COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Communication- The process of transmitting space in the form of electromagnetic waves with the
information from source to destination or from speed of light (3×108 m/s)
transmitter to receiver. Electromagnetic wave can travel through vacuum
also with the speed of light (3×108 m/s)
Receiving transducer converts electrical signal into
physical equivalent signal.
Channel bandwidth ≥ signal bandwidth
Some channel Bandwidth
Co-axial cable → 0-600 MHz (Without any attenuation)
Parallel wire → 0–200 kHz
Frequency range of voice signal- 300Hz–3.4 kHz
frequency range of audio signal- 20Hz-20kHz Optical fibre cable →10’s of GHz
Frequency range of video signal- 0-4.5 MHz Modulation properties of Fourier transform
Voice signal is the acoustic pressure w.r.t. time x ( t ) cos ω0 t  
F.T.
→ π  X ( ω − ω0 ) + X ( ω + ω0 ) 
Source transducer converts physical signal into 1
electrical signal. (Ex-microphone) x ( t ) cos 2πf 0 t  
F.T.
→  X ( f − f 0 ) + X ( f + f 0 ) 
Channel is the medium through which signal 2
propagates from one place to another place.
Wired communication system is preferred for short
distance communication only.
For long distance communication wireless system
will be used in which signal propagate through free

(AM)

Suppressed Carrier

(ASK)
(FSK)
(PSK)

Electronic Engineering Capsule 50 YCT

 Modulation- Modulation is a process by which
some characteristics parameters of a carrier wave is
varied in accordance with the modulating wave.
Demodulation-The process of recovering the
message signal from the modulated wave is known
as demodulation (reverse process of modulation).
Types of modulation
Single tone If message signal contains single
modulation frequency component it is
correspond to single tone Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSB-FC)
modulation. Message signal m(t) = Amcos(2πfmt)
Multi-tone If message signal contains multiple Carrier signal c(t) = Ac cos(2πfct)
modulation frequency components then it is
SAM ( t ) = A c 1 + k a m ( t )  cos 2πf c t
correspond to multi-tone
modulation. Where, ka = Amplitude sensitivity
Need of Modulation- SAM ( t ) = A c (1 + µ cos ωm t ) cos ωc t
Modulation reduces the height of Antenna. Where, µ= modulation index
Modulation avoids mixing of signals. Aµ
Modulation increases the range of communication. SAM ( t ) = A c cos 2πf c t + c a cos 2π ( f c + f m ) t
Modulation allows adjustments in the bandwidth and 2
multiplexing of signals. Acµa
Modulation improves quality of reception. + cos 2π ( f c − f m ) t
2
Frequency Spectrum of AM signal
Ac
SAM ( f ) = δ ( f − f c ) + δ ( f + f c )  +
2 
Acµ
Base-band signal Band-pass signal  δ {f − ( f c − f m )} + δ {f + ( f c − f m )} +
It has significant frequency It has significant 4 
component near zero or low frequency component Acµ
 δ {f − ( f c + f m )} + δ {f + ( f c + f m )}
frequency. away from zero 4 
frequency or low
frequency.
Minimum frequency = 0 Hz Minimum frequency
≠ 0Hz
Acµ
Note: 4
Base-band communication doesn’t use modulation
technique.
Band-pass communication use modulation
technique.
Amplitude modulation (AM)-
Bandwidth of AM = USB-LSB =2fm
The AM is process by which peak amplitude of the
Carrier frequency component exists of fc.
carriers signal is varied with respect to message
Upper side band frequency components exist above
signal amplitude variation.
fc. (fc to fc+fm)
Lower side band frequency components exist below
fc. (fc to fc–fm)
Modulation Index of AM
A − A min A m A + A min
µ = max = ∵ AC = max
A max + A min A c 2
Modulation index gives the depth to which the carrier
signal is modulated.
Range of modulation index is, 0 ≤ µ ≤ 1
For multi-tone message signal total modulation index
(µt) is
µ t = µ12 + µ 22 + µ32 + ......

Electrical Engineering Capsule 51 YCT

 Critical Modulation (µ = 1) → Am = Ac Transmission efficiency –
Under Modulation (µ < 1) → Am< Ac Sinusoidal wave µ 2a
Over Modulation (µ > 1) → Am > Ac η=
2 + µ a2
In over modulation reconstruction of message signal is
Square wave µ a2
complex η=
In over modulation, the signal gets distorted and this is 1 + µ a2
also known as non-linear distortion or envelope Triangular wave µ a2
distortion. η=
3 + µ a2
PSB µ2
Efficiency (η) =
PT 2 + µ 2 Order of bandwidth in AM system:-
Power of AM signal BWAM&DSB −SC > BWVSB > BWSSB −SC

Carrier power The shape of envelope is same as the shape of

A2 baseband signal.
Pc = c
2R More power dissipation.
Total power Easy modulation and de-modulation.
 µ2 
( PT ) = Pc 1+  Transmission bandwidth (B.W.)T = 2fm Ηz
 2 
Known as A3E.
Pt = Pc + PUSB + PLSB Advantage of Demodulation become simple.
AM AM is used for long distance
Total transmitted communication.
µ2
current IT = Ic 1 + Disadvantage Power wastage takes place.
2
of AM AM need large bandwidth
Total sideband power PSB = PLSB + PUSB AM wave gets affected due to
noise.
A c2µ 2 Pcµ 2
PSB = = Quadrature null effect is present
4R 2 Application AM preferred in broad casting due
Single sideband power A 2c µ 2 to AM receiver simple & cheaper.
PUSB = PLSB =
8R Generation of AM wave
Linear method – i. Collector modulation ii. Base
Pc µ 2
= Modulation iii. Switching modulation
4 Collector modulation
PSB = 33.33% of Pt Pc = 66.66% of Pt [when µ=1]
Power saved
% Power saving = × 100%
Total power
For DSB-SC:-
2
% Power saving = ×100%
2 + µa2
Pc
= × 100%
Pt
For SSB-SC:-
% Power saving
4 + µ2 P + PLSB
= × 100% = c × 100%
4 + 2µ 2
Pt Advantage High collector efficiency (due to
class C amplifier).
Order of power saving in AM
Power output per transistor is high
(SSB − SC ) > ( VSB − SC ) > ( DSB − SC ) > ( DSB − FC ) Better linearity
Order of power transmitter – Drawback More modularity power is needed
PAM > PDSB > PVSB > PSSB Application In AM broadcasting

Electrical Engineering Capsule 52 YCT

 Base Modulation 2a 2
ka =
a1
For proper modulation of AM signal condition for
carrier frequency.
fc − f m > 2f m
f c > 3f m
Used a band pass filter (L-C tuned circuit)
Semiconductor diode or transistor is used as non
Low level modulation method linear device.
Message signal is applied in series with transistor Output voltage ∝ (input signal)2
base supply voltage. So base bias voltage Demodulation of AM wave
VBB ∝ signal voltage Square Law Detector
RF signal is applied also to the base means all main
processor will be done at the transistor base terminal.
Modulated signal is amplify by class-B amplifier.
advantage Needs of low power as compared to To generate appropriate message signal.
collector modulation
Drawback Less output power as compared to k a m ( t ) << 2
collector modulation. Low modulation index
Less collector efficiency with Known as non-linear or small signal detector.
respect to collector modulation.
Envelope detector
Less linear as to collector
modulation.
Application TV transmission
SSB generation
Switching modulator-
Known as linear detector
One diode and one RC filter are used.
Condition for minimum distortion-
1 1 1
i. R s C << ii. << R L C <<
fc fc fm
Ac 2
vo ( t ) = cos 2πfc ( t ) + m ( t ) cos 2πf c ( t ) v 0 High power handling capacity and low distortion.
2 π There are two types of distortion in envelope
A  4 
= c 1 + m ( t ) cos ωc ( t ) detector-
2  πA c  Diagonal clipping
4
ka =
πA c
For proper generation of AM signal in case of
switching modulation is f c > 2f m
It is similar to the square low modulator. The only
difference is that in square law modulation, the diode
is operated in a non-linear mode whereas in the Negative peak clipping
switch modulator the diode has to operate as an ideal
switch.
Square law modulation (Non linear method)-

• Synchronous detector
v o ( t ) = a1v i ( t ) + a 2 v i2 ( t ) One multiplier with L.O. and LPF.
Electrical Engineering Capsule 53 YCT
 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier Balance modulation
(DSB-SC)
Ac A m
SDSB-SC (t) = cos 2π ( fc − f m ) t + cos 2π ( fc + fm ) t 
2 
DSB-SC is a power convolution scheme not a
bandwidth conversation scheme.

