A REVIEW OF BIDIRECTIONAL ON-BOARD CHARGER TOPOLOGIES FOR PLUGIN

VEHICLES

Noreen Wong and Mehrdad Kazerani, Senior Member, IEEE

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
[email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT 2. SINGLE-STAGE TOPOLOGIES

Single-stage topology offers the simplest structure for a battery

On-board bidirectional battery charger is a key component in a charger with the lowest component count. This characteristic is at-
plug-in vehicle with vehicle-to-grid (V2G) capability. In a high- tractive for reducing the volume and weight of the battery charger
performance on-board battery charger, volume and weight should be and also to increase the efficiency by reducing switching losses. The
minimized. Battery charger topologies are generally classified under most common bidirectional single-stage charger topologies are half-
the two main categories of single-stage and two-stages. Each cate- bridge, full-bridge and multilevel converters. Different variations
gory has its own merits and drawbacks. This paper attempts to make of each topology have been developed and are extensively reviewed
a review of the existing bidirectional battery charger topologies. in [8]. Despite variations, the basic concepts remains the same.
Index Terms— Plugin vehicle, bidirectional charger, vehicle-
to-grid (V2G), AC-DC converter, DC-DC converter 2.1. Half-Bridge AC-DC Converter
This topology is the simplest of all bidirectional AC-DC converters.
It utilizes two controllable switches to achieve boost conversion at
the dc side [9]. Drawback for this topology is high voltage stress on
1. INTRODUCTION the switches (equal to the dc-side voltage). The two large capacitors
on the dc-side add to the weight and size of the charger and adversely
Development of plugin electric vehicles (PEVs) and plugin hybrid affect its life expectancy.
electric vehicles (PHEVs) has taken an accelerated pace and gained The controller is normally composed of an outer loop for dc-side
interest from governments, researchers, automotive industry and voltage regulation and an inner loop for ac-side current waveshaping
consumers due to environmental and economical concerns. A natu- and power factor control [10].
ral consequence is a sharp increase in the need for high-performance
power electronic equipment including battery chargers. The idea of 2.2. Full-Bridge AC-DC Converter
vehicle-to-grid (V2G) power transactions, even though not realized
in commercial vehicles to date, is promising [1] because of the po- Full-bridge converter is composed of four controllable switches and
tential benefits to the electric power systems [2–4]. is inherently a boost rectifier with power factor correction capability.
Due to PWM voltages of ±VDC reflected on the ac-side (in contrast
V2G capability necessitates a bidirectional battery charger. The with ±VDC /2 in half-bridge), the same power can be realized at
characteristics of a battery charger are strongly linked to the charging half the switch current required in a half-bridge converter, putting
time and quality of power [5,6]. On-board chargers are the preferred less demand on the switches, thus reducing the switch losses and
configuration for plugins because of their suitability for household making full-bridge topology suitable for higher power applications.
charging. From the structure point of view, on-board battery charg- As in half-bridge topology, the dc-side voltage contains a low-
ers are classified under single-stage topology (with an AC-DC con- frequency harmonic component at twice the grid frequency, creating
verter interfacing the battery pack with the grid) and two-stage topol- waveform quality problems for the battery and asking for additional
ogy (with an AC-DC converter on the grid-side, cascaded with a active or notch filtering [11].
DC-DC converter on the battery-side). Regardless of the charger
The controller is similar to that in half-bridge converter. How-
structural type, any bidirectional charger topology must be able to
ever, due to 3-level ac-side voltage waveform at twice the switch-
operate at a controllable power factor (preferably unity) with a high
ing frequency realized through unipolar voltage switching, higher-
quality sinusoidal line current at the grid interface. The charging
quality ac-side current and dc-side voltage waveforms are expected
and discharging of the battery have to respect the limits set by the
in full-bridge compared to those in half-bridge.
manufacturer and consider the impact on the battery life cycle and
cycle life. Other than these operational requirements, any on-board
charger design should aim to minimize volume and weight [7], sat- 2.3. Multilevel PWM AC-DC Converter
isfy the desired charging level and follow the related standards. As another type of boost AC-DC converter, the multilevel PWM
This paper reviews the existing topologies suitable for an on- converters offer advantages in terms of lower voltage stresses on
board bidirectional plugin vehicle battery charger. the switches, reduced switching losses due to reduced switching

