MAYOOR SCHOOL, NOIDA

CLASS X
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Carbon is an element. It is a nonmetal. The amount of carbon present in the earth’s atmosphere is very
small. All the living things, plants and animals are made up of carbon based compounds which are called
organic compounds. A large number of things which we use in our daily life like food, clothes, medicines,
books, plastics are all made up of carbon compounds.
OCCURANCE OF CARBON: 1. In Free State: It occurs in nature mainly in two forms: diamond and
graphite.
In combined state: It occurs in form of compounds such as (i) carbon dioxide gas in air (0.03%), (ii) In
form of minerals like carbonates, hydrogen carbonates (iii) fossil fuels like coal and petroleum(iv)
organic compounds (v) wood, cotton and wool etc.

BONDING IN CARBON
Carbon always forms covalent compounds. Unlike ionic compounds, the compound of carbon have low
melting and boiling points, are poor conductors of electricity. So we can conclude that compounds of
carbon are not composed of ions i.e. bonding is not ionic and the forces of attraction are not strong.

We know that the combining capacity or the valency depends upon the number of valence electrons, and
the different elements combine in an attempt to complete their octet.
In the case of carbon-
At. No. -6
Electronic configuration-2,4
So carbon has 4 valence electrons.

A Carbon atom can attain the nearest noble gas configuration by two ways:
1. It could gain four electrons to form C4- anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six
protons to hold on to 10 electrons, i.e. 4 extra electrons.
2. It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require a large amount of energy to
remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons holding on to just two
electrons.

BONDING IN CARBON
To complete its octet, Carbon shares its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with atoms of
other elements. The bond so forms is known as a covalent bond. Besides carbon, many other elements
form molecules by sharing electrons in this manner.

The bond formed between two atoms by mutual sharing of electrons between them so as to
complete their octets or duplets (in case of hydrogen) is called a covalent bond.
The shared electrons belong to the outer shells of both the atoms and lead to both the atoms attaining the
noble gas configuration.
TYPES OF COVALENT BONDING
1. SINGLE BOND- If each atom contributes one electron, the covalent bond formed is the single
covalent bond. A pair of electron is shared in this case.
e.g. Covalent bonding in Hydrogen gas (H 2)

2. DOUBLE BOND- If each atom contributes two electrons, the covalent bond formed is the double
covalent bond. Two pairs of electrons are shared in this case.
e.g. Covalent bonding in the case of oxygen gas (O2)

3. TRIPLE BOND- If each atom contributes three electrons, the covalent bond formed is the triple
covalent bond. Three pairs of electrons is shared in this case.
e.g. Covalent bonding in the case of nitrogen gas (N 2)

COVALENT COMPOUNDS: Compounds containing covalent bonds are known as covalent

compounds.
PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS
1. Physical state- These compounds may be solid liquid or gases. e.g. Cl2, H2O, I2
2. Melting and boiling points- Covalent compounds do not consists of ions, hence the force of
attraction is not of electrostatic nature and hence are quite weak as compared to ionic compounds.
Due to weak forces of attraction covalent compounds generally have low melting and boiling
points.
3. Solubility- Covalent compounds are generally insoluble in water but are soluble in organic
solvents like alcohol, petrol, ether etc.
4. Electrical conductivity- Covalent compounds are generally bad conductors of electricity as they do
not give rise to ions.

ALLOTROPES OF CARBON: The various physical forms in which an element can exist are called
allotropes of the element.
1. Diamond: In diamond each carbon is bonded to four other carbon atoms forming a rigid three
diamensional structure. The rigid structure of diamond makes it a very hard substance. Since all
the 4 valence electrons are used up in bond formation, so there are no free electrons in a diamond
crystal , therefore it does not conduct electricity.

2. Graphite: In graphite each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in
the same plane giving hexagonal array. One of these bonds is a double bond which is
free to move due to electron resonance structure. This makes graphite a good
conductor of electricity. Due to sheet like structure graphite is a soft and slippery
substance.

3. Fullerenes: It consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged in shape of a football. Since this

looks like the geodesic dome designed by the US architect Buck Minster Fuller, it is
named as Buck Minster Fullerene.
VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON
The nature of the covalent bond enables carbon to form a large no of compounds. In the case of carbon
the following factors enable it to form a large no of compounds.
1. CATENATION- The property of self linking of carbon atoms through covalent bonds to form long
straight or branched chains and rings of different sizes is called catenation.