A cµ
It consists of two identical AM modulators
4 Output of upper AM modulator
s1 ( t ) = A c 1 + k a m ( t )  cos ( 2πf c t )
Output of lower AM modulators
s 2 ( t ) = A c 1 − k a m ( t )  cos ( 2πf c t )
The output of summer block
Transmission bandwidth ( BW )T = 2f m Hz s ( t ) = 2A c k a m ( t ) cos ( 2πf c t )

Total transmitted power Pt = PSB = PUSB + PLSB Ring modulation

D1
A 2µ 2
Pt = c
4R
2
Transmitted power saving ( Ps ) =
2 + µ2
Power saving = 66.66%.
Modulation efficiency
PSB P
%η = × 100% = SB × 100% = 100%
Pt PSB
Four diodes are connected in the ring structure
100% of transmitted power to is used by sideband.
It is also known as doubler balanced modulator
The envelope shape of DSB-SC is differ to the shape
Diodes are controlled by square-wave carrier c(t) of
of base band signal.
frequency fc.
Advantage No wastage of power
Two center tapped transformers are used.
Total power of transmitter is For +ve half cycle of carrier signal diode
useful in the form of sideband. D1 & D3 → ON D 2 & D 4 → OFF
Disadvantage Demodulation is complex.
The message signal is multiplied by +1
It needs high channel bandwidth
For –ve half cycle of carrier signal.
requirement.
Diode D2 & D4 → ON
Affected by the QNE (Quadrature
D1 & D3→ OFF
Null Effect) The message signal is multiplied by–1 (1800 phase
AM DSB-SC are highly noisy. shift in resulting DSBSC)
Application It is used for long distance
( −1)
n −1

communication. 4 ∞
c ( t ) = ∑ 2n − 1
It is used for quadrature carrier π n =1
× cos  2πf c t ( 2n − 1) 
multiplexing.
( −1)
n −1
Generation of DSB-SC- Product modulation 4 ∞
s ( t ) = ∑ 2n − 1
are two types- π n =1
× cos  2πf c t ( 2n − 1)  m ( t )
1. Balance modulation 2. Ring modulation.

Electrical Engineering Capsule 54 YCT

 Demodulation of DSB-SC
Coherent The same carrier signal (which is used for
detection or generating DSB-SC signal) is used to detect
synchronous the message signal.
detection. DSB-SC wave- s(t)= Accos(2πfct)m(t)
Output of the local oscillator
c(t)= Accos(2πfct+φ)
Output of product modulator
A 2c A2
v(t) = cos φm ( t ) + c cos ( 4πf c t + φ ) m ( t )
2 2
Output of low pass filter
A c2
v0 ( t ) = cos φm ( t )
2
When, φ = 00 then demodulated signal
amplitude will be maximum.
When φ = ±900 , the demodulated signal
amplitude will be zero.
This effect is called as quadrature null effect.
(QNE)
Costas It is a phase locked loop based circuit.
receiver In coherent detection at receiving end a
carrier is required that should be phase
coherent with the transmitter carrier
It can be possible, if we transmit a carrier
component with the modulated signal.
But DSB-SC signal has no such component.
Costas loop has the capability to generate a
coherent carrier at the receiver and therefore
used for the demodulation of DSB-SC signal.
Used for carrier frequency recovery from
suppressed carrier modulation signal and
phase modulation signals.
Squaring It is used to recover carrier and data from
loop detector modulated signal.
Square of modulated signal (done by square
law device) given to a band-pass filter.

Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier Transmission bandwidth, ( BW )T = f m Hz.

(SSB-SC)
Only one sideband is transmitted and carrier and one
sideband is suppressed at the transmitter.
No information is lost as well as more power is
saved.
SSSB−SC ( t ) = m ( t ) cos ωc t ± m
^
( t ) .sin ωc t SSB-SC is known as J3E.
Where, m ( t ) = Hilbert transform of modulating Noise figure of merit in SSB = 1.
^

SSB is known as H3E.

signal Bandwidth figure of signal to noise ratio for SSB =
Ac A m
SSSB−SC (t) = cos  2π ( f c + f m ) t  (USB) 3kHz.
2 Total power SSB
AA A 2c µ 2
SSSB−SC (t) = c m cos  2π ( f c − f m ) t  (LSB) Pt = PUSB = PLSB Pt =
2 8R

Electrical Engineering Capsule 55 YCT

 PSB • SSB Demodulation
Transmission efficiency %η = × 100%
Pt
Transmitter power saving in SSB compared to DSB
4 + µ2
AM = Ps =
4 + 2µ 2
Power saving = 83.33%. (for µ = 1)
Advantage Transmitter power will be saved
Channel bandwidth will be saved
High power signal can be transmitted
Signal fading is less likely to occurs
Synchronous detector
Less amount of noise is present
No QNE (Quadrature Null Effect) Vestigial sideband (VSB)
Drawback Generation and demodulation is VSB known as C3F.
complex and costly One sideband is transmitted completely while only a
Limited for voice transmission vestige of the other sideband is transmitted.
Application SSB is preferred for voice Transmission bandwidth, ( BW )T = ω + f v Hz.
transmission
Telephony communication. Total channel bandwidth using vestigial lower
Point-to-point communication. sideband = 6 MHz.
Military communication By using VSB video signal can be comfortably
Radar communication transferred and it provides almost same bandwidth as
Radio communication SSB modulation.
Advantage Highly efficient.
Generation of SSB-SC Reduction in bandwidth when
Filter method compared to AM and DSB-SC
waves.
Filter design is easy, since high
accuracy is not needed.
The third method or weaver’s method Low frequency components
transmission is possible.
Good phase characteristics.
Drawback More bandwidth compared to SSB-
SC technique.
Demodulation is complex.
Application Used in TV, Video transmission,
Radio navigation and military
communication.
Generation of VSB

Phase shift or phase cancellation method

In this method first we generate DSBSC wave with

the help of the product modulator.
Then apply this DSBSC wave as an input of
sideband shaping filter to produce the VSB-SC
wave.
The output of the product modulator
Electronic Engineering Capsule 56 YCT
 p ( t ) = A c cos ( 2πf c t ) m ( t ) Angle Modulation
A Angle modulation in which the angle of carrier wave
P ( f ) = c  m ( f − f c ) + m ( f + f c )  (DSB-SC) vary according to modulating signal.
2
Output of the filter Angle modulation is non-linear modulation while
S(t) = P(f).H(f) AM is linear modulation.
A Angle modulation has constant power
s ( f ) = c  m ( f − f c ) + m ( f + f c )  H ( f ) (VSB-SC) An important features of angle modulation is that it
2
i. Analog multiplier ii. Envelope detector can provide better discrimination against noise and
Demodulation of VSB-SC interference than AM.
Angle modulation has two types-
i. Frequency modulation
ii. Phase modulation
Frequency Modulation (FM)
The frequency of the carrier wave is varied in a
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
Message signal- m ( t ) = A m cos ( ωm t + φm )
Synchronous detector or coherent detector Carrier signal- c ( t ) = A c cos ( ωc t + φc )
Demodulation of VSB-SC wave is similar to the
demodulation of DSB-SC SFM(t) = AC cos[ 2πf c t + 2πk f ∫ m ( t ) dt ]
The message signal can be extracted from VSB-SC
wave by multiplying it with a carrier (having same  δ 
phase and frequency as like used in VSB-SC SFM = A z cos  2πf c t + f sin ωm t 
 fm 
modulation)
The resulting signal is passed through a low pass filter. Frequency deviation
The output of this filter is the desired message signal. Modulation index (µf) =
modulating frequency
The output of the product modulator
v ( t ) = A c cos ( 2πf c t ) s ( t ) µf =
∆f k f A m
=
Ac fm fm
v(f ) = S ( f − f c ) + S ( f + f c ) 
2  Maximum Frequency deviation
The output of the filter. It represents maximum deviation of the
A2 instantaneous frequency of the FM signal from the
v0 ( f ) = c M ( f )  H ( f − f c ) + H ( f + f c ) 
4 carrier frequency (fc)
Different AM System at µa = 1: δ FM = k f .A m
System Pt Ps (Saved % BW SNR δ FM is independent of modulating signal frequency.
power) power
saving Narrow band FM Wide band FM
AM- - - 2ωm max (NBFM) (WBFM)
 µ  2

