Last updated 18/04/2020

2
• We know through the mining activity that temperature and pressure
increase with the increasing distance from the surface towards the
interior in deeper depths. Moreover, it is also known that the density
of the material also increases with depth. Thus the differential
change in these characteristics can also be treated as a source to
understand the interior of earth.
• Will it be an indirect or direct source of information?

3
 Direct Indirect
Rock analysis, Drilling, Differential change in P, T
Volcanic eruption and Density; Meteors;
Gravitation: Gravity anomaly;
Magnetic survey; Seismic
activities

4
5
INTRO:
• the earth’s surface is being continuously subjected to by external forces
{exogenic} originating within the earth’s atmosphere and by internal forces
{endogenic} from within the earth.
• phenomenon of wearing down of relief variations of the surface of the earth
through erosion is known as gradation.
• endogenic forces are mainly land building forces and the exogenic processes
are mainly land wearing forces.

6
GEOMORPHIC PRO:
• the endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical stresses and chemical
actions on earth materials and bringing about changes in the configuration of
the surface of the earth are known as geomorphic processes.
• diastrophism and volcanism are endogenic.
weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition are exogenic.
• geomorphic agent = any exogenic element of nature (like water, ice, wind,
etc.,) capable of acquiring and transporting earth materials.

7
• Gravity besides being a directional force activating all downslope
movements of matter also causes stresses on the earth’s materials.
Indirect gravitational stresses activate wave and tide induced currents
and winds. Without gravity and gradients there would be no mobility and
hence no erosion, transportation and deposition are possible. so,
gravitational stresses are as important as the other geomorphic
processes.

8
ENDOGENIC G.P.:
• Main energy is from earth’s core >> mostly generated by radioactivity,
rotational and tidal friction and primordial heat from the origin of the
earth.
• this energy due to geothermal gradients and heat flow from within induces
diastrophism and volcanism in the lithosphere.
• due to variations in geothermal gradients and heat flow from within, crustal
thickness and strength, the action of endogenic forces are not uniform and
hence the tectonically controlled original crustal surface is uneven.

9
10
11
Diastrophism includes:
• Orogenic processes = mountain building through severe folding and
affecting long and narrow belts of the earth’s crust;
• Epeirogenic processes = uplift or warping of large parts of the earth’s
crust, continental building
• Earthquakes involving local relatively minor movements;
• Plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates.
• Through these processes, there can be faulting and fracturing of the crust.
All these processes cause pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) changes
which in turn induce metamorphism of rocks.

12
VOLCANISM
• A place where gases, ashes and/or molten rock material – lava – escape to
the ground = Volcano
• The mantle contains a weaker zone called asthenosphere >> from this the
molten rock materials find their way to the surface.
• The material in upper mantle portion is called magma. once it starts moving
towards the crust or it reaches the surface, it is referred to as lava.
• The material that reaches the ground includes lava flows, pyroclastic
debris, volcanic bombs, ash and dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds,
Sulphur compounds and minor amounts of chlorene, hydrogen and argon.

13
14
  Mostly made up of basalt,
a type of lava that is very
fluid when erupted.
 For this reason, these
volcanoes are not steep.
 They become explosive if
somehow water gets into
the vent; otherwise, they
are characterised by low -
explosivity.
 The upcoming lava moves in
the form of a fountain and
throws out the cone at the
top of the vent and
develops into cinder cone.

15
  Eruptions of cooler and
more viscous lavas than
basalt.
 Along with lava, large
quantities of
pyroclastic material
and ashes find their
way to the ground.
 Formation of layers

16
 Caldera:
 Most explosive of the
earth’s volcanoes.
 So explosive that
when they erupt ->
tend to collapse on
themselves rather
than building any tall
structure. The
collapsed depressions
are called calderas.
 Their explosiveness
indicates that the
magma chamber
supplying the lava is
not only huge but is
also in close vicinity.
17
Flood Basalt:
 Outpour highly fluid lava that flows for long
distances.
 There can be a series of flows with some
flows attaining thickness of more than 50 m.
 The Deccan Traps from India.

18
INTRUSIVE FORMS OF VOLCANIC LANDFORMS:
• Lava during Volcano = cooling forms
igneous rocks.
• They may be volcanic {Cooling at
surface} or Plutonic {cooling in
crust}
• Lava that cools within the crustal
portions assumes different forms.
these forms are called intrusive
forms.

19
Batholiths
• A large body of magmatic material
that cools in the deeper depth of
the crust develops in the form of
large domes.
• They appear on the surface only
after the denudational processes
remove the overlying materials.
• They cover large areas, and at
times, assume depth that may be
several km.
• These are granitic bodies.
Batholiths are the cooled portion
of magma chambers.

20
Lacoliths:
• These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected
by a pipe-like conduit from below.
• It resembles the surface volcanic domes of composite volcano, only these are
located at deeper depths.
• It can be regarded as the localised source of lava that finds its way to the
surface.
• The Karnataka plateau is spotted with domal hills of granite rocks. Most of these,
now exfoliated, are examples of lacoliths or batholiths.

