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NUTRITION
Is the process by an organism obtains or makes food and prepares it for its use.
It’s divided into two
1. AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION which includes photosynthesis and chemosynthesis
2. HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
Autotrophic (Greek: auto – ‘self’; trophic - 'feeding') organisms are those which use an inorganic
form of carbon such as carbon dioxide and energy, to form complex organic compounds.
Autotrophic nutrition: This is the mode of feeding in which an organism manufactures its own
food from simple inorganic raw materials, from the environment, using energy from the sun or
chemical reactions.
There are two types of autotrophic nutrition that is; photosynthesis and chemosynthesis. The
former uses light energy while the later uses energy from oxidation of chemical compounds.
Photosynthesis is the more common of the two processes and it is used by most plants, algae,
some bacteria and protoctists.

Types of Autotrophs
(1) Phototrophs - living organisms in which the synthesis of organic compounds depends on light
energy. e.g. all green plants, algae, cyanobacteria, blue-green bacteria, green sulphur bacteria,
purple sulphur bacteria, colourless sulphur bacteria.
(2) Chemotrophs - living organisms which use energy extracted from oxidation of inorganic
chemicals for the synthesis of organic compounds in a process called chemosynthesis e.g.
Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which green plants/cell containing chlorophyll make complex organic
substances /food from simple inorganic molecules of carbon dioxide and water in presence of
light energy trapped by chlorophyll and producing oxygen and water as by-products.

Sun light
6CO2 + 12 H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll
Note that water is both a raw material and as well a by-product, though not the
same water molecules. The reactant water molecules are split to release
electrons during the initial light reactions, while the product water molecules
are assembled from hydrogen and oxygen released during the light and
biochemical reactions.

During photosynthesis, carbondioxide is reduced to carbohydrates and water is oxidized to O 2

gas and hydrogen ions. Thus the process involves both reduction and oxidation known as redox
reaction.
I.e. oxidation of water would be:
2H2O light energy O2 + 4H+ + 4e-

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Oxygen evolved is lost to the atmosphere as a by- product of photosynthesis while the hydrogen
ions are used in the reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates.
CO2 + 4H+ + 4e- (CHO) n + H2O

This implies that the summarized equation of photosynthesis is obtained by combining the 2
equations i.e. the oxidation of water and the reduction of CO 2
6CO2 + 7H2O light energy C6H12O6 + H2O + O2
Chlorophyll

From the above equation the following conclusions are made;

 The carbon in the carbohydrate is obtained from the CO2 .
 oxygen atoms of the CO2 are used in formation of the carbohydrate and water released
as a by-product of photosynthesis ( metabolic water )
 Oxygen developed as a by-product of photosynthesis comes from the oxidation of water
by the process of photolysis.
 The hydrogen atoms in the carbohydrate and metabolic water are obtained from the
water as a raw material of the process.

The above conclusions are approved using the Isotope labeling technique i.e. carbon-14 in the
CO2 , oxygen -18 in CO2 and oxygen – 16 in water. When the above isotopes are used,
subsequent testing with a mass spectrometer found that the carbohydrate contained, carbon -
14 and oxygen – 18 but the oxygen evolved as a by- product contained oxygen – 16 which was
contained in the water molecules.

Importance of photosynthesis
 It provides a source of complex organic molecules for heterotrophic organisms. It makes
both carbon and energy available to organisms. All organisms directly or indirectly
depend on photosynthesis.
 It releases oxygen into the atmosphere that is used by aerobic organisms for respiration.
 It is the means by which the sun's energy is captured by plants for use by all organisms
 It avails man with fossil fuels
 The process of photosynthesis is a CO2 sink .i.e. The process reduces on the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere thus controlling global warming
 Photosynthesis together with respiration create a cycling of carbon dioxide (C0 2) and
oxygen in the atmosphere

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

1. Carbon Dioxide
Terrestrial plants obtain carbon dioxide (1) from the atmosphere (where it’s about 0.03%) via
the stomata
(2) By absorbing carbonates from the soil through the roots. Aquatic plants absorb dissolved
bicarbonates through their general surface to carbon dioxide.
2. Water
Water provides the H+ ions and electrons for the reduction of carbon dioxide in oxygenic
photosynthesis of all organisms.
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 2H2O light energy O2 + 4H+ + 4e-

4H+ + CO2 CH2O + H2O

Experiments conducted using isotropically enriched oxygen (18O2) also proves that all of the
oxygen produced in photosynthesis is derived from water and none from carbon dioxide.

3. Light
The three properties of light that are of importance to organisms are (i) spectral quality/colour
(ii) intensity/brightness (iii) duration/time.
Light is electromagnetic energy propagated in discrete particles called photons or quanta.
Adaptations of plants to capturing maximum light.
 Possession of green flattened photosynthetic stems, such as phylloclades Opuntia and
cladophylls in Asparagus, to provide a large surface area for light absorption.
 Phototropism causes shoots to grow towards light, allowing the attached leaves to
receive maximum light.
 Etiolation causes rapid elongation of shoots in the dark to ensure that leaves are
brought into the light as soon as possible.
 Diaphototrophic growth and positioning of leaf blades at right angles to incident light,
allows leaves to trap maximum light.
 Leaves are broad or long to provide a large surface area for capturing sunlight.
 Leaves have thin blades allowing maximum light absorption by both the upper and
lower layers of the leaf.
 Mosaic leaf arrangement on the stem minimizes overlapping and reduces shading of
one leaf by another ensuring each leaf receives adequate light.
 Transparent leaf cuticle and epidermis allows light through to the photosynthetic
mesophyll beneath.
 Palisade mesophyll cells are packed with numerous chloroplasts containing high
concentrations of different photosynthetic pigments for trapping light.
 Chloroplasts within the mesophyll cells can move towards light, allowing them to
receive maximum light.
 Long palisade mesophyll cells are closely packed together with their long axes
perpendicular to the surface forming a continuous layer that traps most of the in-
coming light.

 The ordered arrangement of photosynthetic pigments on flattened membranes within

the chloroplasts exposes as much chlorophyll and carotenoids to sunlight as possible.
 Vascular system of the leaf comprising a petiole, midrib and veins provides a supporting
skeleton which spreads out the leaf lamina for maximum exposure to light.
 Some plants have tall stems to expose leaves to maximum light.
 Weak-stemmed plants climb other plants for support and exposure of their leaves to
light.
 Plants possess numerous leaves to provide a large surface area for maximum light
absorption.

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 4. Photosynthetic Pigments
The photosynthetic pigments which are of two categories:
(1) Chlorophyll
(2) carotenoids take part in absorption of light energy for the purpose of photosynthesis.

Adaptations of the chloroplast to its functions

 Chloroplasts within the mesophyll cells can move towards light, arranging themselves in
the best position within the cells for maximum absorption of light.
 Bound by a double membrane, to isolate the photosynthetic reactions from other cell
activities.
 Contains numerous closed, flattened, fluid-filled sacs, called thylakoids, to hold
chlorophyll and accessory pigments in a structured way, in a suitable position to trap
maximum light.
 Thylakoids are stacked on top of each other forming grana, interconnected by lamellae
to provide a large surface area within the small volume for maximum light absorption.
 Lamellae are suspended in a water matrix/stroma containing enzymes for the reduction
of carbon dioxide, and other chemicals essential in the photosynthetic pathways and for
the storage of the end –products of photosynthesis.

 Chloroplast is transparent due to the thin envelope and the colourless stroma, allowing
maximum absorption of light by photosynthetic pigments.
 Stroma serves as a site for the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.
 Arrangement of chlorophyll in the thylakoids brings it into close proximity to other
molecules necessary for its functioning in light harvesting photosystems.
 Inner membrane of envelope is highly selective in what it allows in and out of the
chloroplasts, regulating the conditions of the internal chloroplast environment for
optimum rate of photosynthesis.

Main photosynthetic pigments and their distribution

Photosynthetic Distribution Properties/colour
Pigment (occurrence)
1.CHLOROPHYL All photosynthetic plants Blue- green in pure state
LS i.e. It is the most Empirical formula: C55H72N4O5Mg
abundant because of its Very soluble in ether, and also soluble in lipid solvents
Chlorophyll a e.g. chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, alcohols, etc
universal occurrence
yellow-green in pure state.
Higher plants and green Empirical formula: C55H70N4O6Mg
Chlorophyll b
algae Very soluble in methyl alcohol and also soluble in lipid
solvents e.g. chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, etc
(1) Purple sulphur  Are related to chlorophylls
Bacteria, Conducts photosynthesis, but do not
Bacteriochlorop produce oxygen.
(2) Chloracidobacterium
hyll Absorbs wavelengths of light not absorbed by plants
thermophilum
e.g. 750-1040 nm
(3) Green sulfur bacteria
Bacterioviridin Chlorobium Occurs as esters of farnesol.
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 photosynthetic bacteria Empirical formula: C51H67O4N4Mg
Colouration: golden or brownish
Chlorophylls C Diatoms and Brown algae Are accessory pigments.
Gather light but is not used in photosynthesis itself
Absorb far-red light, at 710 nm wavelength, just
Cyanobacteria
Chlorophyll d outside the optical range but Acaryochloris marina, a
e.g. Acaryochloris marina
bacterium, uses it for photosynthesis.
Cyanobacteria e.g.  Absorb infrared light.
stromatolites from  Function not known.
Chlorophyll f
Western Australia's Shark
Bay.
2.CAROTENOID Naturally occurring in  xanthophylls contain oxygen.
 carotenes are purely hydrocarbons, and lack oxygen.
S chloroplasts and chromopl
In general absorb blue light.
(a) xanthophylls asts of plants and some serve two key roles in plants and algae: (1) absorb
light energy for use in photosynthesis, (2) protect
α-carotene other photosynthetic
chlorophyll from photo damage.
organisms like algae, Carotenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Xanthophylls are often yellow.
(b) some bacteria, and some
 Carotenes vary in colour: pale yellow, bright orange,
carotenes β- types of fungi deep red.
Generally, carotenoids are antioxidants in humans and
carotene and lyc
work to prevent the effects of aging.
opene  Are soluble in fat solvents like ether, chloroform,
acetone, carbon disulphide.
Carotenes are closely related to the vitamin A, with
mpirical formula is C40H56.
 Xanthophylls have empirical formula is C40H56O

Chlorophyll belongs to a class of organic compounds called porphyrins and bears a close
resemblance to the chemical structure of haem and the cytochromes.
Chlorophyll b and carotenoids are called accessory photosynthetic pigments because they hand
over the energy absorbed by them to chlorophyll a.