DSB/FC PC  1 + a  µf ≤ 1 µf > 1
 2 
SNBFM ( t ) = Ac cos2πfc t − ∞
AM- µ PC 67% 2ωm low
∑J
2
Ac µ f SWBFM = Ac
DSB/SC PC a cos2π ( fc − f m ) t n =−∞
n
2 2
AM-  µ a2  µ2 16% ωm high Aµ
+ c f cos2π( fc + fm ) t ( µf ) cos 2π ( fc + nf m ) t
SSB/FC PC  1 +  PC a 2
 4  4
BWNBFM = 2fm BWWBFM = ∞
AM- µ 2
 µ 2  83% ωm min Carrier power
SSB/SC PC a PC  1 + a  A 2

4  4  Carrier power Pc = c
2R A 2c J 02 ( µ f )
Commercial names of different modulation Pc =
techniques Total power 2R
AM(DSB-FC) → A3E A c2  µ f2  A c2
SSB-FC → H3E Pt = 1 +  Total power Pt =
2R  2 2R
SSB-SC → J3E
SSB with reduced carrier → R3E Single tone expression WBFM contains
ISB → B8E of AM and NBFM will carrier frequency
VSB → C3F be same, except 1800 component and

Electronic Engineering Capsule 57 YCT

 phase shift at LSB infinite number of If message signal is present then equivalent
frequency component. USB and LSB capacitance Ceq = Cd + C0
Bandwidth, transmitted frequency component. 1
power and the For WBFM most of Instantaneous frequency (fi) =
L 0 ( C 0 + Cd )
magnitude spectrum of the strength will be
AM and NBFM will be retained by lower 1
almost same. order sideband fi =
 − 
1
AM preferred over frequency component L0  C0 + k  V0 + x ( t )  2 
NBFM. and are said to be  
significant sideband. The instantaneous frequency (fi) of FM signal
Note: n = µ + 1 depend VD which in turns depends upon the value of
message signal, x(t).
Where, n = number of sideband
Reactance Modulator
µ = Modulation index
Carrier swing = 2∆f = fi(max) – fi(min)
Transmission Bandwidth-
( BW )T(FM ) ≃ 2(∆f + f m ) = (µf+1)2fm
 1 
= 2∆f 1 +  {Carson's bandwidth rule}
 µf  A transistor of FET operated as a variable reactance
Total power is same as carrier signal power before (Inductive or capacitive) device.
modulation. Voltage across resistance R,
For multitone modulation, deviation ratio is x (t)R
inversely proportional to message signal frequency. Vg = VR =
Frequency multiplier R − JX C
gm x ( t ) R
For JFET ID = gm×Vg =
R − JX c
Input impedance between terminal I and I' -
1  JX c 
Z= 1 − 
gm  R 
If Xc>>R
− JX c
Then, Z = ( capacitive nature )
Generation of FM wave- gmR
i. Varactor diode modulator  Xc 1
 direct method X eq = Z = =
ii. Reactance modulator  g m R 2πfg m RC
iii. Armstrong modulator - indirect method Ceq = g m RC
Varactor diode modulator The value of Ceq and Vg change accordance to gm.
Reactance modulator circuit is used at the place of
capacitor C in LC oscillator.
So, Ceq change with the value of modulating signal
and the oscillator frequency change also (it is the fm
signal).
Carrier frequency drift because the instability of
frequency.
AFC (Automatic Frequency Control) is used to
k constant the carrier frequency.
Capacitance of varactor diode Cd =
VD The DC voltage (generated by discriminator) stop
Voltage across varactor diode VD = V0 + x ( t ) the frequency variation of LC oscillator.
Modulation index µf << 1 in Armstrong modulator.
1
Frequency carrier of oscillator f c = (If Varactor diode modulator used in automatic
L 0 C0 frequency control, remote tuning and FM and PM
message signal is absent) generation.
Electronic Engineering Capsule 58 YCT
 Advantage Low cast
Simplicity of the modulators.
disadvantage Not easy to get high order of
stability in carrier signal.
Used LC oscillator for carrier
generation which is controlled by
message signal due to this region
direct method is not used for
broadcast application.
The non-linearity of the varactor
diode produces a frequency
variation.
Due to harmonics of the message Output voltage of tank circuit depends on the
signal FM signal is distorted. frequency deviation of input FM signal
Armstrong Modulator Identical to the AM diode detector
Major advantage of Armstrong method is, it capable Drawback
of producing WBFM signals. It is an inefficient system
Linear only over a limited frequency range.
Difficult to set the primary and secondary winding
of transformer at slightly different frequency.
To overcome all the limitation of simple slope
detector is use
• Balance slope detector

FM wave obtained through phase modulation.

A crystal oscillator can be used.
Armstrong system can be divided into two parts Part
I and Part II
Part I- generate a narrow band FM wave using a
phase modulator
Part II- use the frequency multipliers and mixer to
obtain the required values of frequency deviation,
carrier and modulation index
Narrowband FM wave
t
s1 ( t ) = A c1 cos ( 2πf1t ) − 2πk1A c1 sin ( 2πf1t ) ∫ x ( t ) dt
0

Demodulation of FM wave
• Frequency discriminator It consists two slope detector circuits.
Slope detector The input voltages to the two slope detectors are
1800 out of phase.
It consists three number of tank circuit (tuned
circuit)
The characteristics of balanced slope detector is
called as the ‘S’ shape characteristics
Advantage
More efficient than simple slope detector.
Better linearity the simple slope detector.
Electronic Engineering Capsule 59 YCT
 Drawbacks Operates on the principle that the instantaneous
Even though linearity is good it is not good enough. frequency of FM signal is approximately given as
Difficult to tuned, since the three tuned circuits are 1
fi =
work at different frequency 2∆t
Amplitude limiting is not provided ∆t is the time different between adjacent zero cross
Phase discriminator over point of the FM wave.
Foster seeley discriminator The time (T) is selected such that is satisfied the
following two conditions-
1
(i) T <
W
W = Bandwidth of message signal
1
(ii) T >
fc
fc = carrier frequency of AM wave
Linear relation between input frequency (fi) and
Advantage message signal x(t)
More easily to tuned than the balanced slope fi = f c + k f x ( t )
detector as there are only two tuned circuit are used PLL detector (Indirect method)
and tuned at the same frequency.
Better linearity as compared to balanced slope
detector.
Drawback
Does not provide amplitude limiting.
. In the presence of noise or any other amplitude
variation, the demodulator produces errors.
Note: It is used in satellite station.
The output frequency of VCO is equal to the
Ratio detector frequency of unmodulated carrier.
The phase detector generates voltage proportional to
difference between FM signal & VCO output.
The output of phase detector passes through LPF &
amplifier.
Hence frequency connection is not required at
VCO, as it is done at transmitter.
PLL system is close loop system design to locked
In the circuit diagram the direction of the diode D2 is output frequency and phase to the frequency &
reverse. phase of input signal.
A large value of capacitor has been included, at last PLL have three stage-
in this circuit. i. Free-running
If VC = 0, VCO is free-running mode i.e. voltage
The output is taken somewhere else.
control oscillator (VCO), oscillate with frequency
No need of amplitude limiter (f0).
output of foster ii. Capture
seeley discrimination
Output of ratio detector = If, Vc ≠ 0 i.e. apply some voltage of VCO, the VCO
2
frequency with changes from f0 to f.
Zero cross detector
f = f 0 + k f .Vc
Where, kf = voltage sensitivity
VCO frequency (f) change in such a way to reduce
the difference between fi & f0. This action is called
capturing & VCO is said to be capture mode.
iii. Locking or Tracking
If fi = f0, the VCO is said to be locked/tracking &
VCO is said to locked mode.
Electronic Engineering Capsule 60 YCT
Note : Phase modulation peak frequency deviation depends
Lock range > Capture range on Am and fm.
0.25 Equivalence Between FM and PM
f0 =
R T .CT
Where, CT = External capacitor,
f0 = Free running frequency
RT = External resistance
Frequency of voltage conversion factor (K)
∆f 8f
K= 0 = 0
∆Vc Vcc
Deviation of the lock-in range ( ∆ fL) PM FM
±7.8f 0 µ p = k p .A m k f .A m
∆f L = µf =
2Vcc fm
Advantage- ∆f = k p .A m .f m ∆f = k f .A m
No need of tuned circuit
Simple circuit that can be implemented in integrated FM AM
circuit. Frequency 88 MHz-108MHz 550 kHz-
Phase modulation (PM) range 1650 kHz
The phase of the carrier wave is varied in accordance Bandwidth 200 kHz 10 kHz
with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulation. Maximum 75 kHz (for broad ------
For single tone modulation, deviation ratio is frequency costing of FM)
independent of message signal frequency. deviation 25 kHz (for TV
SPM (t) = A c cos  2πf c t + ∆φ cos ( 2πf m t )  broad costing)
Intermediate 10.7 MHz 455 kHz
Modulation index, µ P = ∆φ = kp.Am frequency
Maximum frequency deviation ∆f = k P (IF)
Phase deviation
( ∆φ )max = max φ ( t ) = max k p m ( t ) = k p .A m
Parameters P.M. F.M. Single Tone PM Single Tone FM
Message m(t) m(t) Am cos 2πfmt Am cos 2πfmt
Instantaneous kp d fi = fc + kt m(t) fi = fc – kpAmfm sin fi = fc + kfAm cos 2πfmt
frequency m(t)
fi = f c + 2πfmt
2π dt
Instantaneous phase φi(t) = θi(t) + kfm(t) φi(t) = θi(t) + kf m (t)dt φi(t)= 2πfct + kfAm
∫ 2πfct + kf
cos2πfmt  kf Am 
 2πf c t + f sin 2πf m t 
 m 
Modulation index µp = kp max[m(t)] k f max[m ( t )] µp = AmKp Amk t
µf = µf =
Bandwidth fm
Frequency deviation kp d ∆f = kf m(t) ∆f = kpAmfmsin ∆f = kfAm cos2πfmt
∆f = m(t) 2πfmt
2π dt