The property of catenation can be attributed to the small size of the carbon atom. Smaller is the
size, closer will be the bond pair of electrons to the adjacent nuclei. The strength of the carbon-
carbon bonds makes carbon compounds quite stable.

2. TETRAVALENCY OFCARBON- Carbon has valency of four, it is capable of bonding with four other
atoms of carbon or atoms of some other monovalent element. Compounds of carbon are formed
with chlorine, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, hydrogen etc. giving rise to specific properties which
depend upon the heteroatom present.

3. TENDENCY TO FORM MULTIPLE BONDS- Carbon can form single, double and triple bond with
other carbon atoms and with atoms like O, N.(due to its small size it can hold on to the shared
pairs of electrons). This multiplicity of bonding gives rise to a large no. of compounds.

ARRANGEMENT OF CARBON ATOMS IN CARBON COMPOUNDS

Carbon atoms can combine in a number of ways to give a variety of structural isomers which are as
follows:
1. Straight chain compounds- In these types of compounds the carbon atoms are linearly linked
forming straight chains. (also known as open chains)
eg C—C—C—C and so on. (the valencies of the carbon atoms can be satisfied by adding hydrogen
atoms).

2. Branched chains- In these types of compounds at least one carbon atom is linked to three or four
carbon atoms giving rise to a branched like structure.

3. Cyclo compounds (Rings) –The carbon atoms may be arranged in the form of rings which may be
saturated or unsaturated.
HYDROCARBONS: A compound made up of carbon and hydrogen is called hydrocarbon.
Types of Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are of two types: Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.

1. Saturated compounds- A hydrocarbon in which carbon atoms are connected by only single bond is
called a saturated hydrocarbon. Eg. Methane, Propane, Hexane, cyclohexane, etc
Saturated hydrocarbons are also called alkanes.
ALKANES – An alkane is a saturated hydrocarbons in which carbon atoms are connected by only
single covalent bond are called alkanes.

Their general formula is CnH2n+2, where n=1, 2,3…. Eg. Methane CH4, Ethane C2H6, Propane C3H8,
Butane C4H10,Pentane C5H12 ,etc
Practice electron dot structures of first five members of alkanes.
2. Unsaturated compounds- A hydrocarbon in which the two carbon atoms are connected by double
or triple bond are known as unsaturated carbon compounds. Eg. Propene, butene. Benzene etc.

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons are of two types:

1. ALKENES - Unsaturated hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are connected by a double
bond are known as alkenes.

Their general formula is CnH2n, where n=1,2,3…. Eg Ethene C2H4, Propene C3H6, Butene C4H8,
Pentene C5H10, etc.
Practice electron dot structures of first five members of alkenes.

2. ALKYNES - Unsaturated hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are connected by a triple bond
are known as alkynes.
– C≡C–
Their general formula is CnH2n-2, where n=1,2,3…. Eg Ethyne C2H2, Propyne C3H4, Butyne C4H6,
Pentyne C5H8 etc.
Practice electron dot structures of first five members of alkynes.
 Cyclic hydrocarbons (Rings) –Hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms may be arranged in the
form of rings are called cyclic hydrocarbons. They may be saturated or unsaturated.

1. Saturated Cyclic hydrocarbons (Cycloalkanes) –Cyclic hydrocarbons in which the carbon

atoms are connected only by single bonds are called saturated cyclic hydrocarbons. For eg.

CYCLOHEXANE
Practice electron dot structure of cyclohexane.

2. Unsaturated Cyclic hydrocarbons (Cycloalkenes) –Cyclic hydrocarbons in which the carbon

atoms are connected by double bonds are called unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons. For eg.

BENZENE
Practice electron dot structures of benzene.