2012 25th IEEE Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering (CCECE)
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frequency, reduced harmonics, higher power factor on ac-side and 2.3.3. Capacitor Clamped Converter
better-regulated lower-ripple dc-side voltage. Multilevel converters
are suitable for high-power, high-voltage applications. The draw- A flying capacitor is adopted in the capacitor clamped topology pro-
backs include control complexity and power circuit cost, making it posed in [14] and shown in Fig. 3. All four switches in this circuit
difficult to justify for applications where one charging level is de- have a voltage stress of VDC /2. The overall control scheme for
sired. this converter is identical to that presented in [13] for the switched
In the following, four different single-phase three-level PWM clamped topology. Experimental results from a lab prototype indi-
ac-dc converters topologies reported in [12–15] will be described. cate an efficiency of 86% with close to unity power factor at 1kW
power level [14].
2.3.1. Diode Clamped Converter
The diode clamped topology [12] is shown in Fig. 1. Each switch T1 +
experiences a voltage stress of VDC /2. An outer loop regulates the C1
dc voltage and an inner loop guarantees a high-quality sinusoidal
L T2
current and a unity power factor at the interface with the utility grid.
Reference [12] reports an efficiency of 90% and a power factor of
VDC
0.998 at the power level of 900W obtained from a lab prototype. Vgrid

T2’ Cf

T1 +
C1 C2 -
T1’

L T2

VDC
Vgrid Fig. 3. Capacitor Clamped Three-Level PWM Converter
T1’

C2 -
T2’
2.3.4. Other Multilevel Converters

Fig. 4 shows the novel single-phase three-level topology based on

half-bridge converter proposed in [15]. Similar to the switched
Fig. 1. Diode Clamped Three-Level PWM Converter clamped topology, two switches have a voltage rating of VDC /2
while the other two switches are rated at VDC . This topology uses
double boost operation, meaning that the dc voltage produced is
2.3.2. Switched Clamped Converter greater than twice the peak of the utility voltage. This poses limi-
tation on the voltage level of the battery connected on the dc-side.
The switched clamped topology [13] is shown in Fig. 2. Two The two-loop control approach can be applied to this converter.
switches in this topology have a voltage stress of VDC /2 and the Based on the experimental results, a power factor of 0.994 can be
other two switches have a voltage stress of VDC . The control scheme achieved [15].
is similar to that described for the diode clamped topology, except
that hysteresis current control is employed in the inner loop to track
the reference current. A power factor of 0.999 and an efficiency of
89% have been reported by [13]. T2
+

C1

L T1 T2’
T1 +
C1 VDC
S Vgrid
L

VDC
Vgrid T1’ C2
-

T2 C2
-
Fig. 4. Three-Level PWM Converter

Other bidirectional three-level converters with higher number

Fig. 2. Switched Clamped Three-Level PWM Converter of switches and a bidirectional cascaded five-level converter are re-
viewed in [8].

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 Full-Bridge AC- DC Two-Quadrant Buck-Boost
2.4. Isolated AC-DC Converter
+
Galvanic isolation can be a desirable feature for a plugin vehicle T1 T3 T5
charger due to safety reasons [16]. A single-stage isolated bidi-
L
rectional charger is introduced in [17]. The proposed converter, il- LDC
lustrated in Fig. 5, combines two active bridges with an interme- Vgrid
C VDC
diate high-frequency ac link and a series resonant tank. The high-
frequency ac link increases power density and the presence of the
CDC vbatt
resonant tank results in soft-switching operation.
T2 T4 T6
The purposed control scheme uses square wave modulation
-
on the grid-side active bridge while the modulating signal for the
battery-side active bridge is phase-shifted by an angle varying be-
tween −90◦ and 90◦ with respect to the first modulating signal to
allow bidirectional power flow. Unity power factor can be achieved Fig. 6. A Two-Stage Charger: Full-Bridge AC-DC + Two-Quadrant
with this control scheme. Buck-Boost
The battery-side dc current has a high ripple content at twice the
line frequency, asking for additional filtering.
3.2. Split-Phase Three-Leg AC-DC + Two Quadrant Buck-
Boost
Fig. 7 illustrates a two-stage charger designed specifically for an
American household [21, 22]. A split-phase three-leg AC-DC con-
S1 S1 S2 S3 verter is connected to the split-phase transformer at the main input
Series Resonant
panel on the grid-side and a two-quadrant buck-boost is used on the
C Tank
L 1:n battery-side. Again, a harmonic component at twice the line fre-
quency appears in the dc-link voltage.
Vgrid Cin vbatt Controller for the three-leg converter behaves based on the same
principle as the controller for the full-bridge converter. However,
[21] proposes using a 2nd order notch filter tuned to 120Hz in the
voltage feedback loop to remove the low-frequency harmonics in
S2 S3 the reference current. Moreover, a Proportional + Resonant (PR)
S1 S1
controller is utilized in the current control loop for better tracking.