Comparison between FM & PM Noise immunity better Noise immunity better

Frequency modulation Phase modulation than AM & PM than AM but worst than
FM
A c cos ( ωc t + βt sin ωm t ) A c cos ωc t + βp sin ωm t 
SNR is better than PM SNR is worst than FM
∆f = k f .Vm ∆f = k p Vm f m ,
FM is widely used in PM is used some mobile
kV & β = k p Vm good quality music system
& β= f m
fm system

Electronic Engineering Capsule 61 YCT

 Comparison between AM and FM It is linear amplifier. It have good linearity.
Amplitude modulation Frequency It is used in initial stage of It is used in final stage
modulation amplification. of amplification.
Transmitter power is Transmitter power It modulation circuitry It modulation circuitry
depends on modulation remains constant & simple & handle low power complex and handle
index independent of high power.
modulation index It is used only for It is used in practical
Carrier & one side band are All transmitted laboratory purpose. AM systems.
useless component are useless Square low diode Collector modulator
AM receiver are not to FM receiver are noise modulator & switching method are the
immune noise immune capability modulator with the example example of high level
AM bandwidth is constant FM bandwidth of low level modulation modulation.
and independent from depends on the • T.V. Transmission
modulation index. modulation index Picture signal-5.75MHz, sound signal -0.25MHz
BW = 2f m BW = 2f m ( µ f + 1) Maximum (fm) = 5kHz
AM have two side band FM have infinite Radio Receiver
sideband 1. Crystal receiver or straight receiver
Bandwidth is much smaller Bandwidth is large
than FM than AM
Net possible to operate more It is possible to operate
channel on same frequency. more than one channel
one frequency.
Used in ground wave & sky Used in space wave
wave propagation so cover propagation so, are of
the large area of operation. operation is limit. Crystal receiver circuit is simple.
Poor selectivity and sensitivity.
Comparison of Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis Low output at receiver due to absence of amplifier.
Pre-emphasis De-emphasis 2. Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver-
In pre-emphasis technique It is just reverse action
which is used to increase of pre-emphasis at the
the signal power at high discriminator output
audio frequency back the original signal.
It is used before frequency It is used after FM
modulator or at transmitter. demodulator and before
base band filter.
It behave as a HPF (high It is behave as a LPF
pass filter) or differentiator (low pass filter) or It is used only as a fixed frequency receiver
at I.F. (2.1 kHz to 15 kHz). integrator Advantage disadvantage
TRF receiver circuit is Instability
simple.
Sensitivity-high Bandwidth variation
over the tuning range.
Easy alignment at Insufficient adjacent
Transmitter transmission range (535 frequency rejection.
Transmitter not only performs the modulation kHz-1640 kHz).
process but also raises the power level of a No problem of tracking & At high frequency,
modulated signal to the desired for effective alignment. performance of TRF is
radiation. poor.
Transmitter are two types-
(i) Low level modulator (ii) High level modulator 3. Super Heterodyne Radio Receiver-(SHRR)-
Low level modulator High level modulator
It is also called base It is also called
modulator. collector modulator.
In low level modulation, It is used class-C
lower power level modulate power amplifier which
and then signal is amplified amplifies only the
by using class-B power carrier frequency.
amplifier.

Electronic Engineering Capsule 62 YCT

 SHRR Performs in the following stages Selectivity- Ability to reject unwanted signals.
1. RF section & characteristics Fidelity- Ability to reproduce all the frequency
It is a class-C tuned voltage amplifier. components, which are present in original signal.
It is reject the image signal. Automatic gain control- The automatic gain
RF amplifier has larger gain therefore better control (AGC) within a superheat radio enables the
sensitivity and improved SNR. gain of the receiver to be controlled to level the
RF amplifier improve image frequency rejection of audio output.
adjacent un-wanted signal therefore better Pulse modulation-
selectivity.
• Sampling theorem- The sampling theorem specifies
It provide better coupling of receiver to the antenna.
the minimum-sampling rate at which a continuous-
2. Mixer
It is non-linear device and provides sum & time signal needs to be uniformly sampled so that
difference frequency. the original signal can be completely recovered or
IF = Intermediate frequency = f LO − fs reconstructed by these sample alone.
f s ≥ 2f m , f smin = 2fm
Where, fLO = Local oscillator frequency
fs= Incoming signal frequency 1
Ts ≤
3. Local oscillator 2f m
fLO is generated by local oscillator
Local oscillator is LC- oscillator • Sampling period (Ts)- Time between two samples.
In SHRR, tuning achieved by local oscillator. 1 1
• Sampling rate = =
fLO>fs sampling period Ts
AM = 550 kHz- 1650 kHz Type of sampling technique or ideal sampling
If fLO>fs then, fLO = 1005 kHz-2105 kHz i. Instantaneous sampling
If fs>fLO ii. Flat-top sampling
Cmax 158 iii. Natural sample sampling
=
Cmin 1 Instantaneous Flat-top Natural
sampling sampling sample
4. IF amplifier
sampling
IF-amplifier uses standard tuned amplifier &
It is also known It is also It is also
provides most of the receiver gain.
as impulse train known as known as
Very high IF has poor selectivity & very good image
frequency rejection. sampling practical practical
The IF-amplifier is SHRR is two stage of single sampling sampling
tuned amplifier. In this method, the In this method, In this
Note : sampling signal is the sampling method, the
Double spotting in SHRR caused by poor front end periodic impulse signal is a sampling
rejection. train. pulse train signal is pulse
Double spotting is also called adjacent channel train
selectivity. In this method, the The top of each In this
Image frequency rejection area of ends pulse in the method, the
f si = f LO + fi f LO = f s + f i f si = fs + 2fi impulse in the sampled signal top of each
sampled signal is remain constant pulse in the
FLO → Local oscillator frequency equal to the & equal to the sampled
Fs → Signal frequency , Fsi → Image frequency instantaneous instantaneous signal retains
f f value of the input value of the the shape of
Rejection- α = 1 + Q 2 P 2 , P = si − s
fs fsi signal. input signal at the input
They incoming signal frequencies are converted into the star of the signal during
a fixed frequency called the intermediate frequency samples. pulse interval.
(IF) by the mixture. It is not used in A flat-top In this
The IF of 455kHz is used in commercial radio practical due to sample pulse is method SNR
receivers. zero width & not generated by ratio is not
The IF is demodulated to recover the message practically passing the constant.
signal. possible to instantaneous
The modulated message signal is passed through the generate. sampled signal
audio amplifier are power amplifier to achieved the through a
desired signal. monostable
Sensitivity- Ability to amplify weak signals. M.V.
Electronic Engineering Capsule 63 YCT
 Pulse Amplitude modulation (PAM)- Comparison of PAM, PPM and PWM
The amplitude of pulses varies with the PAM PDM or PWM PPM
instantaneous sample values of a message signal. Amplitude of the Width of the The relative
There are two types of PAM- pulse is pulse is position of
i. Double polarity PAM proportional to proportional to the pulse is
ii. Single polarity PAM. amplitude of amplitude of proportional
modulating signal. modulating to the
• Generation signal. amplitude of
modulating
signal.
The bandwidth of Bandwidth of Bandwidth of
the transmission transmission transmission
• Demodulation channel depends channel channel
on width of the depends on rise depends on
pulse. time of the rising time of
pulse. the pulse.
The instantaneous The The
Amplitude of pulse of PAM wave, is not constant power of the instantaneous instantaneous
(but in PPM and PWM amplitude is constant) transmitter varies. power of the power of the
More noise effect transmitter transmitter
Used in instrumentation system, A/D converter and varies varies
generation of PCM. Noise interference Noise Noise
Pulse width Modulation (PWM) is high and system interference is interference is
The sample of message signal are used to vary the is complex. minimum. minimum.
duration of individual pulses. Similar to Simple to Simple to
Generation- PWM can be generated by 555 timer in amplitude implement implement
monostable multivibrator mode. modulation. similar to similar to
frequency phase
Demodulation-
modulation. modulation.
Pulse code modulation (PCM)-
Pulse code modulation (PCM) is a method used to
No needs of synchronization between transmitter digitally represent sampled analog signal.
and receivers. Main process of PCM transmitter-sampling,
Pulse widths are different quantizing and encoding and receiver - regeneration
(cleaning and reshaping), decoding and filtering.
Pulse Position Modulation(PPM)
The position of pulse relative to the position of
unmodulated pulse is varied in accordance with the
message signal.
Generation