21
Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills:
• As and when the lava moves upwards, a
portion of the same may tend to move in a
horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak
plane.
• Lopolith = saucer shape, concave to sky
• Phacoliths = wavy materials ==
subsequently develop as Batholiths
• Sill/Sheet = thick/thin horizontal
deposits

22
Dykes:
• When the lava makes its way
through crack and the fissures
developed in the land, it solidifies
almost perpendicular to the
ground.
• It gets cooled in the same position
to develop a wall-like structure.
Such structures are called dykes.
• These are the most commonly
found intrusive forms in the
western Maharashtra area.
• These are considered the feeders
for the eruptions that led to the
development of the Deccan traps.

23
 EXOGENIC G.P.:
• Energy from atmosphere determined by the ultimate energy from the sun
and also the gradients created by tectonic factors.
• Shear stress {due to Gravitation} breaks rocks and other earth materials
= result in angular displacement or slippage.
• Other than gravitational stress is molecular stresses caused by a number of
factors amongst which temperature changes, crystallisation and melting are
the most common >> Chemical processes lead to loosening of bonds between
grains, dissolving of soluble minerals or cementing materials.
• Thus basic reason that leads to weathering, mass movements, erosion and
deposition is development of stresses in the body of the earth materials.

24
• Exogenic G.P. depends upon climate ⟹ temperature and precipitation climatic
elements that control them.
• All exogenic G.P. are covered under a common name Denudation.
• Owing to thermal gradients created by latitudinal, seasonal and land and
water spread variations, the exogenic geomorphic processes vary from region
to region.
• Density, type and distribution of vegetation {which largely depend upon
precipitation and temperature} exert influence indirectly on exogenic
geomorphic processes.
• Climate factor being same the intensity of denudation depends on the type –
structure of rock also.

25
26
 As very little or no motion
of materials takes place in
weathering, it is an in-situ
or on-site process.

Three:
Mechanical/Physical;
Chemical; Biological

27
 This weathering is
force/stress/pressure
controlled weathering.

Physical weathering
processes are caused by
thermal expansion and
pressure release

Processes are small and slow

but can cause great damage
to the rocks because of
continued fatigue the rocks
suffer due to repetition of
contraction and expansion

28
29
30
31
32
33
34
 Exfoliation domes

35
36
 EXFOLIATION DOMES vs TORS:
• Domes are large and smooth-rounded • Tors are small to big size boulders
domes formed due to unloading and smooth- rounded.
expanding. • Due to diurnal changes in
• Release of pressure as overlying rock temperature {esp. in dry and high
load is removed.. elevated climates}.
• Fractures developed parallel to • Thermal stress and expansion =
ground surface. fracturing parallel to surface layers
only

37
38
39
40
 Water and air (oxygen and
carbon dioxide) along with
heat must be present to
speed up all chemical
reactions.

41
42
43
44
 Oxidation = Red colour
turns to yellow or brown

Reduction = red colour to

greenish or bluish grey

Oxidation where Atmosphere and

oxygenated water readily available
Reduction at waterlogged, below
water table and areas of stagnated
water.

45
Other ways include:
Carbonation:
• Reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals and is a common
process helping the breaking down of feldspars and carbonate minerals.
Hydration:
• Chemical addition of water >> minerals take up water and expand;
• Expansion causes an increase in the volume of the material itself or rock.
• Calcium sulphate takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is more unstable
than calcium sulphate.
• It is reversible and long, continued repetition of this process causes fatigue
in the rocks and may lead to their disintegration.
• This also helps in salt weathering.
46
Biological weathering:
• Removal of minerals and ions from the weathering environment and physical
changes due to growth or movement of organisms.
• Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, termites, rodents etc.,
help in exposing the new surfaces to chemical attack and assists in the
penetration of moisture and air.
• Algae utilize mineral nutrients for growth and help in concentration of iron
and manganese oxides.
• plant roots exert a tremendous pressure on the earth materials
mechanically breaking them apart.

47
 SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING:
• formation of soils.
• breaking down the rocks into smaller fragments >> preparing the way for
formation of not only regolith and soils, but also erosion and mass movements.
• biomes and biodiversity is basically a result of forests (vegetation) and forests
depend upon the depth of weathering mantles.
• helps in the enrichment and concentrations of certain valuable ores of iron,
manganese, aluminium, copper etc., which are of great importance for the
national economy.

48
 Weathering is not a pre-
requisite for mass
movement though it aids
mass movements.

Mass movements are very

active over weathered
slopes rather than
over unweathered
materials.

49
 Mass movements are aided
by gravity and no
geomorphic agent like
running water, glaciers,
wind, waves and currents
participate in the process
of mass movements. Thus
it differs from erosion.

50
51
Activating causes preceding mass movements:
• removal of support from below to materials above through natural or artificial means;
• increase in gradient and height of slopes;
• overloading through addition of materials naturally or by artificial filling;
• overloading due to heavy rainfall, saturation and lubrication of slope materials;
• removal of material or load from over the original slope surfaces;
• occurrence of earthquakes, explosions or machinery;
• excessive natural seepage;
• Heavy drawdown of water from lakes, reservoirs and rivers leading to slow outflow of
water from under the slopes or river banks;
• Indiscriminate removal of natural vegetation.
52
53
 Depending upon
speed of movement:

Slow = creep,
solifluction etc.

Rapid = Earthflow,
avalanche, mudflow
etc.

54
55
56
57
58
59
 Mudflows occur frequently
on the slopes of erupting or
recently erupted volcanoes.

Volcanic ash, dust and

other fragments turn into
mud due to heavy rains and
flow down as tongues or
streams of mud causing
great destruction to human
habitations.

60
61
TYPES

62