CAROTENOIDS serve two key roles in plants and algae:

(1) Absorb light energy and pass it over to chlorophyll a for use in photosynthesis,
(2) Protect chlorophyll from being destroyed by excess light/photo damage and from oxidation
by oxygen produced by photosynthesis.
3) They provide bright and attractive colours to the leaves/bracts for attraction of insects for
pollination and to fruits to attract agents of dispersal.

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ABSORPTION AND ACTION SPECTRA

Absorption spectrum (A);

This is the graph showing the relative amount of light absorbed at different wave lengths by
photosynthetic pigments/chlorophyll.

The absorption of radiation by a substance can be quantified with an instrument called a

spectrophotometer

Action spectrum of photosynthesis

A graph of the effectiveness of different wavelengths of light in stimulating the photosynthetic
process.

This is the graph showing the amount of photosynthesis occurring at each wave length. It is
measured in terms of O2 produced at each wave length. It is obtained by subjecting light of
these same wave length in turn for a unit of time on to aquatic pond weed the gas evolved is
collected and its volume measured (rate of O2 production is a measure of the rate of
photosynthesis.
Graph B

Conclusions from graph A

1. carotenoids absorb the largest amounts in the violet blue region of light
2. chlorophyll b absorbs more blue light than red light
3. Chlorophyll a absorbs both blue and red light in large amounts.
4. There is very low light absorption of green light by chlorophyll and none for the
carotenoids.
Conclusions from graph B
 Red and blue light is the most effective wave length for photosynthesis
 The more the absorption of light the higher the rate of photosynthesis; the action
spectrum shows a dose correlation with the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a and b

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Observations Interpretations
 The action spectrum of photosynthesis corresponds  This indicates that most of the wavelengths of
closely to the absorption spectra of chlorophyll a and light absorbed by chlorophyll are used in
b. photosynthesis.
 There is non-correspondence of action spectrum of  This is because it is at ‘X’ where there is
photosynthesis with absorption spectra at point maximum absorption by carotenoids, which are not
marked ‘X’ used in photosynthesis.
 The wave lengths of about 550 nm to 620 nm have  The unabsorbed (reflected light) appears green,
the lowest absorption and action spectra for all the thus making chlorophyll, the chloroplasts and the
photosynthetic pigments. leaves that contain it appear green to our eye.
 There are two absorption maxima of lambda= 430  This shows that chlorophyll a as well as b are
nm and lambda= 662 nm for chlorophyll a, and 453 nm the main photosynthetic pigments, however,
and 642 nm for chlorophyll b, but only one maximum photosynthesis also occurs in the mid part of light
for carotenoids at about 510 nm. spectrum where carotenoids are active.
 The action spectrum peaks within the blue-violet  This shows that maximum photosynthesis occurs
and red regions of the light spectrum in red part and blue-violet part of visible light.

OTHER OBSERVATIONS
 Chlorophyll a absorption in red light is about twice that of chlorophyll b and the absorption peak is at a
slightly longer wavelength (lower energy)
 Absorption of chlorophyll a in the blue is lower and shifted to a slightly shorter wavelength (higher energy).

ADAPTATIONS OF CHLOROPLASTS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 Membrane system composed of flattened fluid sacs called thylakoids i.e. the grana and
the intergrana to increase surface area for maximum absorption of sun light by
chlorophyll molecules.
 The outer membrane is thin, transparent, permeable towards respiratory gases/CO2 and
O2
 Matrix known as stroma contains enzymes that catalyze the reactions of the dark stage
of photosynthesis.
 In the thylakoid system, there is a system of different electron carriers existing at
different energy levels via which emitted electrons by excited chlorophyll molecules are
transferred to release energy used to form ATP from ADP and phosphate.
 Outer membrane is semi- permeable to regulate entry and exit of substances for
maintaining internal chloroplast environment.
 Extensive network of thylakoid membranes increase surface area for photosynthesis.
 Narrow intermembrane space enables H+ ion concentration gradient to be rapidly
established for chemiosmosis to occur

DNA presence codes for protein synthesis, including enzymes.

Many ribosomes for protein synthesis to reduce on importing proteins from cytoplasm.
Outer membrane is permeable to gases like carbon dioxide which is a raw material for
photosynthesis

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ADAPTATIONS OF LEAVES FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Adaptations for obtaining sunlight
1. Phototropism causes shoots to grow towards the light in order to allow maximum
illumination.
2. Etiolation causes rapid elongation of shaded shoots to enable leaves capture light as soon as
possible.
3. The mosaic leaf arrangement minimizes leaf overlap and reduces leaves shading each other.
4. Its broad to have a Leaf large surface area for capturing maximum sunlight.
5. Its thin to allow easy diffusion of CO2 and maximum light penetration.
6. The transparence of leaf cuticle and epidermis allow light penetration into the photosynthetic
mesophyll beneath.
7. The palisade mesophyll cells are densely packed with chloroplasts and arranged with their
long axes perpendicular to the surface to form a continuous layer which traps most of the
incoming light.
8. Cyclosis (movement of chloroplasts within the mesophyll cells) allows them to arrange
themselves into the best positions for efficient absorption of light.
9. The chloroplasts hold chlorophyll in an ordered / structured way on the sides of the grana to
present maximum chlorophyll to the light and also bring it close to other pigments / substances
necessary for functioning.
10. In leaves of sun plants the palisade layer, whose cells are densely packed with chloroplasts is
more than one cell thick to increase on photosynthetic efficiency.
11. In leaves of shade plants, the cells of palisade and spongy mesophylls are densely packed
with chloroplasts to increase on light trapping hence photosynthetic efficiency.
Adaptations for gas entry and exit
1. Numerous stomata are present in the epidermis of leaves to enable entry (CO 2) and exit of
gases (O2).
2. The guard cells bordering stomata pores can be opened and closed to regulate the uptake of
carbon dioxide and the loss of water.
3. Spongy mesophyll possesses much airspace to enable faster and uninterrupted diffusion of
gases between the atmosphere and the palisade mesophyll which wouldn’t happen if the gases
were to diffuse through the cells themselves, a process which would be much slower.
Adaptations for liquid entry and exit
1. A large central midrib containing a large vascular bundle comprising xylem and phloem tissue
is possessed by most dicotyledonous leaves for the entry and transport of water and mineral
salts, and the phloem for carrying away sugar solution, usually in the form of sucrose.
2. A network of small veins is found throughout the leaf to ensure that every cell is close to
xylem vessel or phloem sieve tube for constant supply of water for photosynthesis and a
means of removing the sugars they produce.

MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is an oxidation-reduction process, in which water is oxidized to release oxygen

and carbon dioxide is reduced to form carbohydrates. Photosynthesis occurs in two phases
(1) Photochemical reactions (also called light or Hill reaction) and
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(2) Biochemical reactions (also called dark or Blackman 's reaction.
Photosynthesis basically divided into 2 stages
i. Light dependant stage
ii. Light independent stage or dark reaction

LIGHT DEPENDENT STAGE

It takes place in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
The main functions are:
(1) Photophosphorylation i.e. formation of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the addition of an
inorganic phosphate to Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) using light energy.
(2) Formation of NADPH+ which is the reduced form of Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate.
The light dependent stage involves 3 major events
1. Photolysis of water ; splitting of water
2. Formation of NADPH+ ; reducing agent.
3. Photophosphorylation; addition of phosphorous.
This is a stage of photosynthesis that requires light energy which is absorbed by the
photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll) found in the thylakoids of the chloroplast.
These pigments are located in special reaction centres called photosystems. These systems
convert the absorbed light energy (photons) into chemical energy (in form of ATP)
Hill’s reaction involves 3 major events

1. Photolysis of water; is the splitting of water using sunlight energy absorbed by

chlorophyll.
Water used as a raw material for photosynthesis is chemically oxidized (split) by using light
energy (protons) absorbed by chlorophyll molecules into an oxygen molecule, hydrogen ions
and 4 electrons
2H2O light energy 4H+ + O2 + 4e-
The oxygen produced by photolysis of water is evolved to the atmosphere as a by-product of
photosynthesis. The protons (H+ ) are used to reduce NADP+ to NADPH + H+ . The protons of the
hydrogen ions are used in the dark stage of photosynthesis to reduce CO 2 to carbohydrates.
2. Formation of NADPH2 i.e. reduced NADP
Also known as Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate Hydrogen. This event involves
reduction of oxidized NADP in the presence of two hydrogen ions and electrons obtained from
the photolysis of water. Reduced NADP is one of the products of the light stage. its purpose is to
carry hydrogen from the light to the dark stage for the reduction CO2 to carbohydrates in the
presence of NADP- reductase;
NADP +2H++2e- NADP-reductase NADPH + H+

3. Photophosphorylation
The synthesis of high energy chemical compound, ATP from Adenine Diphosphate (ADP) and a
free inorganic phosphate by using energy emitted by photo-excited electrons/using the sun light
energy absorbed by photosynthetic pigments in the presence of the ATPase enzyme.
The energy used the in the formation of ATP molecules is lost by excited electrons as they are
carried from higher to lower energy levels. Through this process, solar energy that excites
electrons is converted into chemical energy.

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ADP + Pi ATPase enzyme ATP (high energy chemical compound)
Light energy
N.B: phosphorylation:-involves addition of a free inorganic phosphate to Adenine Diphosphate
(ADP) forming a high energy compound ATP.
ADP +Pi ATP

Mechanism of photophosphorylation

Light energy in form the photons is absorbed by the photosynthetic pigments in the reaction
centres called photosystems .In each photosystem, there are several chlorophyll molecules and
accessory pigments i.e. carotenes and xanthrophyll which all harvest light energy and pass it
onto chlorophyll a in the reaction centres each pigment absorbs light of different wave length
There are 2 types of photosystems
i.Photosystem 1 (PSI)
With chlorophyll a molecule called P-700 which absorbs light of wave length 700 nm which
functions as reaction centre. In P700 photochemical reaction takes place. The pigment system I
is located on both the non-appressed part of grana thylakoids and stromal thylakoids.

ii .photosystem II (PSII)
With chlorophyll a absorbing light of wave length 680nm (p 680) light energy absorbed excites
electrons which are raised to higher energy levels and then get accepted by electron carriers
(coenzymes). The lost electrons are replaced by the ones from photolysis of water or from
photosystem II. This system is located in the appressed part of grana thylakoids only.

There are 2 types of photophosphorylation

1. cyclic photophosphorylation
2. non-cyclic photophosphorylation

Non cyclic photophosphorylation

This is the formation of ATP from ADP + Pi using energy emitted by photo-excited electrons as
they flow unidirectionally through electron carriers from PSII/p680 to PSI/p700.

The light stage reactions are triggered by light energy exciting photosystems I and II inside the
thylakoid membranes at the same time, not one after the other.
Chlorophyll molecules of PSII and PSI are excited by light of wavelength 680 nm and 700 nm
respectively; causing the loss of electrons to a chain of electron carriers in a series of reduction-
oxidation reaction.
This path way consists of 2 pigment systems of chlorophyll
Pigment system1 (phototosystem1) and pigment system II (photosystem II)
The 2 systems are at different energy levels
Photosystem II is at the lower energy level compared to PSI.