Isomers: The organic compounds having same molecular formula but different structures are known as
isomers.
ISOMERISM- The existence of molecules that have the same no. and same kind of atoms (hence the same
formula) but differing in chemical and physical properties is known as isomerism. The molecules that
show this phenomenon are known as isomers. They differ in the structural arrangement of atoms.
e.g. the formula C4H10 represents two structures
Practice isomers of Pentane and Hexane
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A homologous series may be defined as the family of organic compounds having the same functional
group, similar chemical properties, and successive members of which differ by a CH2 unit or 14 mass
units.
Characteristics of homologous series

1. All members of a homologous series can be represented by the same general formula. Eg. Alkanes,
alkenes etc.
2. Each member of the series differs from the preceding or succeeding member by a common
difference of CH2 and by a molecular mass of 14 amu (amu = atomic mass unit).
3. The chemical properties of the members of the homologous series are similar.
4. The members of a homologous series show a gradation in physical properties as the molecular
mass increases. Eg melting and boiling points increase as the mass increases, solubility in a
particular solvent also show a similar gradation.

NOMENCLATURE OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

Organic compounds have two names
i) Common names- eg formic acid, acetic acid, citric acid, lactic acid etc.
ii) IUPAC Nomenclature- International union of pure and applied chemistry
The names of the compounds in a homologous series are based on the name of the basic
carbon chain modified by a prefix phrase or suffix phrase after indicating the nature of
functional groups.

RULES FOR NAMING CARBON COMPOUNDS

1. Select the longest chain of carbon atoms- known as the parent chain.

If the compound is saturated, add suffix ‘ane’ to the root word, but if is unsaturated,
add suffix ‘ene’ and ‘yne’ for double and triple bonds respectively.
2. The parent chain must include the number of carbon atoms involved in double or triple bonds and
also those involved in terminal functional group. Eg –CHO, -OH, -COOH
3. In case a functional group is present it is indicated in the name of the compound with either a
prefix or a suffix.
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms that largely determines the chemical properties of the
molecule in which it is present. In a hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogens can be replaced by
elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, halogens, sulphur in such a way that the valency of the carbon atom is
satisfied. In such compounds, the elements replacing hydrogen is referred to as a heteroatom.

CLASS OF NAME OF THE STRUCTURE FORMULA PREFIX SUFFIX EXAMPLE

ORGANIC FUNCTIONAL
COMPOUNDS GROUP
HALOALKANES HALOGEN R- X -X Halo - Chloromethane,
GROUP Bromopropane
ALCOHOLS ALCOHOL R- O – H - OH - -ol Methanol,
GROUP Ethanol
CARBOXYLIC CARBOXYLIC - COOH - -oic acid Methanoic acid,
ACIDS ACID GROUP butanoic acid

ALDEHYDES ALDEHYDE - CHO - -al Ethanal,

GROUP Pentanal

KETONES KETONE - CO - - -one Propanone,

GROUP Butanone

ESTERS ESTER R–COO–R′ - -oate Methyl

GROUP ethanoate,
Ethyl ethanoate

ALKENES ALKENE - -ene Ethene,

GROUP Propene

ALKYNES ALKYNE – C≡C– – C≡C– - -ene Ethyne,

GROUP Propyne

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

I. COMBUSTION- Heating the substance stongly in the excess of oxygen. During the
combustion of hydrocarbons, Carbon dioxide and water are formed with the release of heat
and light- exothermic reaction. Since carbon dioxide is formed by the addition of oxygen to
carbon, Therefore combustion may be regarded as an oxidation reaction.
 C + O2→ CO2 + heat and light
CH4 + O2→ CO2 + H2O + heat and light
CH3CH2OH + O2→ CO2 + H2O + heat and light

➢ Combustion of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons-Unsaturated Hydrocarbons burn with a yellow

flame with a lot of black smoke –sooty flame.
(Soot- Unburnt carbon produced due to incomplete combustion. The carbon content of
unsaturated compounds is more than the hydrogen content and hence carbon is not completely
burnt and the unburnt carbon deposits as soot).
But if unsaturated hydrocarbons are burnt in presence of pure oxygen,then they will burn
completely producing a blue flame.
➢ Combustion of Saturated Hydrocarbons- Saturated Hydrocarbons burn with a clear blue flame.
Limiting the supply of air results in incomplete combustion of saturated hydrocarbons producing
a sooty flame.
FLAME
A flame is the region where combustion (or burning) of gaseous substances takes place. A
flame is produced only when gaseous substances burn. All the gaseous substances burn with
a flame but only those solid and liquid fuels which vaporize on heating burn with a fame.
Depending upon the amount of oxygen available and burning of fuels, flames are of following
two types

(i) Blue or Non-luminous Flame

When the oxygen supply is sufficient, the fuels burn completely producing a blue flame.
Since, light is not produced during this type of combustion, so the flame is called non-
luminous (non- light giving flame), e.g., burning of LPG in gas stove.
(ii) Yellow or Luminous Flame
In the insufficient supply of air, the fuels burn incompletely and produce yellow flame. The
colour of the flame is yellow because of the presence of unburnt carbon particles. This flame
produces light so also known as luminous flame. e.g., burning of wax vapours.