Sample the analog signal then quantize it to convert

into levels and encode it and then send it in the form
Demodulation of digital codes.
If there is n bit quantizer and sampling rate is fs then
bit rate will be R b = n fs bits / sec
Constant transmitter power and pulse amplitude For n-channel, R b = N.nf s
Synchronization is needed between receiver and R b nfs
(B.W.)min= = = nf m
transmitter. 2 2
PPM System is a noise free system For n-channel, BW = N.nfm
B.W Power efficiency Complexity V − Vmin
Step size (∆) = max (L = 2n)
(SNR) L
PAM Less Lowest Lowest Quantization noise power for uniform quantization
PWM High Moderate Moderate ∆2
(Nq)=
PPM High Highest Highest 12
Electronic Engineering Capsule 64 YCT
 Signal to noise ratio in dB (SNR)db = 1.8+6n(for It is also use for PCM A-law companding is
sinusoidal signal) telephone system is united also used for PCM
Signal to noise ratio in dB (SNR)db = 4.8+6n(for state (USA). telephone system in
non-sinusoidal signal) India.
Sampling Period Typical value of µ= 255 Typical value of
Bit period =
No. of bit A=87.6.
1 DPCM (Differential Pulse Code Modulation)
Sampling period (Ts) =
2f m In DPCM the difference amplitude between sample
For n-channel & synchronization ‘a’ number of bit and previous sample is to be transmitted.
are transmitted at the end then, The peak amplitude of transmitted value in reduce
R b = ( N.n + a ) f s using DPCM.
for given SNR, we can transmit at reduce
Transmission bandwidth BT = 1.544 MHz bandwidth.
Ruggedness to channel noise and other interference. DPCM is used for speech signal transmission.
Efficient generation of the coded signal along the In DPCM, predictor filter is used.
transmission path is possible.
Security of information. Delta Modulation
Complex encoding and decoding. 1-bit DPCM is called modulation
Long transmission bandwidth. In delta modulation number of bit/sample is used
Non-uniform quantization one.
An audio signal is to be transmitted digitally for In delta modulation the number of levels is used
good fidelity we used PCM system with non- two.
uniform quantization. In delta modulation, bit rate is equal to the sampling
Non-uniform quantization is practically achieved rate.
through a process called companding. Demodulation of delta modulation achieved by
Companding = compressing + expanding integrator.
Two types of error in delta modulation
i. Slope over distortion ii. Granular noise
In companding method, the weak signals are Slope over distortion Granular noise
amplified and strong signal are attenuated before Slope over load distortion is Granular noise occur
apply them to uniform quantization this process is
delta modulation when the when the modulating
called compression and it is included at the PCM
rate of change of analog signal remain constant
transmitter.
At receiver exactly opposite is followed which is signal too large (or large (or step size is too
called expander. dynamic range of input large)
Note: The use of non-uniform quantizer leads to increase signal)
in signal to noise ratio for signal level. It can be reduced by It can be reduced by
Type of companding increasing the step size make the step size
small.
It is two types
i. µ− law companding To avoid slope over Granular noise power
ii. A- law companding distortion ∆2
= W
µ-law companding A-law companding ∆ dm ( t ) 3
≥
In µ-law companding the In A-law companding Ts dt max
compression characteristics the compression
characteristics is linear. To take place over
is continuous.
It is approximately linear It is also approximately ∆ dm ( t )
distortion <
path for smaller value of linear for small signal Ts dt max
input signal level & level & logarithmic for
logarithmic for high signal high signal level. ADM (Adaption Delta Modulation)
level. In ADM has variable step size.
The µ-law companding is A-low companding is For small variation of signal (constant signal) ADM
used for speech and music also used for PCM is used small step size so that granular noise.
signal. telephone system in For large variation of signal ADM is used large step
Europe. size so that slope over load distortion reduces.
Electronic Engineering Capsule 65 YCT
 Comparison between PCM, DPCM, DM and ADM
Parameters PCM DPCM DM ADM
No. of bits (n) Either 4, 8 or 16 n is greater than 1 n=1 n=1
bits/sample and less than no. of
*8 bits/sample is most bits in PCM system.
common
Feedback No Yes Yes Yes
requirement
Step size (s)∆ Fix Fix Fix Variable
Complexity Most complex circuit Moderate complex Simple circuit Simple circuit
circuit
Type of error Mainly quantization Quantization error Both slope overland Quantization error
error and granular noise and granular noise
effect error
Bandwidth (BW) High B.W. Moderate B.W. Least B.W. Least B.W.

FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) It has least circuit complexity.

FDM is used for multiplexing continuous signal In TDM, synchronization is very much essential.
The entire frequency interval is divided into smaller It is immune to non-linearity in the channel as a
frequency slots. source of crosstalk.
Separate transmitter and receiver are required. TDM is use when the data to be transmitted is fast
More circuit complexity. changing and wideband width.
Synchronization is not a problem. In order to separate signal in a TDM system, it is
All signals are passed simultaneously through the necessary to used AND-gate.
channel. TDM is digital multiplexing technique and required
Crosstalk is more because different message signals transmission of data sample.
are simultaneously applied. In TDM system full channel available bandwidth
Here band-pass filters are used. can be used by each signal.
The modulated signal spectrum may be separated by • Line codes
small guard band to avoid interference. Line coding is the process of converting digital data
The total bandwidth is divided to a set of frequency to digital signals.
bands that do not overlap.
The frequency bands are separated from one another • Types of line code
by strips of unused frequencies called the guard 1. UNRZ (Unipolar Non-Return to Zero) codes
bands to prevent overlapping of signals. A ‘1’ is represented by positive pulse
The modulated signals are combined together using A ‘0’ is represented by no pulse.
a multiplexer in the sending end. 2. URZ (Unipolar Return to Zero) codes
The combined signal is transmitted over the A ‘1’ is represented by a positive pulse of half
communication channel. symbol width
At the receiving end, the individual signals are A ‘0’ is represented by no pulse.
extracted from the combined signal by the
demultiplexing process.
Advantage No dynamic coordination needed
Works also for analog signals
Disadvantage Waste of bandwidth (if traffic
distributed unevenly)
Inflexible
Guard space
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
In TDM, the signals are separated in time fout mixed
in frequency.
3. BNRZ (Bipolar Non- Return to Zero) codes
In a TDM system each signal allotted in a frame and
fixed time slot. A ‘1’ is represented by positive pulse.
In a TDM system non-essential frequency A ‘0’ is represented by negative pulse.
component of the modulating signal are remove by 4. BRZ (Bipolar Return Zero) Codes
low pass filter (pre-aliasing filter) A ‘1’ is represented by positive pulse of half symbol