When both photosystems are struck by sun light of appropriate wave length, they get excited
and loose electrons. Electrons from PSII are raised to a higher energy level and accepted by the
electron carrier known as plastoquinone (PQ).
Electrons lost from a photosystem II (PSII) are replaced by the ones from photolysis of water in
order to restore its neutrality i.e
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2H2O light energy O2 + 4H+ + 4e- (free electrons used to restore the neutrality of
PSII).photolysis is the splitting up of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen using sun light
energy trapped by chlorophyll.
The electrons from PSII flow from PQ down through a chain of electron carriers to PSI to replace
the lost electrons. As the electrons are carried from a carrier at a higher energy level to one at a
lower energy level, energy is lost that is used in phosphorylation (ATP synthesis from ADP and P i
). The electrons are received by PSI/p700 which becomes restabilised.
The electrons from PSI/p700 are then passed on another electron acceptor, Ferrodoxin and
combine with hydrogen from photolysis of water.
The electrons and hydrogen reduce Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP +) to
form reduced Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate /NADPH + H+.
In the presence of hydrogen ions from the photolysis of water reduced NADP + is used in the dark
reactions by providing hydrogen used to reduce CO2 to carbohydrates. The formed ATP
molecules are used in the dark reactions.

The main Products of non – cyclic photophosphorylation therefore are ATP, Reduced NADP/
NADPH2 while the by-product is Oxygen
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation is also called the Z scheme because it involves flow of
electrons from light excited chlorophylls in Ziz Zag pattern via chains of electron carriers to form
ATP and reduced NADP/NADPH

Electron transport and non – cyclic photophosphorylation in photosynthesis

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Cyclic photophosphorylation:
Is the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi coupled to the cyclic passage of electrons along a series
of electron transport molecules to and from photosystem I (P700). OR
It is the formation of ATP from ADP + Pi using energy emitted by photo-excited electrons of
P700 as they flow along photosynthetic electron carriers and back to photosystems I (P700).

In this phosphosphorylation, light energy absorbed by PSI boosts electrons to a higher energy
level that excited electrons are accepted by a ferrodoxin (electron acceptor) . From ferrodoxin,
electrons are recycled back in PSI directly via a series of electrons carries which are at different
energy levels.
The energy lost by the electrons as they are returned to PSI is captured and released in the
synthesis of ATPs from ADP and an in organic phosphate
By so doing, light energy is converted to chemical energy. The only product of cyclic
photophosphorylation is ATP and involves only PSI
NOTE: Cyclic photophosphorylation takes place most efficiently when the dark reaction is
prevented by either
(1) Absence of hydrogen acceptor NADP
(2) Lack of carbondioxide.
Cyclic photophosphorylation takes place When the amount of ADP and Inorganic phosphate is
in high concentration

QUESTION 1) Describe the process of non-cyclic photophosphorylation in green plants.

When light energy strikes photosystem II/P680 it boosts electrons to a higher energy level.
The electrons are received by an electron acceptor, such as Plastoquinone.
The electrons are passed from the electron acceptor along a series of electron carriers to
photosystem I/P700 in an energy-wise downhill process.
The energy lost by the electrons is captured and used for converting Adenosine
diphosphate/ADP to Adenosine triphosphate/ATP by addition of inorganic phosphate.
This conversion of light energy into chemical energy by addition of inorganic phosphate to ADP
to form ATP is called photophosphorylation.

The light energy absorbed by photosystem I/P700 boosts the electrons to an even higher energy
level.
The electrons are received by another electron acceptor, such as Ferredoxin.
Meanwhile, water spontaneously splits into hydroxyl ions/OH- and protons/H+ under the
influence of light. This is called the photolysis of water.
The electrons from the photolysis of water are used to stabilize photosystem II/P680 and this
loss of electrons from water causes it to dissociate into protons and oxygen gas.
The protons from the water molecule combine with the electrons from photosystem I to reduce
oxidized Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate /NADP+ to reduced NADP/(NADPH+H+).
This is non-cyclic photophosphorylation.

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CYCLIC AND NON-CYCLIC PHOTOPHORYLATION COMPARED
Similarities
In both:
(1) There is flow of electrons through several electron carriers
(2) There are photosystems which accept and lose electrons.
(3) ATP is formed.
(4) pigment system I is involved
(5) Electron movement is located in the thylakoid membranes
(6) Protons are moved outwards of the thylakoids.
(7) Protons (H+) are actively pumped from stroma into thylakoid space.
(8) There is photo-excitation of electrons in the pigment systems.

Differences
NON-CYCLIC PHOTOPHORYLATION CYCLIC PHOTOPHORYLATION
 Electrons flow unidirectionally (non-  Electrons flow cyclically
cyclically)
First electron donor is (source of electrons) First electron donor is pigment system I (PSI)
water
Last electron acceptor is NADP Last electron acceptor is pigment system I
(PSI)
The products are ATP, NADPH and Oxygen The product is ATP only
Involves both pigment systems I and II Involves only pigment system I
Photolysis of water occurs No photolysis of water

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 Differences between PSI and PSII
PSI PSII
 Restabilised by electrons from PSII stabilized by electrons from water
 Involved in both cyclic and non-cyclic Involved in non-cyclic photophosphorylation
photophosphorylation
 Is not associated with photolysis of Is associated with photolysis of water
water
 PSI is at a higher energy level PSII is at a lower energy level
 Its reaction centre is P7oo Its reaction centre is P680

Chemiosmotic theory of ATP synthesis (theory of photophosphorylation)

Photolysis of water by light absorbed by chlorophyll in PSII, releases protons/H + ions, electrons
and oxygen. The electrons are passed along a chain of electron carriers and as they move from
one electron carrier to another carrier energy is released.
1.H+ ions/prtons acculate inside the thylakoids
The flow of electrons through electron carriers in the thylakoid membranes releases energy for
active pumping of hydrogen ions (H+) from the stroma across a thylakoid membrane to the
thylakoid space/thylakoid compartment/ lumen/cavities.
2.pH and electrical chemical proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane is created
The protons/Hydrogen ions accumulate in the thylakoid space/cavity; creating a proton
gradient/ steep electrochemical gradient in the lumen of the thylakoid membranes than in the
stroma, leading to the rapid diffusion of hydrogen ions ( H+ ions) along the steep electrochemical
gradient back to the stroma through specific channels called chemiosmotic channels / via the
stalked particles.
3.ATP synthases/ATPase generate ATP
These channels are formed by an enzyme complex called ATP synthases/ATPase. As protons
pass through the channels; the enzyme ATPase converts ADP and inorganic phosphate into ATP.
The energy generated by the passage of the H+ provides energy for the ATP synthases to
phosphorylate ADP to ATP.The passage of about three H+ ions is required to generate one ATP.
Also the potential energy stored in proton concentration difference is used to generate ATP
from ADP and inorganic phosphate in presence of ATPase

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Qn .The synthesis of ATP is driven by a flow of protons. Describe where and how the required
proton gradient is produced in the chloroplast.
P. Mitchell’s physiology that occurs in the chloroplast
The hypothesis by Peter Mitchell called chemiosmotic hypothesis explains synthesis of
Adenosine triphosphate/ATP from Adenosine diphosphate/ ADP and inorganic phosphate using
energy formed due to electro-chemical proton gradient which exists across the thylakoid
membrane of the chloroplast span by the respiratory chains of electron carriers.
In the stroma the hydrogen atoms dissociate into protons and electrons.
The electrons are fed into the respiratory chain of carriers at different energy levels leading to
formation of energy used to combine ADP with inorganic phosphate to form ATP.
Active transport of protons from the stroma into the thylakoid space across the impermeable
thylakoid membrane occurs.
This proton pump is driven by energy released from the excited electrons as they pass down the
electron transport system.
This increases the acidity within the thylakoid space and creates the electrochemical proton
gradient across the thylakoid membrane.
This results into diffusion of some protons back into the stroma via the special channels called
chemiosmotic channels down the electrochemical gradient.
These channels are associated with catalytic knobs on the stroma side and ATPase enzyme.
The diffusion of protons through the chemiosmotic channels result into release of energy used
to combine ADP with inorganic phosphate to form ATP.

LIGHT INDEPENDENT OR DARK STAGE

It’s called dark reaction because does not require light, although can take place in light also.

THE MAIN PATHWAYS FOR THE DARK REACTION

(l) Calvin-Benson cycle / C3 pathway
(2) Hatch-Slack pathway / C4 pathway

It occurs in a cycle of reactions called the Calvin cycle named after Melvin Calvin and It occurs in
the stroma of chloroplasts of C3 -plants. The major purpose of the dark reaction is to reduce the
CO2 absorbed from the atmosphere and water to the carbohydrates.

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This requires ATP and reduced NADP (NADPH+ H+) from the light stage of photosynthesis. ATP
provides energy for the endergonic with action reaction of the dark stage and reduced NADP
provides hydrogen atoms required to reduce CO2 to carbohydrates.

C3 CYCLE: is the series of reactions in plants to form glycerate-3-phosphate (which has 3

carbons) as first organic substance during photosynthesis.

C3-Plants are plants that fix CO2 directly in glycerate-3-phosphate/ G.P which is a 3 carbon
organic compound as the first stable product during photosynthesis. OR
These are plants whose first stable compound of carbon dioxide fixation is a 3 carbon organic
compound called PGA/G.P/Phosphoglycerate.

MAIN STAGES OF THE CALVIN-BENSON CYCLE (C3 CYCLE)

1. Carboxylation stage
During this stage carbondioxide fixation occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast of the
mesophyll cells.
CO2 which has diffused into the stroma of the chloroplast reacts with 5 carbon compound,
ribulose Bisphosphate under the catalysis of ribulose Bisphosphate carboxylase
enzyme/RUBISCO to produce an unstable 6 carbon compound.
The 6carbon compound splits up into two molecules of 3 carbon compound, the first stable
product of phosynthesis called phosphoglyceric acid ( PGA) or glycerate -3- phosphate
/phosphoglycerate .
Some of the Phosphoglycerate is used for the synthesis of amino acids and fatty acids needed
for the synthesis of proteins and lipids respectively.
The fixing of CO2 by RUBP is called carboxylation of RUBP or carbon dioxide fixation i.e.
CO2 + RUBP (5C) RUBP unstable 6C organic compound
Carboxylase
.2. Reduction stage
The remaining and biggest portion of phosphoglycerate is reduced by hydrogen donated by
reduced NADP, using energy from hydrolysis of ATP to form phosphoglyceraldehyde
(PGAL)/triose phosphate/glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate/GALP/3-phosphoglyceraldehyde.
Water molecules are released as PGA is reduced to the Aldehyde PGAL
ATP ADP
PGA/G.P PGAL + H2O
+ +
NADPH+H NADP

Part of PGAL is used for the synthesis of glycerol.

