

Before you begin manufacturing the PCB, you need to have a design of the board. These
blueprints will be what you base the process off of. The design process is generally completed
through computer software. Using a trace width calculator will help with a majority of the details
needed for inner and external layers.
Step 2 – Printing the Design
A special printer called a plotted printer is used to print the design of the PCB. It produces a film
that shows the details and layers of the board. When printed, there will be two ink colors used on
the inside layer of the board:

 Clear Ink to show the non-conductive areas; and

 Black Ink to show the conductive copper traces and circuits.
The same colors are used for the outer layers, but the meaning of them is reversed.

Step 3 – Creating the Substrate

Now is when the PCB will start to form. The substrate, which is the insulating material (epoxy
resin and glass fiber) that holds the components on the structure, begins forming by passing the
materials through an oven to be semicured. Copper is pre-bonded to both sides of the layer and
then etched away to show the design from the printed films.

Step 4 – Printing the Inner Layers

The design is printed to a laminate, the body of the structure. A photo-sensitive film made from
photo-reactive chemicals that will harden when exposed to ultraviolet light (the resist) covers the
structure.. This will help align the blueprints and the actual print of the board. Holes are drilled
into the PCB to help with the alignment process.

Step 5 – Ultraviolet Light

Once aligned, the resist and laminate go under ultraviolet lights to harden the photoresist. The
light reveals the pathways of copper. The black ink from before prevents hardening in areas that
will be removed later on. The board is then washed in an alkaline solution to remove the excess
photoresist.

Step 6 – Removing Unwanted Copper

Now, it is time to remove any unwanted copper that remained on the board. A chemical solution,
similar to the alkaline solution, eats away at the unwanted copper. The hardened photoresist
remains intact.

Step 7 – Inspection
The newly-cleaned layers will need to be inspected for alignment. The holes drilled earlier help
align the inner and outer layers. An optical punch machine drills a pin through the holes to keep
the layers lined up. After the optical punch, another machine will inspect the board to ensure
there are no defects. From here on out, you will not be able to correct any missed errors.

Step 8 – Laminating the Layers

Now, you will see the board take shape as the layers are fused together. Metal clamps hold the
layers together as the laminating process begins. A prepreg (epoxy resin) layer goes on the
alignment basin. Then, a layer of substrate goes over the prepreg followed by a copper foil layer
and more prepreg resin. Lastly, there is on more copper layer applied, which is the press plate.

Step 9 – Pressing the Layers

A mechanical press is then used to press the layers together. Pins are punch through the layers to
keep them properly aligned and secured, these pins can be removed depending on the
technology. If correct, the PCB will go to the laminating press, which applies heat and pressure
to the layers. The epoxy melts inside of the prepreg that, along with the pressure, fuses the layers
together.
Step 10 – Drilling
Holes are drilled into the layers by a computer-guided drill to expose the substrate and inner
panels. Any remaining copper after this step is removed.

Step 11 – Plating
The board is now ready to be plated. A chemical solution fuses all of the layers together. The
board is then thoroughly cleaned by another series of chemicals. These chemicals also coat the
panel with a thin copper layer, which will seep into the drilled holes.

Step 12 – Outer Layer Imaging

Next, a layer of photoresist, similar to Step 3, is applied to the outside layer before being sent for
imaging. Ultraviolet light hardens the photoresist. Any undesired photoresist is removed.

Step 13 – Plating
Just like in Step 11, the panel is plated with a thin copper layer. After this, a thin tin guard is
layered to the board. The tin is there to protect the copper of the outside layer from being etched
off.

Step 14 – Etching
The same chemical solution from before removes any unwanted copper under the resist layer.
The tin guard layer protects the needed copper. This step established the PCB’s connections.

Step 15 – Solder Mask Application

All of the panels should be cleaned before the solder mask is applied. An epoxy is applied with
the solder mask film. The solder mask applies the green color you typically see on a PCB. Any
unwanted solder mask is removed with ultraviolet light, while the wanted solder mask is baked
on to the board.

Step 16 – Silkscreening
Silkscreening is a vital step since this process is what prints critical information onto the board.
Once applied, the PCB passes through one last coating and curing process.
Step 17 – Surface Finish
The PCB is plated with either a solderable finish, depending on the requirements, which will
increase the quality/bond of the solder.
Step 18 – Testing
Before the PCB is considered complete, a technician will perform an electrical test on the board.
This will confirm the PCB functions and follows the original blueprint designs.

Write the features of PSPICE environment

Improves simulation times, reliability and convergence for large designs

• Improves speed without loss of accuracy via integrated analog and event-driven digital
simulations
• Explores circuit behavior using basic DC, AC, noise and transient analysis
• Allows system-level interfaces to be integrated with electrical designs using the
PSpice® Systems Option.
• Library selection of 33,000+ analog and mixed-signal models
• Allows for automatic identification of analog and digital signals and automatically applies A-
to-D and D-to-A interfaces
• Allows designers to explore design relationships with “what if” scenarios before committing to
hardware
• Enables designers to identify and simulate functional blocks of complex circuitry using
mathematical expressions, functions and behavioral devices

What are the rules and parameter with respect to PCB design.

Rule 1: Choose the right grid-set and always use the grid spacing that matches the most
components.

Rule 2: Keep the path shortest and most direct.

Rule 3: Use the power layer as much as possible to manage the distribution of power lines and
ground lines.

Rule 4: Group related components together with the required test points.

Rule 5: Copy the required circuit board on another larger circuit board multiple times for PCB
imposition.

Rule 6: Integrate component values.

Rule 7: Perform design rule checks (DRC) as much as possible.

Rule 8: Use screen printing flexibly.

Rule 9: Decoupling capacitors must be selected.

.Rule 10: Generate PCB manufacturing parameters and verify them before submitting for
production.

How do you plan Routing and what are the parameter you consider while Routing..

placement routing plays a major role in PCB design, the quality of the board depends on
placement and routing, good placement and routing can reduce your board fabrication cost also.
Place components by considering routing strategy and follow schematic flow once your
placement is done do fanout for all the components, route high-speed interfaces and complex
areas first, and maintain required spacing between the traces and components as per the
manufacturer's specifications. Here are some tips to follow while designing the PCB. 1. Make
Your Power and Ground Traces Wider 2. Always Create a Ground Plane 3. Avoid Using 90
Degree Trace Angles 4. Leave Enough Space Between Traces 5.Figure Out Your Trace Widths
6. Don’t Rely only On Your Autorouter