Electronic Engineering Capsule 66 YCT

 A ‘0’ is represented by negative pulse of half Spectral efficiency (e) = 0.5
symbol width. bps/Hz
ASK modulation scheme is
provide maximum
probability of error.
Frequency shift • Frequency of carrier is varied
keying (FSK) in accordance with digital
data (1or 0)
• NRZ signaling is used.
• Used in modem
• Multiplexing is difficult
5. Manchester code (Split-Phase code) • Transmission Bandwidth BT =
A ‘1’ represented by a positive half-symbol width 2Rb + (f1–f2) ≃ 4R b
pulse followed by a negative half-symbol width • In case of FSK Pe is less and
pulse. SNR is high
A ‘0’ represented by a negative half-symbol width • Spectral efficiency
pulse followed by a positive half-symbol width
(e) = 0.25 bps/Hz
pulse.
• FSK s demodulated by PPL
This code has a zero DC component.
• FSK used in telegraphy
Phase shift • Phase of high frequency
keying (PSK) carrier varied is accordance
with digital data (1 or 0)
• NRZ signaling is used.
• Transmission Bandwidth BT =
2Rb
• Probability of error is less.
• SNR is high.
6. BRZ-AMI (Binary Return to Zero- Alternative • Best among all shift keying
Mask inversion) Code schemes
A ‘1’ is represented alternately by positive & • Spectral efficiency
negative pulse of half width. E=0.5 bps/ Hz
A ‘0’ is represented by no pulse.
• M-ary signaling
2R b
For M-ary PSK B.W =
log 2 M
Bit rate
Boud rate =
log 2 M
Binary amplitude shift keying (BASK)
A cos 2πf c t; for1( High signal )
s(t) =  c
Digital Modulation system  0; ; for 0 ( Low level )
Amplitude shift Amplitude of a high Bandwidth of BASK
keying (ASK) frequency carrier is varied in BT = 2R b (for NRZ pulse )
accordance with digital data
(0 or 1). BT = R b (1 + α ) (for raised cosine)
1→ presence of carrier
A 2Tb
0→ Absence of carrier Energy per bit, E b =
On-OFF signaling is used. 2
Less SNR, probability error Binary phase shift keying (BPSK)
(Pe) is high. A c cos 2πf c t ;for 1 ( High signal )
Lowest noise immunity s(t) = 
Transmission bandwidth − A c cos 2πf c t ;for 0 ( Low signal )
2 Rb
BT = = 2R b Boud rate R s =
Tb log 2 m

Electronic Engineering Capsule 67 YCT

 M-ary phase shift keying Comparison of various digital modulation system
Modulation type Bandwidth Probability
M-ary Bandwidth ….distance error (Pe)
BPSK 2Rb 2 Eb Coherent ASK 2Rb  A2T 
Q c b

4-ary PSK Rb  4N 0 
2 Eb  
Non-coherent 2Rb 1  A2 
8-ary PSK 0.6Rb 1.32 E b ASK exp  − c 
2  8N 0 
16-ary PSK Rb/2 0.78 E b Coherent FSK 2Rb+(f1–f2)  A 2T 
Q c b

Bit rate ( −R b )  2N 0 
Special efficiency ρ =
Bandwidth ( BT ) Non-coherent >2Rb 1  A2 
FSK exp  − c 
Binary frequency shift keying (BFSK) 2  4N 0 
s1 ( t ) = A c cos ( 2πf H t ) bit = 1 Coherent PSK 2Rb  A2T 
Q c b

s 2 ( t ) = A c cos ( 2πf L t ) bit = 0  N0 
 
Non-coherent 2Rb
Bandwidth BT = 2R b + f H − f L (for NRZ pulse) PSK
 A 2Tb  Noise effect on various analog
Energy per bit  E b =  modulation system
 2 

f H = mR b
For orthogonal BFSK
f L = nR b

nR b
For non-coherent BFSK f H − f L =
2 Johnson noise is also known as thermal noise,
electrical noise or resistor noise.
2R b Shot noise- due to the random movement of
For coherent BFSK BT =
N electrons and holes.
Transit time noise (high frequency noise) occur
f H − f L = nR b during transition.
In electronic devices shot noise occurs due to
Probability Error discrete nature of current.
Johnson noise is due to random motion of free
 Eb  charged particles in a resistance.
For BASK system Pe = Q 
 2N  White noise is random noise that has a flat spectral
 0  density.
1
 Eb  Flicker noise is also known as noise or pink noise.
For BPSK system Pe = Q  f
 N  Flicker noise is a form of electronic noise that
 0 
dominates at low frequencies or low frequency
offsets from oscillators.
 Eb  The natural source of noise that give rise to noise are
For BFSK system Pe = Q 
 N  electronic storms, solar flares and radiation in space.
 0 
The noise originating from the sun and outer space is
Imperfect phase Synchronization known as extraterrestrial noise (solar cosmic noise).
The sun radiates lots of noise.
2E s Cosmic noise comes from stars.
Pe = Q cos 2 φ It is uniformly distributed over entire sky.
N0 • Effect of noise on a baseband system
Signal to noise ratio of a baseband system
Imperfect bit synchronization
PR
 2E s  2 | τ |   (SNR )b =
Pe = Q  1− N 0 .B
 N 0  
 T   Where, PR = Received signal power
N0 = Noise spectral density
( Pe )BPSK < ( Pe )BFSK < ( Pe )BASK B = Bandwidth of message signal
High SNR is good for receiver and transmitter

Electronic Engineering Capsule 68 YCT

• Noise Figure Information theory
It is a ratio of SNR at input to SNR at output. 1 1
I= log 2   bits, I = log10   decit or dit or Hartly
SNR (i ) Pi / Pin Pi .Pon P P
FN = = =
SNR ( o ) Po / Pon Po .Pin 1
I = ln nat
P
Pon  Po  The unit of information s bits, deceit and Nat
FN = G = 
G.Pin  Pi  1-decit = 1 Hartley = 3.32 bits = 2.5 Nat
• Noise Temperature 1-Nat = 1.44 it = 0.4 decit
It is a temperature , which generates noise power in Entropy
system It is measure of Un-certainity.
It is also defined as average information per
message.
A given source will have maximum entropy if the
message produced are equiprobable.
Noise power by amplifier. m
1
PNA = ( FN − 1) kT0 B H = ∑ Pi log 2 bits / symbol
i =1 Pi
Where FN = Noise figure
Rate of information (R)
T0 = Environment temperature
B = Bandwidth of message signal If a message source generate message at the rate of
Noise power in terms of noise temperature. ‘r’ message per second or symbol/sec. then
R = r.H bit/sec
Teq = ( FN − 1) T0
Where, H= entropy
Equivalent noise temperature and noise figure in
Source coding
cascaded communication system.
It is reduce the size of data
Source coding in order to enhance the information
rate
Code length
Equivalent noise figure Average code word length per source symbol is
F = F1 +
( F2 − 1) + ( F3 − 1) represented by code length.
i=m
G1 G1G 2
Code length ( L ) = ∑ P ( x i ) .nc
Note: F1,F2 &F3 would not be in terms of dB. i =1