The triose phosphate is the end product of photosynthesis.
3. Isomerisation and condensation

The remaining and biggest portion of PGAL passes via a series of reactions and is used to form
Monosaccharide sugars mainly hexose sugars which condense into sucrose and starch. i.e. Two
of the 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde molecules undergo isomerisation and several reactions to form
fructose-1-phosphate and glucose-1-phosphate, both of which may condense to form sucrose or
starch.

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4. Regeneration of ribulose Bisphosphate (RUBP)
Another portion of PGAL is used for regeneration of RUBP via several enzyme catalyzed
reactions, using energy from hydrolysis of ATP into ADP.
In regeneration of RUBP; 5 PGAL are used to regenerate 3 RUBPs .this process require ATPs and
re arrangement of the carbon atom in the sugar phosphate to generate 5 carbon compounds
from 3 carbon compounds
3ATP 3ADP+ 3P i
5 PGAL rearrangement of carbon chain 3RUP 3RUBP

5. Product synthesis stage:-

Product of photosynthesis (T.P) is assimilated through different pathways some of which are:-
 Is converted into sucrose; a form in which it’s translocated either in storage organs or
growing points.
 It is fed into the glycolytic pathway (respiration) to produce energy required for
endergonic reactions. T.P/GPAL enters the Glyccolytic pathway where it is converted
into acetyl CO.A which enters the Kreb’s cycle

Synthesis of lipids:-lipids are formed from glycerol which is formed directly from T.P/PGAL and
fatty acids which are obtained from phosphoglycerate/PGA/G.P.
PGA/G.P enters the glycolytic pathway to form Acetyl co-enzyme A which is then used to
synthesis fatty acids, which finally react with glycerol through condensation reaction forming
lipids.

Synthesis of proteins: - The Triose Phosphate is fed into Kreb’s cycle after converting it to Acetyl
co.A.
PROTEINS are formed from amino acids which are also formed from
phosphoglycerate/glycerate-3-phosphate.
Phosphoglycerate via the acetyl CO.enzyme A, forms an intermediate organic acid of the kreb’s
cycle.
The intermediate kreb’s cycle acid reacts with ammonia from the reduction of nitrates obtained
from the soil to form amino acids which are used in protein synthesis.
The nitrites are obtained from reduction of nitrates using reductase enzyme as show below.
NO3-(aq) nitrate NO2-(aq) Nitrite NH3
Reductase Reductase
NH3 + kreb’s cycle acid intermediate organic acid amino acids

SUMMARY OF THE CALVIN CYCLE

Describe how the products of non-cyclic photophosphorylation are used in carbon dioxide
fixation in C3 plants.
Carbon dioxide diffuses in to the leaf through the stomata and dissolves in the moisture on the
walls of the palisade cells.
It diffuses through the cell membrane, cytoplasm and chloroplast membrane into the stroma of
the chloroplast.

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The carbon dioxide combines with a 5-carbon compound called Ribulose biphosphate/RuBP,
under catalysis of the enzyme Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase (RUBISCO), to form an unstable
6-carbon intermediate.
The intermediate breaks down into two molecules of the 3-carbon glycerate-3-
phosphate/PGA/GP.
The reducing power of reduced NADP and energy from ATP are used to reduce glycerate 3-
phosphate into the triose phosphate Glyceraldehde-3-phosphate/PGAL/GALP
Pairs of triose phosphate molecules are combined to form hexose sugars, hexose sugars are
polymerized into starch which is stored by the plant/
Some triose phosphate undergoes rearrangement of carbon atoms to generate the 5-carbon
sugar Ribulose phosphate/RuP; which is phosphorylated using energy from ATP regenerate the
5-carbon carbon dioxide acceptor Ribulose biphosphate.

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Question
Chlorella (unicellular organism) was allowed to photosynthesize at high and very low carbon
dioxide levels .the concentration of G.P and RUBP was investigated.

a) Account for the different concentration of RUBP during the whole course of the investigation
b) Explain why the concentration of GP fall when the level of carbon dioxide is reduced.

LIGHT INDEPENDENT MECHANISMS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN C 4-PLANTS.

C4 Plants are the ones whose first formed stable compound of carbondioxide fixation is a 4
carbon organic compound known as oxaloacetate.

Plants that produce the 3 carbon compound as the first stable product of photosynthesis of
carbondioxide fixation are called the C3 plants.
C4 plants found in maize, sugar cane, millet, sorghum, and many tropical grasses. These are
plants which are mainly monocots that produce a 4 carbon compound called oxalo acetic acid
(OAA) as the first stable product of carbondioxide fixation.
They undergo two pathways of photosynthetic reactions which includes the Hatch-slack
pathway and the Calvin cycle.

Hatch-slack pathway
A type of photosynthesis in which CO2 is first, fixed by phosphoenol pyruvate catalyzed by PEP
carboxylase (PEP) into Oxaloacetate (OAA) inside mesophyll cells, stored as organic acid (mainly
malate) which is later decarboxylated, refixed and CO2 is assimilated in the Calvin-cycle inside
bundle sheath cells.

Hatch-slack pathway Involves transportation of hydrogen and carbondioxide from the

mesophyll cells into the bundle sheath cells.

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During this pathway Carbondioxide is fixed by a 3 carbon compound called phosphoenol
pyruvate (PEP) in the cytoplasm of the mesophyll cells under the catalysis of phosphoenol
pyruvate carboxylase enzyme to form a stable 4 carbon organic compound called oxalo-acetate
(OAA).
PEP PEP carboxylase Oxalo-acetate (4C)

Oxalo-acetate (OAA) is reduced by hydrogen from Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

phosphate Hydrogen /reduced NADP to form a 4 carbon compound called Malate. Fixation of
CO2 by PEP to form Malate occurs in the mesophyll cells.
OAA (4C) Malate (4C)

NADPH2 NADP+
The malate produced in the mesophyll cells diffuses through the plasmodemata and then
diffuses into the chloroplast of the bundle sheath cells.
Within the chloroplasts of the bundle sheath cells, malate is dehydrogenated to give large
amount H + ions and decarboxylated to form CO2 and pyruvate. The C4 path way pumps CO2 and
H+ ions into the bundle sheath cells where they are used by the normal Calvin’s cycle.

CO2 Calvin cycle

Malate (4C) pyruvate (3C)

NADP+ NADP H2

The H+ ions produced are used to reduce NADP to form reduce NADP/NADPH whose synthesis is
limited to a bundle sheath cells.
The formed CO2 in the bundles Sheath cells is fixed by RUBP under the catalysis of RUBP
carboxylase to form organic food substances via a series of reactions.
Regeneration of PEP
The pyruvate diffuses back into the mesophyll cells where it is phosphorylated using 2 molecules
of ATP to regenerate the carbondioxide acceptor, PEP.

Pyruvate (3C) PEP (3C)

ATP ADP +Pi

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ILLUSTRATION OF HATCH SLACK-PATHWAY

Note.1
1. Carbondioxide fixation in the mesophyll cells does not occur inside their chloroplasts because
they lack RUBP carboxylase enzyme.
2. PEP carboxylase has a much higher affinity for CO2 than RUBP carboxylase and therefore a
higher level of carbondioxide is fixed into the carbohydrate metabolism leading into formation
of a larger amount of food, energy than in C3 plants.
3. Because of the high concentration of CO2 fixed by PEP under the catalysis of PEP carboxylase
initially, RUBP carboxylase only catalyses fixation of CO2 rather than oxygen. The high CO2
concentration in the chloroplast of the bundle sheath cells out completes O 2 for RUBP
carboxylase active site. Hence prevents photorespiration in C4 plants ensuring efficient CO2
fixation by RUBP carboxylase.
4. Its high affinity for CO2 also makes it unable to fix oxygen instead of CO2.

NOTE.2
 Most C4 plants register a high photosynthetic yield in tropics and subtropics regions with
high temperatures and high light intensity due to their ability to fix a high concentration
of CO2.
 C4 plants yield more food materials than C3 plants because they don’t photorespire.

C4 plants have a characteristic leaf Anatomy which is described as kranz anatomy which is the
arrangement 2 distinct rings of leaf cells around the vascular bundles each with a different type

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 or form of chloroplasts, where by the inner ring of cells are called the bundle sheath surrounded
the outer ring referred to as the mesophyll cells.
Chloroplasts in the C4 plants show some Dimorphism i.e. they exist in two forms. Those of the
bundle sheath cells have rudimentary grana where as the grana are prominent in the mesophyll
cells.

The kranz anatomy illustration diagram.

Differences
between bundle sheath and mesophyll cells of the C4 plant
Mesophyll cells/chloroplasts Bundle sheath cells/chloroplasts
 Many and large grana Lack grana and if present they are very few and
small.
 Lack RUBP carboxylase enzyme Has RUBP carboxylase enzyme
 A high concentration of NADPH ,ATP A low concentration of NADPH ,ATP and oxygen
and oxygen are produced due to high are produced.
activity of PSII
 There is no carbondioxide fixation due There is carbondioxide fixation
to lack of RUBP carboxylase
 Have high PEP carboxylation Have high RUBP carboxylation
 They have a low concentration of They have a high concentration of starch formed
starch formed
 The light dependent reactions occur at The light dependent reactions occur at a low rate.
a high rate.

SIGNIFICANCE OF HATCH-SLACK PATHWAY

Advantages Disadvantage
C4 plants ably photosynthesize at very low CO2 concentration (e.g. in dense tropical
vegetation) because PEP carboxylase enzyme has a very high affinity for carbon  The CO2 fixing enzymes
dioxide.
in C4 plants are less active
Concentric arrangement of mesophyll cell produces a smaller area in relation to
volume for better utilization of available water and reduce the intensity of solar at cool temperature and
radiations. low illumination, therefore
Photorespiration, which inhibits growth in C3 plants is avoided / reduced in C4
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because (1) the CO2 fixing enzyme PEP carboxylase does not accept oxygen (2) photosynthesis occurs
RUBISCO enzyme inside the bundle sheath cells is shielded from high oxygen slowly at high altitude with
concentration by the ring of palisade cells.
cool temperature and in
 The CO2 fixing enzymes in C4 plants are more active at hot temperature and high
illumination, therefore photosynthesis occurs rapidly at low altitude, hot and brightly low light intensity of
lit tropical conditions than in C3 plants. temperate conditions.
The productivity of C4 almost four times greater than in C3 because:
(1) of the increased rate of CO2 uptake caused by (i) large internal leaf surface area (ii)
short CO2 diffusion distance (iii) CO2 steep diffusion gradients
(2) The bundle sheath cells in which dark reactions occur have (i) a large
photosynthetic surface area enabled by un-usually large chloroplasts (ii) lack of grana
on which O2 would be produced, so no photorespiration.
(3) the Palisade cells in which light reactions occur have large grana to increase the
photosynthetic surface area.
Advantages and significance of the c4 path ways
 It makes C4 plants more adapted to high light intensities and temperatures of the tropics
due to higher optimum temperatures of PEP carboxylase for Co 2 fixation.
 Dimorphic nature of the chloroplast limits photorespiration greatly leading to efficient
fixation of CO2 by RUBP carboxylase and higher yield i.e. higher productivity in C 4 plants
 PEP carboxylase does not accept O2 thus limiting photorespiration
 closing of stomata during the day by desert plants does not affect the rate of
photosynthesis due to large stores of large CO2 at night as malate
 The high affinity of PEP carboxylase for CO2 leads to high productivity of photosynthesis.
 Because they can reduce the aperture of their stomata during high light intensity and
hot conditions, they lose less water by transpiration.