Two-Quadrant Buck-Boost Split-Phase Three-Leg L1

S7 S5 S3 S1
C1 240V
Fig. 5. Single-Stage Isolated Battery Charger
L3 120V
C3 Utility
Plug
120V

vbatt S8 S6 S4 S2
3. TWO-STAGE TOPOLOGIES C2

Most of the existing bidirectional plugin vehicle battery chargers re- LN LA LB L2

ported in the literature employ two-stages. Two-stage topologies can
generally support more than one charging level with improved per-
formance in comparison to single-stage topologies. In the following, Fig. 7. A Two-Stage Charger: Split-Phase Three-Leg AC-DC +
a review of the major contributions in this area will be presented. Two-Quadrant Buck-Boost

3.1. Full-Bridge AC-DC + Two-Quadrant Buck-Boost 3.3. Full-Bridge AC-DC + Dual-Active Bridge DC-DC
A single-phase full-bridge AC-DC converter combined with a two- Conventional two-stage topologies connect the two converters via a
quadrant buck-boost DC-DC converter (Fig. 6) is a popular topology high-voltage electrolytic capacitor to filter out dc-link voltage and to
for the bidirectional on-board charger [2–4, 18–20]. The AC-DC provide the necessary buffering. High-voltage electrolytic capacitors
converter is responsible for ac-side current waveshaping, power fac- are not suitable for on-board chargers because of their bulkiness and
tor correction and regulating the dc-link voltage, while the DC-DC their short lifetime. Newer charger designs aim to reduce the size
converter controls the charging and discharging current of the battery of the dc-link capacitor through implementing novel control strate-
through buck and boost operations. These chargers, even though rel- gies [23]. The topology in Fig. 8 incorporates two existing converter
atively easy to design and implement, are challenged by the dc-link topologies: full-bridge AC-DC converter and a dual-active bridge
voltage ripple content at twice the grid frequency. (DAB) DC-DC converter. The DAB converter is chosen for its extra
The control schemes discussed in [18] and [19] are very similar. galvanic isolation for higher power applications.
A rather slow outer loop is used to control the dc link voltage and Conventionally, the AC-DC converter regulates the dc voltage
generate the amplitude of the ac-side current reference. and provides power factor correction, while the DC-DC converter

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 Full-Bridge AC-DC DAB Bidirectional DC-DC Three-Level AC-DC Modified Bidirectional Buck-Boost T1

S1 S2 D3 S7
+ T2
Sa Sb S1 S2 S3 S4
D1
L LL RL C1 High Voltage Bus
D5 S10
S3
Vgrid VDC vbatt
L1 R1

Vgrid S11 vhv

Sa Sb S1 S2 S3 S4 S8 L2 D6
-
S4

D2 C2
S9
D4 C3 vbatt
S5 S6
Fig. 8. Two Stage Charger: Full-Bridge AC-DC + DAB DC-DC

controls the direction of the current and output ripples. Since the cur-
rent reference is difficult to define in the DAB, novel control strate- Fig. 9. Integrated Charger Three-Level AC-DC + Modified Buck-
gies propose that the roles of the controllers be switched. Conse- Boost Converter
quently, the controller for the DAB is now responsible for regulating
the dc link voltage, whereas the controller of the full-bridge becomes
the inductances in the motor windings for filtering purposes. This
a current regulator. This eliminates low-frequency ripple content in
integrated charger can achieve unity power factor.
the dc link and considerably reduces the capacitor size. However,
The proposed integrated charger is a non-isolated solution. Al-
this advantage is achieved at the price of added cost and weight of
though the hardware and control implementations are relatively sim-
the switches in the DAB.
ple, this solution requires high number of switches.