• Equivalent noise temperature Where, n = length of code for each message

Teq Teq3 L
Teq = Teq1 + 2 + Code efficiency ( η) = min
G1 G1G 2 L
Source encoder is said to be efficient when the
• SNR of DSB-SC System
coding efficiency ( η ) approaches unity.
PR
( SNR )o(DSB−SC) = (SNR )b = Redundancy = 1− η
N0 B
Source coding theorem
Output SNR of DSB-SC is same as base band
system SNR. L ≥ H(x)
• SNR of SSB AM system Lmin = H(x) entropy
P L min H
(SNR )0(SSB) = ( SNR )0( DSB−SC) = (SNR )b = R η= =
N0B L L
Output SNR of SSB is same as SNR of DSB-SC Channel capacity Theorem
system and baseband system. Case I : Channel capacity per symbol (Cs)
• Noise effect on AM system Cs = MaxI ( x, y ) bit/symbol
A 2µ 2 P
( SNR )0( AM) = c a n (SNR )0( AM ) = η (SNR )b Case II : Channel capacity per second (C)
2N 0 B
C = Cs X r bit/sec.
µ a2 Pn Capacity of an additive white Gaussion Noise
η=
µ 2a Pn + 1 channel
Where Ac = Carrier amplitude It is also called Shannon Hartley law
µa = Modulation index  S
Channel capacity- C = Blog 2  1 +  bits / sec
Pn = Normalized message signal power  N 
Electronic Engineering Capsule 69 YCT
 Channel capacity for a binary symmetric channel is Variance
CS = 1 + P log 2 p + (1 − P) log 2 (1 − P)bits / symbol ∞
σ 2x = E ( x − m x )  = ∫ ( x − m x ) ρx ( x ) dx
2 2

Channel capacity is maximum rate of information   −∞

transmission. Properties of expectation operator
Channel coding theorem 1. E[C] = C
C≥R 2. E[CX] = CE[X]
Where, C= channel capacity (bit/sec)  
3. E  ∑ X i  = ∑ E [ X i ]
R = Rate of information (bit/sec)  i  i

If C ≥ R then probability of error decreases. 4. E [ x1 + x 2 + x 3 ] = E [ x1 ] + E [ x 2 ] + E [ x 3 ]

If C<R, then probability of error increase.
Entropy coding
Commutative distribution function [Fx(n)]
It is two types
The commulative distribution function is found by
(i) . Shanon- Fano coding (ii) Huffman-coding
integrating the probability density function.
Shanon-Fano coding Huffman-coding
∞
List the given probabilities in List the given f x ( n ) = ∫ f x ( n ) dx
−∞
the decreasing order. probabilities in the
decreasing order. The probability density function is obtained by
Partition the set into 2 parts Combine the given differentiate commulative distribution function.
that are close to equiprobable probabilities of 2 d
fx (n ) = fx (n )
as possible and assign ‘0’ to symbols having the dx
the upper set and ‘1’ to the lowest probability and Properties of commulative distribution function
lower set. reorder the resultant
Commulative distribution function of random
probabilities.
variable ‘X’ may be defined as the probability that a
Continue this process until Start encoding with random variable ‘X’ takes a value less than equal
partition is not possible. the last reduction and
to x.
which consists of
exactly 2 probabilities CDF = f x ( n ) = ρ ( x ≤ n )
and assign ‘0’ to the
1st digit in the code 0 ≤ fx ( n ) ≤
word for all the Commulative distributive function is non-decreasing
source symbols function.
associated with 1st
probability and assign 0 ≤ fx ( n ) ≤ 1 fx ( ∞ ) = 0 , fx ( ∞ ) = 1
‘1’ to the 2nd
probabilities. Mean value of random variables
Continue the process Mean value of random variables E(n)
∞
until 1st column is E ( n ) = ∫ n.f x ( n ).dx
−∞
reached. Exceptation

PDF (Probability Density or Probability Where, fx(n) = Probability density function

Distribution Function) N= The value of random variables
d
ρx ( x ) = Fx ( x ) X= Random variable
dx Mean square value of random variables [E(x)2]
1. ρx ( x ) ≥ 0
E ( x 2 ) = ∫ x 2 f x ( n ) dx
∞

∞ −∞
2. ∫ ρx ( x ) dx = 1 Area under PDF is always 1
−∞ Variance = mean square value – square of mean
∞
3. Fx ( x ) = ∫ ρx ( x ) dx value
−∞
x2 Standard deviation [ σn ]
4. P {x1 ≤ x ≤ x 2 } = ∫ ρ x ( x ) dx
σ n = variance = E ( x 2 ) − E ( x )
x1 2

Means or First Moment:

∞
m x = E [ x ] = ∫ xρx ( x ) dx Note : In a communication system, a process for which,
−∞ statistical average and time average are equal is called
M.S.V. (Mean Square Value): ergodic process.
∞
E  x 2  = ∫ x 2ρx ( x ) dx E  x 2  ≥  E ( x ) 
2
−∞  
Electronic Engineering Capsule 70 YCT
 Advance Communication

Data Communication Ring topology -

Each computer is strongly connected with adjacent
Transmission Mode - computer.
Transferring data between two devices. Each and every computer can share the data with
Simplex mode - another computer, connected through a ring
Unidirectional communication. topology.
Sender can send the data but that sender cannot Can not send private message.
receive the data. It has low reliability.
It provides less performance than half duplex and Token ring network are defined by IEEE 802.5
full duplex. standard.
Example - Keyboard, Monitor.
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a fast
fiber optical network based on ring topology.

Half - duplex mode -

Half duplex mode is a two-way directional
communication but one direction at a time.
In half duplex mode, sender can send the data and
can receive the data but one direction at a time.
Less performance than full duplex.
Example - Walkie - Talkies.

Star topology -
All the node are connected with central device called
Full-duplex mode - HUB.
Full duplex mode is a two-way directional Sharing the data is only possible through HUB.
communication simultaneously. Easy to connect new P.C. without affecting rest of
In full duplex mode, sender can send the data and network.
receive the data simultaneously.
Better performance than simplex and half duplex
mode.
Example - Telephone.

Network topology - Mesh Topology -

Bus topology - Each and every computer is directly connected with
In bus topology, one long cable act as a single each other.
communication channel and all the devices are Mesh topology is point to point link.
connected to this cable. It has highest reliability.
Required only one cable.
Easy to add/remove P.C. in this topology.
Less expensive
It is a multipoint topology.

Hybrid topology -
Combination of different topology -
Electronic Engineering Capsule 71 YCT
 IEEE 802.4 - Token bus
IEEE 802.5 - Token ring
IEEE 802.2 - LLC layer
IEEE 802.3 - Ethernet
TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Inter Networking Protocol)
TCP/IP protocol contains four layer -
1. Host to network (Physical layer, Data link layer)
2. Internet (Network layer) layer
3. Transport layer
OSI (Open System Inter 4. Application layer
Application layer TELNET, SMTP, FTP,
Connection) Model - HTTP, DNS, SNMP
OSI model is consist of 7 layer
Transport layer SCTP, TCP, UDP
1. Physical layer -
Internet layer ICMP, PCI, IP, RARP,
To provide mechanical and electrical specification.
ARP, IGMP, VL
To transmit bits over a medium.
Host to network layer -------
2. Data link layer -
To organized bits into frames. Remember -
This layer is responsible for moving frame from one Four levels of address are used in an internet
node to next node. employing the TCP/IP protocols -
This layer is also responsible for error controls, flow (i) Physical address -
control and framing. It is also known as link address.
3. Network layer - (ii) Logical address -
This layer is responsible for source to destination (iii) Port address -
It identify a process on a host.
delivery of packet.
(iv) Specific address -
Remember - It is user friendly address.
bits → Physical layer Difference between OSI and TCP/IP
frame → Data link layer
model
packets → Network layer
4. Transport layer - OSI (Open system TCP/IP (Transmission
The error at node can be detected by transport layer. Interconnection) control protocol/Internet
The transport layer is also responsible to flow protocol)
control and error control. It has 7 layers It has 4 layers
Note - The error between the nods can be detected by
data link layer but the error at node can not be
detected by data link layer.
Transmission control layer (Transport layer) has two
type -
(i) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
(ii) User Data-gram Protocol (UDP)
(i) TCP -
Connection oriented and reliable transport protocol.
It is used full duplex communication.
Also called stream oriented protocol.
(ii) UDP - Network layer guarantees It does not guarantees
It is called connectionless and unreliable transport the delivery of packets. delivery of packets.
protocol. Follow horizontal Follow vertical approach.
5. Session layer - approach.
This layer is responsible to synchronies the It provides connection It provides connectionless
interaction between communicating device. oriented and service.
6. Presentation layer - Connectionless service.
It is responsible for compression or de-compression. Network type -
It is also responsible for encrypt and decrypt. It depends how large they are and how much area
7. Application layer - they cover.
This layer enable the user to access the network.
Remember -
Session, presentation and application layer are the
user support layer.
Electronic Engineering Capsule 72 YCT
 PAN -
PAN stands for Personal Area Network.
Range < 10 meter.
Only for personal uses.