Dis advantages
1. Consumes a lot of energy compared to C3 path ways.
2. CO2 fixation and hence the rate photosynthesis is limited by ATP in cooler, moist
temperate regions because in such conditions; it requires external energy.

COMPARISON OF C3 AND C4 PLANTS

Similarities
Both:
(1) contain RUBISCO enzyme
(2) Depend on light for their reactions
(3) Show CO2 fixation phases
(4) Have RuBP as CO2 acceptor
(5) Form several same organic products e.g. GALP, PGA, sucrose
(6) Have the calvin cycle

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Diff C3 PLANTS C4 PLANTS
struc Lack Kranz anatomy Exhibit Kranz anatomy
tural
All chloroplasts have identical structure(have Chloroplasts are dimorphic (have two
one type of chloroplast) types of chloroplasts ) e.g. those of
palisade cells have grana yet are lacking
bundle sheath cells.
Physi  CO2 acceptor is a 3-Carbon PEP
 CO2 acceptor is a 5-Carbon RuBP
ologi  CO2 fixation occurs twice
 CO2 fixation occurs once
cal No photorespiration
Photorespiration occurs
More photosynthetically efficient
Less photosynthetically efficient
OAA is the first organic product
G.P is the first organic product
Enzymes are more efficient at high
Enzymes are more efficient at lower
temperatures(30-350C)
temperatures(20-250C)
 PEP carboxylase and RUBP
 Use only RUBISCO enzyme for CO2 fixation
carboxylase enzyme are used
 Compensation point is attained at higher
 Compensation point is attained at
CO2 concentration
lower CO2 concentration
Oxygen is an inhibitor of photosynthesis Oxygen is not an inhibitor of
photosynthetic process
Grows at a low rate Grows at a high rate
Note
C3 plants can survive best in an environment of C4 plants
-Low temperature -Regions of high temperatures
-In low light intensity -in high light intensity
-Low oxygen levels -In high CO2 levels
-In high CO2 levels - RUBP carboxylase has a higher affinity for CO 2

PHOTORESPIRATION
Is the light dependent uptake of oxygen by RUBP carboxylase and output of CO2, which mainly
occurs in C3 plants.
Its wasteful process in which carbon fixation in C3 plants is prevented due to the light
dependent uptake of oxygen by RuBP carboxylase (RUBISCO enzyme) and release of
carbondioxide

HOW PHOTORESPIRATION AFFECTS PLANTS

When C3 plants are exposed to low carbondioxide concentration (or high oxygen concentration)
e.g. when stomata close to reduce water loss, RuBP carboxylase catalyses the reaction between
RuBP and oxygen to form a 2-carbon compound; phosphoglycolate, which is oxidized to release
carbondioxide.

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This means that carbondioxide and oxygen do compete for the active site of the enzyme. This
makes oxygen to be a competitive inhibitor during carbondioxide fixation. Because RUBP
carboxylase enzyme catalyses fixation of both of CO2 and O2 due to the affinity it has for both of
them, it can be referred t as RUBISCO/Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase enzyme.

When the carbondioxide concentration is high, RUBISCO enzyme catalyses the reaction between
RuBP and carbondioxide to form a 3-carbon compound; 3-phosphoglyceric acid/G.P, which
undergoes several reactions to form sugar useful to the plant.

However, when C3 plants are exposed to low carbondioxide concentration or high oxygen
concentration, instead of RUBP carboxylase accepting CO2 ,accepts o2 leading to the production
of one PGA/G.P molecule and a phosphoglycolate. This reduces PGA yields by ½.
During photorespiration RuBP carboxylase catalyses the fixation of oxygen by RuBP to form one
molecule of phosphoglycerate/G.P and a 2-carbon compound; phosphoglycolate, which is
oxidized to release carbondioxide.
Plants recover the lost carbon in the phosphoglycolate by converting it into PGA/G.P through a
series of reactions that occur in 3 cell organelles i.e. chloroplast, peroxisomes and mitochondria.
Phosphoglycolate is immediately dephosphorylated into glycolate.
In abide to recover another molecule of G.P, two molecules of glycolate via a series of reactions
are used to form one molecule of G.P and one remaining carbon atom is lost in form of CO 2
without net production of ATP.

Mechanism of photorespiration
It is estimated that Photorespiration therefore reduces the potential yield of photosynthesis by
30-40%.
Therefore C3 plants are less efficient in production of photosynthetic products than C 4 plants
which do not photorespire or less photorespire.
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C4 plants do not photorespire or do it it at a very low rate because they have PEP carboxylase
enzyme with a much higher affinity in fixing a high for CO2 and highly efficient in fixing a high
concentration of CO2 which is shunted into the bundle sheath cells by malate.
The high concentration of CO2 is accumulated in the bundle sheath cells increases the efficiency
of RUBP carboxylase in fixing CO2 whereby it does not fix O2 as well as it is in C3 plants.

Characteristics of photorespiration
1. carbon lost as CO2 is never retrieved
2. ATP and reduced NADP are consumed
3. Increased of CO2 concentration lowers the affinity of RUBP carboxylase for O 2 therefore
inhibits photorespiration.
4. occurs in 3 organelles
5. It is favored by higher temps (tropics) in case of C3 plants because stomata aperture
narrows leading to lower CO2 concentration.
6. it occurs in the presence of light
CONDITIONS for photorespiration
 Low CO2
 High O2 concentration
 High light intensity
 High temperatures

Dis advantages of photorespiration:-

1. it cuts the yield of photosynthesis by half
2. There is loss of carbon and reduces the productivity of the plant.
3. Reduces carbondioxide fixation capabilities because of oxygen fixation by RUBISCO
4. The products formed when O2 is combined with RuBP donot lead to the production of
useful energy-rich molecules like glucose.

CRASSULACEAN ACID METABOLISM (CAM) PHOTOSYNTHESIS

These are plants that fix CO2 into organic Compounds i.e. citrate and malate in the absence of
light .In the presence of light , the organic acids malate decompose to release CO 2 (
decarboxylation ) which is used in the synthesis of sugars via the C 3 path way.
Or
A type of photosynthesis in which CO2 is taken in at night via open stomata, fixed by
phosphoenol private/PEP carboxylase into OAA, stored as organic acid (mainly malic acid) which
is later decarboxylated during daytime, refixed and CO2 is assimilated in the Calvin-cycle when
stomata are closed. CO2 enters the leaf and fixed at night through the PEP system. The
enzymatic conversion /breakdown of the mallic acids formed during day provide a supply of CO 2
for C3 pathway/Calvin cycle.
Stomata are open at night. During the night PEP carboxylase is active and malic acid
accumulates in the cell’s vacuole.
stomata are closed during the day.at this time malic acid shuttled out of the vacuole and
converted back to OAA requiring 1 ATP to ADP, releasing CO2. The CO2 is now fixed by RUBISCO
and the Calvin cyle proceeds

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Biochemically CAM resembles C4 plants only that in C4 plants CO2 fixation by PEP carboxylase
and RUBP carboxylase occurs simultaneously but separated in space in CAM plants, the enzymes
act in the same cells .i.e. mesophyll cells but separated in time.
CAM is a modified form of C3 photosynthesis adopted by approximately 6% of vascular plant
species as an adaptation to water deficit in terrestrial and epiphytic plants, with exceptions
exhibited by submerged freshwater plants for other reasons.

Examples of CAM plants

Cacti, agaves (sisal), opuntia, Kalanchoe (Bryophyllum), Vanilla (family: Orchidaceae), pineapples
(Family: Bromeliaceae), Mesembryanthemum crystallinum (Common ice plant), and Euphorbia
milii a.k.a Crown of Thorns plant – a spiny climber with showy red bracts, commonly grown in
school gardens

Significance of CAM photosynthesis

The advantage of CAM is that photosynthesis can proceed during day while the stomata are
closed, greatly reducing wter loss.
As a result CAM provides an adaptaion for plants that grow in hot, dry environments with cool
nights(such as deserts)
For terrestrial CAM plants, there is increased water use efficiency (WUE) in which nocturnal
stomatal opening greatly reduces stomatal loss of water as it would in day light.

PHASES OF CAM THROUGH THE DIURNAL COURSE

Phase I: Nocturnal CO2 fixation is catalysed by PEP Carboxylase i.e PEP carboxylase fixes
carbondioxide to OAA and then OAA is coverted to malic acid within the vacuole.
Phase II: Malic acid is shuttled to the vacualoe of the cell. atmospheric CO2 fixation at dawn
which marks the transition between C4 and C3 activity.
Phase III: decarboxylation of malate and fixation of the regenerated CO2 by Rubisco.
Phase IV: a period of atmospheric CO2 fixation from the end of Phase III to dusk which latterly
incorporates the shift from Rubisco to PEP Carboxylase activity.
CAM plants are a group of mainly succulent plants and are found in the small crassulacaen.
CAM and C4 plants are adapted to drier regions ( deserts ) due to their ability to store CO 2 at
night (mainly malate) and decarboxylate during day when the CO2 up take is greatly reduced
since the stomata close to reduce water loss by transpiration.

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Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis
Internal factors
 Structure of the leaf and chlorophyll content
 Influence of enzymes
 Accumulation with in chloroplasts of products of photosynthesis
 Hormones
 Leaf size
 Number of stomata
 Vascular bundles
 Air spaces
External factors
 Quantity and quality of light incident on leaves
 Suitable temperature
 Concentration of carbondioxide in the surrounding atmosphere
 Concentration of oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere
 Availability of water
 Inorganic ions; absence of ions like mg, N and Fe , chlorophyll can’t be synthesized
THE PRINCIPLE OF LIMITING FACTORS
The law of limiting factors: It states that: when a physiological/chemical process depends on
more than one essential conditions being favourable, its rate at any given moment is limited by
the factor at its least favourable valve/nearest its minimum value/in its short supply.i.e its this
factor which directly affects the process if it’s in quantity is changed.
Example photosynthesis can’t proceed in the dark because the absence of light limits the
process. The absence of will alter the rate of photosynthesis
orAt any given moment, the rate of a biochemical reaction depends upon more than one
factor/conditions being favourable; its rate is determined or limited by the one factor which is
nearest its minimum value.