4. INTEGRATED TOPOLOGIES Bidirectional DC-DC Three Single-Phase Full-Bridge AC-DC

S1 S1A S1A’ S1B S1B’ S1C S1C’

In classical plugin vehicle configurations, the inverter used for trac-
tion is separate from the battery charger. Integrated battery chargers L
C
aim to take advantage of the existing power electronics in a plugin S2 S2A S2A’ S2B S2B’ S2C S2C’
vehicle to lower the component count, thus reducing the required vbatt
volume, weight and cost. A review of the integrated topologies fol-
lows.
Motor
4.1. Integrated AC-DC + DC-DC Converter b Drive

The idea of integrating the battery charger with the high voltage a c
(HV) bus of plugin vehicle was first proposed in [24] in 2009. The
original design cascades a diode rectifier with a modified buck-boost
EMI Filters
converter. Much of the pioneer work was dedicated to the modified
Single-Phase
buck-boost converter design, which supports three modes of opera- or
Three-Phase
tion: plug-in charging, battery discharge to high-voltage dc bus and
Vgrid
regenerative charging from the HV bus. However, the use of diode
rectifier prevents vehicle-to-grid power flow. A more comprehensive
solution to support bidirectionality is presented in [25]. As shown in Fig. 10. Integrated Charger using AC Motor Windings
Fig. 9, a three-level PWM AC-DC converter is adopted on the grid-
side for its ability to achieve close-to-zero current harmonics and
unity power factor. This integrated charger reduces the number of 4.3. Integrated Charger Based on Permanent Magnet Syn-
high-current inductors. chronous Machine
Current-mode PWM control is adopted for controlling the
charger. The operation details are explained in [26]. The charger Permanent-magnet synchronous motors (PMSM) are a favorable
does not utilize any switching devices to configure the circuitry for choice as a traction motor for electric vehicles owing to their high
different operating modes; therefore, careful coordination of the con- efficiency and ruggedness [28–30]. An integrated charger system
trollable switches is needed for the safe operation of this charger. including a PMSM is reported in [31]. This topology contains a
three-phase full-bridge AC-DC converter and a bidirectional DC-DC
4.2. Integrated Charger using AC Motor Windings converter. It supports five operating modes: (a) boost power transfer
from battery to high voltage bus, (b) regenerative charging of bat-
Another integrated topology utilizes the traction AC motor windings tery, (c) plug-in charging of battery, (d) standalone inverter, and (e)
in a plugin vehicle to realize the AC-DC part of the charger. The in- power delivery from battery to grid.
tegrated topology discussed in [27] is composed of three full-bridge This charger reduces the number of inductors and eliminates cur-
PWM converters for grid-side connection and traction control, and a rent transformers. However, the efficiency of the proposed charger
two quadrant buck-boost chopper for dc-side management. Fig. 10 is slightly lower than that of its unidirectional version due to extra
shows the proposed integrated charger. It is possible to interface conduction losses. Simulation results show that sinusoidal current
this integrated charger with both single-phase and three-phase util- with unity power factor can be observed in both direction of power
ity grids. Most of the size reduction is realized through the use of flow at the utility grid interface.

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4.4. Integrated Charger Based on Induction Motor 5. CONCLUSIONS

An integrated charger based on an induction machine is reported A review of the converter topologies used in single-stage and two-
in [32]. This integrated charger uses a novel Eight-Switch Inverter stage on-board bidirectional battery chargers with V2G capability
(ESI) and an interleaved DC-DC converter. Fig.11 illustrates this in- for plugin vehicles were presented in this paper. Single-stage topolo-
tegrated charger. The ESI has four operating modes: (a) DC-AC in- gies are simple, but are limited to level 1 charging. Two stage topolo-
verter, (b) three-phase PWM AC-DC rectifier for transferring power gies are suitable for high-voltage charging and achieve better perfor-
from induction motor to dc link, (c) single-phase PWM AC-DC con- mances with a tradeoff in size and weight. Integrated topologies aim
verter for charging the battery from the grid, and (d) single-phase to reduce component count by combining existing power electronics
DC-AC inverter for delivering power from the battery back to the in motor drives.
grid.
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