COAL
It is a complex mixture of compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and some free
carbon along with traces of nitrogen and sulphur formed by the decomposition of plants
and trees buried under the earth millions of years ago.

PETROLEUM
It is a dark viscous foul smelling oil formed by the decomposition of the remains of extremely
small plants and animals buried under the sea millions of years ago.

II. OXIDATION- In addition to the complete combustion organic compounds also undergo
partial oxidation, in which alcohols are converted to carboxylic acids in presence of strong
oxidizing agents like alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate.
ALKALINE KMnO4 + HEAT
CH3-CH2-OH CH3COOH
 OR ACIDIFIED K2Cr2O7 + HEAT

III. ADDITION REACTIONS- Involves the addition of Hydrogen. Unsaturated hydrocarbons

add hydrogen in the presence of catalysts like palladium or nickel to give saturated
hydrocarbons. This reaction is also called catalytic hydrogenation.
(Catalysts are substances that cause a reaction to occur or proceed at a different rate without
the reaction itself being affected. Usually they are used to increase the speed of the reaction).

This reaction is commonly used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils using nickel catalyst.

Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated hydrocarbon chains while animal fats have
saturated carbon chains- They are harmful for health.

IV. SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS- Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are inert
in the presence of most reagents. However in the presence of sunlight, chlorine is added to
hydrocarbons in a very fast reaction.
SUNLIGHT
CH4 + Cl2--------------→ CH3Cl +HCl

SOME COMPOUNDS OF CARBON

ETHANOL
I. COMMON NAME- Ethyl Alcohol
II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
a) State- Liquid at room temperature.
b) Odour- Pleasant smell
c) Melting point- 156 K
d) Boiling point- 351 K
e) Solubility- Soluble in water in all proportions.

III. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

a) Reaction with sodium – Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide with the
evolution of hydrogen gas.
2CH3-CH2-OH + 2Na → 2CH3-CH2-ONa + H2
 (SODIUM ETHOXIDE)

b) Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid (Dehydration)- Heating ethanol with excess
concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K leads to the dehydration of ethanol to give ethane
CONC. SULPHURIC ACID
CH3-CH2-OH CH2=CH2 + H2O
443 K

Concentrated sulphuric can be regarded as a dehydrating agent.

c) Oxidation- When ethanol is warmed with dilute alkaline potassium permanganate acetic acid
is formed as the product.
ALKALINE KMnO4
C2H5OH CH3COOH
ACIDIFIED K2Cr2O7

IV. USES
a) Used as antiseptic for wounds in the form of rectified spirit (95% alcohol + 5% water)
b) Used in alcoholic beverages.
c) Used in industry as solvent for paints, lacquers, tincture iodine, cough syrups, perfumes etc.
d) As a lab reagent
e) As antifreeze.
Ethanol burns with a clear flame giving a lot of heat, therefore it is used as a fuel, as an additive in petrol.
After the crystallization of sugar from concentrated sugar cane juice, a thick brown liquid called molasses
is left behind. Ethanol is produced by fermentation of cane sugar present in molasses.
V. HARMFUL EFFECTS
Ethanol is an active ingredient of alcoholic beverages. Consumption of small quantities of
dilute ethanol causes drunkenness. Consumption of small quantities of pure ethanol can be
lethal. When large quantities of ethanol are consumed, it tends to slow the metabolic processes
and to depress the central nervous system. This results in lack of coordination, mental
confusion, drowsiness, Lowering of normal inhibitions, and finally stupor. The individual may
feel relaxed but does not realize that his sense of judgment, sense of timing, and muscular
coordination have been seriously impaired
Unlike ethanol, Intake of small quantities of methanol can leads to blindness.
DENATURATION OF ETHANOL
- Methanol- Intake of methanol in very small quantities can cause death. Methanol is
oxidized to methanal in the liver. Methanal reacts very rapidly with the components of the
cell and causes its protoplasm to get coagulated. Methanol also affects the optic nerve
causing blindness. To prevents misuse of ethanol, a small quantity of methanol is added to
it. Dyes are added to colour the alcohol blue so that it can be identified easily. This process
is called denaturation.