When one factor is favourable e.g. when light is increased the rate of photosynthesis increases
until it levels of because another factor other than light intensity limits the rate of
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photosynthesis. But when the limiting factor such as CO2 is increased, the rate of photosynthesis
further increases until yet another factor like temperature tends towards its minimum and limits
the rate of photosynthesis resulting its leveling off.
Salinity
One of the major effects of salinity is osmotic stress, and hence there are intimate relationships
to drought stress or ‘water stress’. This results in stomata closure in an effort to avoid
desiccation, which reduces photosynthesis because uptake of CO2 reduces.

Effect of carbondioxide
Rate of photosynthesis

Observation / description Explanation

 Generally, the rate of photosynthesis  RuBISCO attaches carbon dioxide instead of
increases rapidly with increasing oxygen, because the carbon dioxide concentration
carbondioxide concentration to a is higher than the oxygen concentration.
maximum at 30 Pa in C4 plants and 90 Pa More cells photosynthesize because of the
in C3 plants and thereafter remains increased carbon dioxide molecules available.
constant.
 The rate of photosynthesis is faster in PEP Carboxylase of C4 has a higher affinity for
C4 than C3. carbondioxide than RuBISCO of C3 and hence acts
faster.
 The overall photosynthetic products C4 needs more ATP than C3 which generally
are greater in C3 than in C4 reduces photosynthetic out put
 The C4 plants are more efficient at  At lower CO2 concentration in C3
lower CO2 concentration while C3 more photorespiration reduces the photosynthesis
efficient at higher CO2 efficiency yet PEP Carboxylase has a high affinity
for carbon dioxide
 C3 plant has a higher compensation PEP Carboxylase has a high affinity for carbon
point than C4 dioxide

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After attaining the maximum, the rate of It is because other factors limit the process e.g.
photosynthesis remains constant in both temperature, light intensity etc.
 At the CO2 concentration of about 70
Pa, the rate of photosynthesis is equal in
both plants
Carbondioxide is a raw material for the dark stage of photosynthesis in that it’s reduced by
hydrogen donated by reduced NADP via a series of reactions to form carbohydrates. HIGH
Carbondioxide concentration in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis
significantly.

In the atmosphere, the concentration of carbon dioxide ranges from 0.03 to 0.04 %. However,
the highest CO2 level needed for photosynthesis is 0.1%, beyond this optimum CO 2
concentration the rate may reduce due the inactivation or denaturation of the photosynthetic
enzymes due to the acidic PH as result of formation of carbonic acid from the reaction of excess
CO2 with water.

Chlorophyll Concentration
The concentration of chlorophyll affects the rate of reaction as they absorb the light energy
without which the reactions cannot proceed. When the level of chlorophyll molecules is high the
rate of photosynthesis is high because sufficient light energy is absorbed for formation of
enough ATP and reduced NADP (NADPH) needed for the dark reactions.

But when the concentration of chlorophyll is low the rate of photosynthesis is low because little
amount of light energy is absorbed leading to production of insufficient ATP and reduced NADP
(NADPH) needed for the dark reactions. Total absence of chlorophyll results into lack of
photosynthesis.

Lack of chlorophyll or deficiency of chlorophyll results in chlorosis or yellowing of leaves. It can

occur due to disease, mineral deficiency or the natural process of aging (senescence). Lack of
iron, magnesium, nitrogen and light affect the formation of chlorophyll and thereby causes
chlorosis.

Temperature
Most reactions of photosynthesis are catalyzed by enzymes; they need an optimum
temperature for optimum enzyme activity for high photosynthetic rate.
At temperatures below the optimum (around 0oC) the photosynthetic rate is reduced due to the
inactivation enzymes and when the temperature is increased beyond optimum the rate of
photosynthesis reduces until the reactions stop because of denaturation of enzymes until all of
them are fully denatured. Different species of plants have different optimum ranges of
temperature ,most temperate plants need an optimum range of temperature between 20-25 oC
while the tropical plants need 35-40oC
Since both the stages of photosynthesis require enzyme activity, the temperature has an affect
on the rate of photosynthesis.

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Observation / description Explanation
0
Below 10 C, C3 rate of photosynthesis is C4 photosynthetic enzymes are less active in
higher than in C4 above 100C. the cold but become more active with increase
in temperature.
The maximum rate of photosynthesis The optimum temperature for enzymes
attained in C4 is much higher than in C3 involved in the C4 cycle is higher than in the C3
cycle
At about 450C, the rate of photosynthesis Enzymes controlling photosynthesis are
decreases denatured
There is an initial increase in photosynthetic Light intensity becomes a limiting factor in
rate to a maximum at about 40-420C, inspite of each of the three cases
further increase in temperature
There is increase in the rate of Increase in temperature activates enzymes
photosynthesis with increase in temperature to a level beyond which enzyme denaturation
until up to at about 400C occurs.

Water
Water is a metabolite/raw material for photosynthesis. Water is split by light energy to provide
hydrogen ions needed in the dark stage of photosynthesis. It also provides electrons which
restabilises the PSII/photo system II after it has emitted its electrons.

It is found that even slight deficiency of water results in significant reduction in the crop yield.
The lack of water not only limits the amount of water but also the quantity of carbon dioxide.
This is because in response to drying the leaves close their stomata in order to conserve water
being lost as water vapour through them.
ROLE OF WATER IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Catalytic photolysis / splitting / breaking of water produces electrons (e -) and protons
(H+).
 Water is a source of electrons to replace those lost by chlorophyll / photosystem II
 Water is a source of H+ needed to produce NADPH + H+

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  Water is a source of H+ which when flowing from thylakoid space into stroma via
ATPase, ATP forms.
 Water is a substrate / reactant / raw material / for photosynthesis
 Water is transparent so photosynthesis can take place underwater / light can penetrate
to chloroplasts

Pollution
Pollution of the atmosphere with industrial gases has been found to result in as much as 15%
loss. Soot can block stomata and reduce the transparency of the leaves. Some of the other
pollutants are ozone and sulphur dioxide. In fact, lichens are very sensitive to sulphur dioxide in
the atmosphere. Pollution of water affects the hydrophytes. The capacity of water to dissolve
gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen is greatly affected.

Mineral salts
Mineral salts affect the production of chlorophyll such as nitrates,phosphates,Mg2+ nitrogen.in
high concentration of mineral ions there is high production of chlorophyll molecules.total
absence results in chlorosis hence no photosynthesis will take place.
Oxygen
High concentration of oxygen, mainly in C3 Plants reduces the rate of photosynthesis because
oxygen competes with CO2 for the active site of ribulose bisphosphaate carboxylase enzyme
used to catalyze the fixation of CO2 by RUBP,carbondioxide acceptor into an unstable 6C
intermediate compound, this is the enzyme has an equally high affinity for oxygen unlike CO 2 .
Because this enzyme is called RUBISCO (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase.

Light intensity and Compensation Point

When light intensity is Low the rate of photosynthesis is low. As the intensity is increased the
rate photosynthesis also increases. This is because light is used during the light stage of
photosynthesis to provide energy in form of ATP and reduced NADP (Nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen).ATP and reduced NADP as products of the light stage are
required as raw materials in the dark stage of photosynthesis.
Light is also needed during photolysis of water resulting into production hydrogen. The
hydrogen ions produced during photolysis are used to reduce NADP to NADPH +H+.
light is used to raise the energy level of electrons of chlorophyll molecules on order for them to
be emitted and passed via electron carriers at different energy levels in order to produced
energy needed to combine ADP with inorganic Phosphate to form ATP.

As the light intensity is increased the rate photosynthesis also increases However, after reaching
an intensity of 10,000 lux (lux is the unit for measuring light intensity) there is no effect on the
rate. Very high intensity may, in fact, slow down the rate as it bleaches the chlorophyll. Normal
sunlight (usually with an intensity of about 100,000 lux) is quite sufficient for a normal rate of
photosynthesis.
When a plant in a region of low light / in darkness is provided with high light intensity, its rate of
photosynthesis increases until it equals to the rate of respiration whereby there is no net
release of oxygen by the plant to the atmosphere.
When the rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration, the plant is said to have
reached its Compensation point .this happens at dawn and at dusk.

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Light compensation point is that light intensity at which the rate of photosynthesis is exactly
balanced by the rate of respiration. At this point, CO2 is neither evolved nor absorbed i.e. there
is no net loss or gain in CO2 and there is no net loss or gain in carbohydrates and there is no net
exchange of O2 and CO2.
Compensation point: the point at which the rate of photosynthesis in a plant is in exact balance
with the rate of respiration, so there is no net exchange of CO2 or oxygen. Or
The light intensity at which the photosynthetic intake of carbon dioxide is equal to the
respiratory output of carbon dioxide. It occurs during early morning or late evenings
Beyond compensation point further increase in light intensity results in a proportional increase
in rate of photosynthesis until light saturation is reached. Beyond this point further increase in
light intensity has no effect on the rate of photosynthesis unless some other factors like CO2 has
its concentration increased. The time period taken for the plant to reach compensation point is
known as compensation period.

Net gain in sugars

(photosynthesis rate exceeds
respiration rate)

Net loss of sugars(sugars used

in respiration more rapidly
than they are produced in
phosynthesis).

Shade plants have a shorter compensation period than those in bright light/light plant for their
maximum and efficient utilization of light
At very low light intensity, shade plants have higher CO2 uptake, which reduces with
illumination.
Light plants have a higher compensation point than shade plants.
At a certain light intensity, the rate of CO2 uptake is the same in both.
In both, CO2 increases with increase in illumination to a maximum and then levels off.
Shade plants reach maximum CO2 uptake at a lower illumination than light plants.
Increased illumination causes a bigger increase in CO2 uptake in light plants than in shade plants.
Letter P represents compensation point at which CO2 uptake equals CO2 out put.
At Y biomass decreases because the rate of respiration exceeds that of photosynthesis.

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Effect of altitude (and oxygen)

Observation / description Explanation

The decrease in atmospheric pressure at
C3 plants are more abundant at high higher altitude decreases the partial pressure
altitude/elevation of oxygen enables more productivity since
photorespiration reduces
Even when temperature is high, nocturnal
stomatal opening and closure in day light
enables them to reduce transpiration.
CAM plants are more abundant at low CAM plants that store a lot of malate and
altitude due to the thus high osmotic value also a lot of
water, are usually less frost resistant than C3
plants.

The enzymes are tolerant to these high

C4 plants are widely distributed at low temperatures and the Kranz mesophyll
anatomy shields RuBISCO in bundle sheath
altitude and slight elevation
cells from much oxygen to avoid
photorespiration.

Significance of the study of the factors affecting photosynthesis

It enables us understand the most important biochemical life sustaining processes. All plants
and animals are dependent on the sun for energy, which is made available to them by the
process of photosynthesis. Man, like other animals, is dependent on the plants for food.
Scientists are constantly working towards developing new varieties of crops which give better
yield of crops. With the population explosion and resulting pressure on land resources, the
percentage of land available for cultivation is reducing at an alarming rate. This means that in
the restricted space, the crops have to yield more. Greenhouse plants and crops in unfriendly
freezing conditions have been possible due to the study of the factors affecting photosynthesis.

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MEASUREMENT OF RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
(i) Measure the uptake of CO2
(ii) Measure the production of O2
(iii) Measure the production of carbohydrates
(iv) Measure increase in dry mass

Measuring the uptake of water can’t work!

 Measuring the Uptake of CO2

Uptake of CO2 can be measured with the means of an IRGA (Infra-Red Gas Analyser) which can
compare the CO2 concentration in gas passing into a chamber surrounding a leaf / plant and the
CO2 leaving the chamber. The soil and roots must NOT be in the bag to avoid CO2 production
from respiration
NOTE: CO2 uptake can also be measured by following the uptake of carbon dioxide labelled with
Carbon 14

 Production of carbohydrates
This is a crude method where a disc is cut out of one side of a leaf (using a cork borer against a
rubber bung) and weighed after drying. Some weeks later, a disk is cut out of the other half of
the leaf, dried and weighed. Increase in mass of the disc is an indication of the extra mass that
has been stored in the leaf.
However, you can probably think of several inaccuracies in this method.

 Measuring the increase in dry mass

Dry mass is often monitored by the technique of 'serial harvests' where several plants are
harvested, dried to constant weight and weighed - this is repeated over the duration of the
experiment so as to have an accurate measure of the surplus photosynthesis over and above the
respiration that has taken place. As with most methods, several plants are needed to have
replicate measurements which are used to calculate the average and a standard deviation if
necessary.

 Measuring the production of O2

Oxygen can be measured by (a) counting bubbles evolved from pond weed with the Audus
apparatus
Requirements
(1) Previously well illuminated aquatic plant e.g. Elodea or Cabomba (2) Test tube (3) Watch (4)
Water at room temperature (5) bench lamp to provide light (6) Knife (7) Ruler (8) 0.2 % sodium
bicarbonate solution (9) plastic Syringe (10) 500 cm3 glass beaker (11) capillary tube (12) plastic
tube connector (13) graduated scale (14) retort stand (15) soft board (16) thermometer

Procedure:

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Set up the apparatus as below in TOTAL DARKNESS

(1) A light source is placed 50 cm away facing the test tube, is powered on and a 5 minutes lapse
is allowed to enable the plant adjust to the light intensity.
(2) The length of gas bubble evolved in 10 second, 30 second, and 1 minute intervals is
measured by pulling the syringe plunger to draw the bubble slowly along the capillary tube.
(3) Steps 1 and 2 are repeated with the light source placed at 40 cm from the test tube with the
plant, then 30 cm, 20 cm, and finally 10 cm.
(4) Lastly the control experiment involves using natural room lighting and repeating the above
steps.
Observation / results Explanation
 A colorless gas which relights a glowing  The gas is oxygen released from
splint evolves from the cut end of the plant. Photosynthetic reactions.
 The rate of gas evolution is directly This is because of the increased light
proportional to light intensity up to a certain intensity which provides more energy for
illumination i.e. the closer the light source is to photo-activation of electron flow.
the plant, the more oxygen bubbles evolve up  Increased illumination may not cause any
to a certain light intensity then remains further evolution of oxygen because (1) of light
relatively constant and may decrease. saturation (2) other factors limit the process
Determination of amount of gas released  Increased illumination may cause a decrease
a) if scale is marked in mm3 or cm3: read in bubble evolution because chlorophyll gets
volume directly bleached with increased illumination.
b) if scale is marked in mm: calculate volume
from πr2h
π=3.14, r=capillary tube radius, h=distance
bubble covers

Precautions to avoid experimental inaccuracies /

Explanation / Remedy
errors
 Temperature fluctuation of the water in the  Thermostatically controlled bath should be used to
beaker maintain temperature constant since it affect

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 photosynthetic activity.
 The experiment must be conducted in total  To avoid effects of external light fluctuations on
darkness photosynthesis
 There must be periodical refilling of HCO3-
 To avoid depletion of carbondioxide
solution
 To saturate the water with oxygen such that the
 The water should be aerated first.
oxygen evolved does not dissolve into water.
 Each time the light position is adjusted, a 5
 To allow the plant equilibrate (adjust) to the new
minute lapse must be allowed before bubble
light intensity.
counting
Light intensity fluaction Use voltage that gives constant light for a long time
Trapped gas bubbles Swirl the water weed to release them
 Expel gas before taking another reading 

NOTE:
 Instead of measuring the length of bubble, bubbles can be counted, but this has several
disadvantages (1) Some bubbles may not be seen due to variations in size, which can be avoided
by adding a little detergent to lower the surface tension (2) Bubbles may evolve very fast to be
counted, especially in much illumination.
The percentage of oxygen in the evolved gas is only about 40% because of dilution by (1)
dissolved N2 or other gases released from solution and (2) CO2 which had accumulated from
respiration, and is first displaced into the capillary tubing, especially if the plant had been kept in
the dark

EXTRA WORK FOR REVISION (Soper R, et al., 1997; Biological Science, p.212: 7.19 & 7.20)

Limiting factor t A: light intensity X, Y and Z represent: the points at which light
Curves represent at B: both light and other factors, intensity ceases being the major limiting factor of
at C: light intensity no longer a limiting factor photosynthesis in the four experiments because it’s
D represents: light saturation point at these points that increase in light intensity causes
E represents: maximum attainable rate of an increase in photosynthesis.
photosynthesis
EVIDENCE FORunder
LIGHTexperimental
REACTIONconditions
IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The following evidences indicate that the over all reaction in photosynthesis takes place in two
steps: one is light dependent and the other is light independent.

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1. Temperature coefficient studies
The rate of photosynthesis of two groups of plants was compared. Both were supplied with an
adequate concentration of carbon dioxide. But one group was kept under light of high
intensities and other group in light of low intensity. When the rate of photosynthesis were
measured at different temperatures it was found that high light group had a Q 10 = 2 but the
low light group Q10 = 1. Strictly, chemical reactions characteristically have a Q10 from 2 to 3. This
fact indicates that at least one of the reaction involved in photosynthesis is of a purely chemical
type. This reaction is called as dark reaction. The other reaction of Q10 indicates that one of the
reactions proceeds only at the expanse of absorbed light it is called dark reaction. The Q10 of
light reaction is 1

2. Flashing light experiments

Photosynthesis involves photochemical and biochemical reactions is also shown by the results of
investigations in which plants are exposed to intermittent light. Warburg (1919) obtained higher
rates of photosynthesis in Chlorella when it was exposed to rapid and alternate periods of light
and darkness instead of continuous illumination. Emerson and Arnold (1932) found that at 250C,
the maximum photosynthesis took place when light and dark periods were respectively 10 -5
second and 0.055 second. At 1.10C, maximum photosynthesis could be obtained with the same
light period but the dark period has to be increased to 0.4 second. It means that temperature
influences reactions of the dark period and reactions of light phase are photochemical.

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ENGELMANN’S EXPERIMENT ON ACTION SPECTRUM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Description of Engelmann’s experiment Results of Engelmann’s experiment
Filaments of the green alga Cladophora of the
genus Pseudomonas are placed in a drop of water
on a slide, then illuminated with light of different
wavelengths and observed under the microscope.
The control experiment involves mounting the alga
on a slide in water with aerobic bacteria in total
darkness and thereafter exposing the slide to light.
 Observation 1:
The motile aerobic bacteria cluster near to the
filaments in the region of blue light (450 nm) and red
light (650 nm).
 Deduction 1:
Since the distribution of aerobic bacteria is in  Deduction 3:
response to the concentration of oxygen which is a Darkness prevents photosynthesis, which stops
by-product of photosynthesis, then red and blue evolution of oxygen resulting in anaerobic
light are the most effective for photosynthesis. conditions that donot favour aerobic bacterial
 Observation 2: activity
Motile aerobic bacteria cluster around the edge of  Observation 4:
the cells adjacent to the chloroplast. There is hardly any aerobic bacteria in the
 Deduction 2: ultra-violet, green and infra-red regions of the
Oxygen is more concentrated near the chloroplast spectrum.
which shows that the chloroplast is the sight of  Deduction 4:
photosynthesis. Light from ultra-violet, green and infra-red
 Observation 3: regions of the spectrum is hardly absorbed by
The aerobic bacteria of the slide previously in the chlorophylls hence least used in
dark are immobile but later cluster around the alga photosynthesis, with no / little evolution of
filament on exposure to light. oxygen.

AUTOTROPHIC BACTERIA
Are divided into two groups
1) Photosynthetic bacteria
2) Chemosynthetic

Both can build up carbohydrates from simple inorganic raw materials but they differ in the way
they obtain the necessary energy.
Photosynthetic bacteria
These build/manufacture organic food substances from simple inorganic substances using sun
light energy. Sun light energy is trapped by bacteriochlorophyll which is similar but simpler than
chlorophyll \a.
Most of them use hydrogen obtained from hydrogen sulphide instead of water to reduced CO 2
via a series of reactions using light energy absorbed by bacteriochlorophyll molecules.
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  This partly explains why most photosynthetic bacteria are located at the bottom of
shallow water bodies, like ponds where there is a high concentration of hydrogen
sulphide from decomposing of dead organic matter of plants and animals by the
decomposers, anareobically.
Sulphur bacteria live in bottoms of lakes, ponds and rocks where they obtain H 2S from
metabolism of anaerobic decay bacteria.
CO2 + H2S [CH2O] + 2S + H2O

Sulphur resulting from splitting of H2S is deposited in bacterial cells.

 Because the bacteriochlorophyll absorbs light from either sides of the absorption
spectrum of green plants, the photosynthetic bacteria exist beneath the leaves of green
plants as the light absorbed by their bacteriochlororphyll passes through the leaves
reaches them.
Chlorophyll of green plants and bacteriochlorophyll do not absorb the same wave length of
light. Because bacteriochlorophyll is a simple pigment, can easily be destroyed by high light
intensity.
 Therefore photosynthetic bacteria are located beneath the sea weeds to hide
themselves from high light intensity, thereby preventing their bacteriochlorophyll from
destruction by high light intensity.
Also their light saturation levels are low in that they need low light intensity for efficient
photosynthesis to occur.