ETAHNOIC ACID
I. COMMON NAME- Acetic acid (weak acid)
II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
a) State- Liquid at room temperature.
 b) Odour- Vinegar like smell
c) Melting point- 290 K (often freezes during winters- so sometimes it is named as glacial acetic
acid)
d) Boiling point- 391 K
e) Solubility in water- Soluble in water in all proportions.
(5-8% solution in water is called vinegar- use as preservatives in pickles)

III. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

It is a weak acid, does not ionize completely in aqueous solutions. It undergoes the
following reactions:
1. Reactions with bases- Ethanoic acid reacts with bases like sodium hydroxide to give
the corresponding salt and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
Ethanoic acid Sodium Sodium ethanoate Water

Hydroxide

2. Reaction with sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate- Ethanoic acid
reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate to produce sodium
ethanoate, carbon dioxide and water.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3→ 2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
CH3COOH + NaHCO3→ CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
When sodium bicarbonate is added to acetic acid a brisk effervescence is produced. This
reaction is used as an identification test for carboxylic acids.
3. Esterification- Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to produce a class of carbon
compounds called esters. When Ethanoic acid is warmed with ethanol in the presence
of a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid as a catalyst, an ester ethyl ethanoate
(common name ethlyl acetate) and water are formed.

This reaction between a carboxylic acid an alcohol to form am ester is known as

esterification. Esters are sweet smelling substances and often have a fruity smell. They
are used in making perfumes and flavouring agents.
SAPONIFICATION REACTION - Esters on heating with an aqueous base give back the
original alcohol and the sodium salt of the carboxylic acid.
HEAT
CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH CH3COONa + C2H5OH
This reaction is also known as saponification reaction as it is used in the preparation of
soap. It is the reverse of esterification reaction.
 USES OF ETHANOIC ACID
1.For making vinegar which is used as a preservative in food and fruit juices.
2.As a laboratory reagent.
3. In the preparation of dyes, perfumes and medicine.

SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

SOAPS- The sodium and potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids acids such as palmitic acid, stearic
acid, oleic acid, etc. are called soaps.

ACTION OF SOAP (Working)

1. Soaps being sodium salts of long chain fatty acids have a hydrophobic end and a hydrophilic end.
The long hydrocarbon chain having covalent character does not dissolve in water and hence is
termed as hydrophobic end. The ionic end having ionic character is soluble in water.
2. Most dirt is oily in nature and oil does not dissolve in water.
3. The hydrophobic end dissolves in oil while the hydrophilic end dissolves in water.
4. This leads to the formation of structures known as micelles where one end of the molecule is
towards the oil droplet while the ionic end is towards water. In water this type of orientation
keeps the hydrophobic part out of the water. Here clusters of molecules are formed with the
hydrophobic end in the interior of the cluster and the hydrophilic end at the exterior.
MICELLES- Clusters of soap molecules formed in water with the long hydrophobic hydrocarbon
chain in the interior and the hydrophilic ionic end facing the exterior. Resulting in the formation of
a colloidal solution.

5. So the dirt being soluble in the hydrophobic part collects in the centre of the cluster.
 6. The micelles stay in solution as colloid (emulsion) and do not come together and precipitate due
to ion-ion repulsion. The micelles are large enough to scatter light and hence the solution appears
cloudy.
7. The dirt suspended is easily rinsed away.

HARD WATER AND SOFT WATER.

Hard water contains bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium . It does not
produce lather with soap readily.
Eg. Water from sea, river, springs etc.
Soft water does not contain any such salts. Eg distilled water, rain water etc.

ACTION OF SOAP WITH HARD WATER.

Soap are practically ineffective with hard water. This is because of the reaction of the soaps with calcium
and magnesium salts resulting in the formation of insoluble salts which precipitate are scum. Hence a
larger amount of soap is required.
This problem is overcome by using Detergents.

DETERGENTS- Detergents are ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain fatty acids.
The charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with the calcium and
magnesium ions in hard water. Thus they remain effective in hard water. Detergents are usually used to
make shampoos and products for cleaning clothes.