Some bacteria however don not use hydrogen sulphide as source of hydrogen to reduce CO 2.
Example 1 Blue green bacteria use water as a source of hydrogen to reduce CO 2.
Example 2 purple non sulphur bacteria use organic compounds to provide hydrogen for
reduction of CO2 (Photochemoautotrophs or to reduce other organic compounds
(heterotrophic)

CHEMOSYNTHESIS

Chemosynthesis: chemical process in which inorganic chemicals are oxidized to provide energy
to living organisms for the synthesis of organic compounds.
Importance of chemosynthesis
The chemical activities of the organisms involved bring about nutrient cycling; for example:
 Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter bacteria are involved in nitrification in plants.
 Thiobacillus catalyse the conversion of sulphur containing compounds to sulphates which are
directly useful to plants.

CHEMOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA
These manufacture organic food substances from simple inorganic substances using energy
from oxidation of inorganic substances rather than sugars.

EXAMPLES

 Iron bacteria: these obtain energy from oxidation of ferrous iron into ferric iron.
Fe2+ (aq) oxygen Fe3+(aq) + energy

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  Colourless sulphur bacteria: these oxide sulphur using oxygen into sulphates and energy
is released.
S (s) oxygen SO4- (aq) + energy

H2S + 2O2 Thiobacillus SO42- + 2H+ + Energy

 Nitrifying bacteria: these oxide ammonia into nitrites the into nitrates and energy is
released.

Mechanism of chemosynthesis in some bacteria

Nitrosomonas
NH3 + 3O2 HNO2 + H2O + energy (79 kcals)

Nitrobacter
HNO2 + O2 HNO3 + energy (22 kcals)

Nitrification is a means of increasing, cycling of nutrients into usable form of nitrates by the
plants, hence increases soil fertility and productivity of primary producers.
In ecosystem there is denitrifying bacteria and nitrogen fixating bacteria which are important in
nutrient cycling.

Denitrifying bacteria: these reduce nitrates and nitrites into the atmospheric nitrogen, in order
to obtain oxygen for respiratory activities in an environment without enough oxygen.e.g water
logged soils.
In other words, they reduce the level of nitrates from the soil by pseudomonas denitrificans and
thiobacillus denitrificans.

Nitrogen fixing bacteria: these reduce nitrogen using hydrogen and energy in form of ATP
under catalysis of nitrogenase enzyme to form ammonia which is used to form amino acids and
then proteins and can be oxidized to nitrites and then nitrates

N2 + 3H2 ATP NH3

Nitrogenase
The chemosynthetic bacteria utilize the energy from the chemical oxidation of inorganic
chemicals to synthesize organic compounds, some of which are subsequently oxidized in
respiration to yield energy for metabolism.
6CO2 + 12H2S C6 H12O6 + 6H2O + 12S

Substrate Main product Chemosynthetic bacteria Habitat

Ammonium Nitrite (NO2-) Nitrosomonas and Soil
(NH4+) Nitrococcus
Nitrite (NO2-) Nitrate ((NO3-) Nitrobacter Soil
Sulphur (H2S) Sulphate Thiobacillus Decaying organic matter
2-
(SO4 )
Ferrous (Fe2+) Ferric (Fe3+) Ferrobacillus / Iron bacteria Streams flowing over iron
rocks
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Hydrogen (H2) Water (H2O) Hydrogenomonas Soil

WAYS BY WHICH NITROGEN IS FIXED IN THE SOIL:

1. Mutualistic bacteria in root nodules i.e.rhizobium bacteria
2. Free living nitrogen fixing bacteria in the soil.e.g.azotobacter and clostridium
3. Action of lightning
4. Industrial fixation i.e harber process

Differences between photosynthetic bacteria and eukaryotic plants

Eukaryotic plant photosynthetic bacteria

1) They use chloroplasts They lack chloroplasts
2) Oxygen is produced as a by-product No oxygen production except in blue green
bacteria
3) Water is the source of hydrogen for Other compounds other than Water serve as
CO2 reduction the source of hydrogen for CO2 reduction
except in blue green bacteria
4) Their photosynthetic membranes are They are not stacked together
stacked together to form grana
5) They involve use of photo system II photo system II NOT involve except in blue
green bacteria
6) They are more efficient photo They are less efficient photo synthetically
synthetically
7) They use chlorophyll pigment for light They use bacteriochlorophyll for light
absorption absorption except in blue green bacteria which
uses chlorophyll.
8) Their photosynthetic membranes are Their membranes exist as extensions of
located within the chloroplasts plasma membrane called chromatophores
except blue green bacteria where they are
distributed throughout the cytoplasm.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION
There is a close relationship between the activities of respiration and photosynthesis in living
things. These two activities counteract each other in many ways, and a balance of the processes
are necessary to maintain the favourable O2/CO2 ratio in the atmosphere.
In the presence of light, plants respire aerobically to release carbon dioxide while consuming
oxygen, and at the same time photosynthesise to release oxygen while consuming carbon
dioxide, although photosynthesis far exceeds respiration.
In darkness, plants respire aerobically to release carbon dioxide but photosynthesis is
inhibited by absence of light.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Five small discs cut from spinach leaves were floated on a small volume of buffered
hydrogen carbonate solution in a flask attached to a respirometer. The discs were first
exposed to bright light, then to dim light and finally left in the dark. Oxygen release was
recorded as positive values and oxygen uptake as negative values as given in the table
below.

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Light intensity Time interval in minutes Oxygen uptake or release in mm3
0–3 +57
3–6 +64
Bright light
6–9 +58
9 – 12 +60
12 – 15 +16
Dim light
15 – 18 +3
18 – 21 - 16
21 – 24 - 12
Dark
24 – 27 - 15
27 – 30 - 14

(a) Present the data in a suitable graphical form

(b) (i) Calculate the mean rate of oxygen release in bright light
(ii) Explain the significance of the results obtained from this experiment.

(c) Explain the use of the following in the experiment above:

(i) Five small leaf discs, not one.
(ii) Hydrogen carbonate solution
(iii) Buffered hydrogen carbonate solution

2. In an experiment, samples of algae were collected at 1-minute intervals over a period of 5

minutes. The quantities of glycerate-3-phosphate (GP) and ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) were
measured. At the beginning of the experiment, the concentration of carbondioxide supplied was
high. After 2 minutes, the concentration of carbondioxide was reduced. The graph in the figure
below shows the results of this experiment.

Describe the effects of the decrease in carbondioxide after 2 minutes on:

(i) Glycerate 3-phosphate (GP)
(ii) Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)
(b) Suggest explanation for these changes to the levels of glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) and RuBP

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 3. Experiments on cultures of a unicellular protist to investigate the effect of light and carbon
dioxide on certain metabolites. In the first experiment, the levels of PGA, RuBP and sucrose in
the protest were determined at different time intervals in the presence of light. At the 35 th
minute, light was switched off, suddenly putting the protists in darkness; the results are shown
in the table below
Time (minutes) 0 20 35 40 50 60 70
Amount of RuBP 35 35 35 30 15 10 10
metabolite PGA 45 45 45 50 65 70 70
Sucrose 10 54 72 66 52 35 20
(a) Represent the data provided graphically
(b) Using the graph obtained in (a) above, explain the variation in the levels of the metabolites
with time
4. The rate of photosynthesis of Digitaria bipartite, a C4 plant and Astropa belladonna, a C3
plant was investigated under different intracellular carbon dioxide concentrations. The results
are shown in the table below
Carbon dioxide Rate of photosynthesis (mol of CO2 assimilated per m2 of leaf area per
3
concentration (ml per dm ) second)
Digitaria bipartite Digitaria bipartite
0 0.0 0.0
25 12.5 0.0
50 35.0 5.0
75 37.5 14.0
100 37.5 25.0
150 37.5 40.0
200 37.5 47.5

(a) Present the data in the table above graphically

(b) Compare the rates of photosynthesis of two plants at the carbon dioxide concentrations
shown in (a) above
(c) Explain your answer in (b) above
(d) Explain, in biochemical terms, the distribution of C3, C4 and CAM plants at their environments
5. The table below shows how the rate of photosynthesis of C4 and C3 plants vary with the
temperature at different light intensities. The rate is in arbitrary unit.
Temperature/0C 0 5 10 20 30 35 40
C4 plants at high light intensity 0 5 12 25 28 32 38
C3 plants at high light intensity 0 10 12 15 18 20 10
C3 plants at low light intensity (Arbitrary
0 2 5 8 10 10 6
units)
(a)Represent the above results graphically on the same axes.
(b) Explain how differently temperature affects photosynthesis in C 3 plants and C4 plants.
(c) Explain the pattern of the graph obtained for C3 plants under low light intensity.
(d) Explain the effect of light intensity on the following.
(i) Leaf colour (ii) Leaf size (iii) Internode length
(e) State three other factors that may limit the rate of photosynthesis.
6. The table below shows effect of temperature on rate of photosynthesis in two grasses,
Agropyron and Bouteloua
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Compiled by Bandikubi Robert 0704728546
 Rate of photosynthesis in arbitrary units
Leaf temperature (0C)
Agropyron Bouteloua
10 23 10
15 26 15
20 30 19
25 31 24
30 30 30
35 27 35
40 20 39
45 10 38

(a) Plot the data on a graph paper

(b) Compare the rate of photosynthesis in the two plants.
(c) Account for the variation of the rate of photosynthesis in the two plants.
(d)(i) Describe the photosynthetic mechanism which is likely to occur in the cytoplasm of the
mesophyll of Bouteloua
(ii) Explain the physiological significance of the mechanism described in (e) (i) above.
6. (a) Explain the effect of light intensity and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis.
(b) Explain photophosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis.
(c) Explain the reactions involving the use of light energy that occur in the thylakoids of the
chloroplast.
7. (a) Outline the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.
(b) (i) Explain: (i) why the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis can only continue for a
short time in darkness.
(ii) how the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis rely on light-dependent reactions.
8. (a) Outline the formation of carbohydrate molecules in photosynthesis starting from the
absorption of light energy
(b) Compare the structure of a chloroplast and a mitochondrion in relation to function.
9. (a) Explain how a photosystem increases the light harvesting ability of a chloroplast?
(b) Explain the relationship between the action spectrum and the absorption spectrum of
photosynthetic pigments in green plants.
(c) Explain the concept of limiting factors in photosynthesis, with reference to light intensity,
temperature and concentration of carbon dioxide.

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Compiled by Bandikubi Robert 0704728546