IPv4 -
Length = 32 bit
Octet = 4
Number uses = 0 to 255
232 address location.
IPv6 -
Length = 128 bits
LAN - Octet = 8
Stands for Local Area Network. Number uses = 0 to 65535
Range < 150 meter. 2128 address location.
Uses in only office or building.
Switching -
Switching sends data along different routes.

Circuit switching -
MAN - It is transmission mode that involves setting up a
MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network. dedicated end to end communication.
Collection of LAN network is called MAN. Commonly used in telephone systems.
Range < 50 Km. Connection oriented.
Used within city. No delay in data flow.
More B.W. is required.
Message switching -
There is no dedicated path between two
communicating devices.
Each message is treated as an independent unit and
includes its own destination and source address.
Efficient traffic management.
Some delay due to storing and forwarding.
Packet switching -
WAN - Messages are broken up into packets.
Individual packets take different routes to reaches
WAN stands for Wide Area Network. the destination.
Collection of LAN and MAN Network. Required BW is less.
Range is not fixed.
Uses between two country or all over the world.
High Level Data Link Control
(HLDC) -
Bit oriented data link protocol.
It may be half or full duplex.
Binary Synchronous Communication
(BSC) -
It is character oriented.
It is used in both point to point and multipoint link.
Standard full form -
IEEE → Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
IP Address - FCC → Federal Communication Commission
IP stands for Internet Protocol. EIA → Electronic Industries Association
Unique number provided to each and every devices. ISO → International Standard Organization
Electronic Engineering Capsule 73 YCT
 Expansion Buses - • USB 2 –
The expansion bus allows the CPU to communicate It is also known as hi-speed USB
with peripheral devices. It support 3 mode -
(i) ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) - (i) Mod 1 → 1.5 Mbps
Data lines = 16. (ii) Mod 2 → 12 Mbps
Address lines = 24 bit. (iii) Mod 3 → 480 Mbps
Low data transfer rate. • USB 3 -
(ii) EISA (Extended Industry Standard Architecture) Known as super speed USB
Data lines = 32 bit Data transfer at the rate of 4.8 Gbps.
Address lines = 32 bit • Wireless USB -
(iii) PCI Bus (Peripheral Component Interconnect) Data transfer at the rate of 480 Mbps.
Bus topology is used. MODEM -
PCI is a parallel bus. Known as Modulator-Demodulator.
Key feature of the PCI bus is plug and play capacity. Modulator convert binary data into analog signal.
Data rate is 130 mbps and 33 MHz Demodulator recovered binary data from the
(iv) AGP Bus (Accelerated Graphic Port) modulated signal.
It is developed just for graphics. MODEM Standard -
(v) GPIB (General Purpose Interface Bus) V - Series
Also known as IEEE - 488 V.32
(vi) HPIB (Hewlett Packed Interface Bus) V.34
Used 24 wire cable. V.90
(vii) VL BUS (VESA Local Bus) V.92
DCE and DTE - Network Connecting Device -
DTE - Data Terminal Equipment (i) Bridges
DCE - Data Communication Equipment (ii) Router
(iii) Gateway
(iv) Switches
(v) HUB
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) -
Used for provide higher speed access to the internet.
Pin 2 → TxD [Transmitter Data] DSL technology is a set of technology each deferring
Pin 3 → RxD [Receiver Data] in the 1st letter.
RS - 232 C - A DSL → Asymmetric DSL
Used for serial data communication. DSL → High bit rate DSL
H
It is asynchronous data communication.
It used negative logic. S DSL → Symmetric DSL
Support full duplex mode. V DSL → Very high bit rate DSL
It developed by EIA.
Used for long distance communication. Digital Signal Services -
Also known as physical interface. Service Line rate(Mbps) Voicechannels
Used in physical interface and electrical interface.
DS − 0 T−0 64 kbps 1
USB (Universal Serial Bus) - DS − 1 T − 1 1.544 Mbps 24
It is replaced RS - 232 C.
Serial data communication. DS − 2 T − 2 6.312 Mbps 96
It is a serial I/O interface between peripheral devices DS − 3 T − 3 44.736 Mbps 672
and computer.
DS − 4 T − 4 274.176 Mbps 4032
X.25 is defined as three layer
(i) Physical layer
(ii) Data link layer
(iii) Packet layer
• USB 1 - Remember -
It supported wide range of devices. X.25 network work as speed upto 64 kbps.
USB 1 allow transfer rate 12 Mbps. X.25 signal is also used for DCE and DTE
• USB 1.1 - interfacing.
It support two modes X.25 support switched virtual circuit and permanent
(i) Full speed mode of 12 Mbps. circuit.
(ii) Low speed mode of 1.5 Mbps. X.25 provide flow control, acknowledge signal.
Electronic Engineering Capsule 74 YCT
 Fram relay - 7.5 Unit code -
Uses virtual link only. Also called start stop code.
Operate at higher speed of 1.5 Mbps. Telegraphic speed :
Does not provide flow controls acknowledgement.
Baud -
Operating system (OS) - Number of elements transmit per second.
The interaction between the hardware and software WPM -
is manage by set of program is called operating
Word per minute.
system.
Number of words transmit per minute.
Speed in wpm =
1
No. of unit per word × duration of smallest element (in minute)
1
=
N × T ( in minute )
Remember - Some important full forms
Booting (Boot Strapping) - SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
Process of loading the operating system into memory
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
(main memory) is known as booting.
Boot strapping loader is always stored in ROM. UDP User Datagram Protocol
ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol
Types of operating system -
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
(i) MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) -
It is also called PC DOS (Personal Computer Disk CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check
Operating System) PPP Point to Point Protocol
Single user operating system developed by micro HLDC High Level Data Link Control
soft. FTP File Transfer Protocol
IBM version of MS-DOS is known as PC-DOS. HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
Not provide graphics facility. DNS Domain Name System
(ii) UNIX - MAC Message Authentication Code
Multitasking, multiuser operating system. GSM Global System for Mobile Communication
It requires 8 to 10 MB of memory. PCO Public Call Office
(iii) LINUX OS - Telex Tele-printer Exchange
Multitasking multiuser operating system.
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
It is a version of UNIX.
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
(iv) Windows OS -
It is a graphical user interface (GUI) of microsoft. ISDN Integrated Service Digital Network
GUI provided picture oriented interface. SIM Subscriber Identify Module
It is a single user, multitasking operating system. TRAI Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
Example - Windows 3.0, Windows 3.1, Windows VPN Virtual Private Network
3.11, WPAN Wireless Personal Area Network
Telegraphic codes - Satellite communication
Information is send by the help of codes. Satellite
Satellite is microwave repeater which is placed
certain height above the ground.
For satellite communication frequency should be
greater than critical frequency of ionosphere.
In satellite communication frequency division
multiplexing is used.
Ist satellite SPUTNIK 1 was launched in 1957 by
Soviet Union.
Morse Code -
Information transmit in the form of dot and dash. • UP link frequency -
The uplink frequency is transmitted frequency from
Murray Code -
earth to satellite.
Also called CCITT code No. 2.
CCITT (Consultative Committee for International • Downlink frequency -
Telegraph and Telephone. Downlink frequency is the transmitting frequency
5 Unit code. from satellite to earth.
Electronic Engineering Capsule 75 YCT
 Difference between GEO-Stationary and GEO-
Synchronous satellite
GEO-Stationary GEO-Synchronous
Circular orbit Not circular orbit
In this satellite, the orbit In this satellite the orbit
appears to be stationary appears to oscillirate w.r.t.
w.r.t. earth earth
There is one GEO- There can be many GEO-
Stationary orbit Synchronous orbit
Band Band Downlink Uplink Services Time period=23 hour 56 Time period = 23 hour 56
Name frequency frequency frequency minute 4.1 sec. minute 4.1 sec.
(GHz) (GHz) (GHz) • Based on orbit -
L 1-2 1.5 1.6 Mobile, Audio (i) Equatorial orbit
broadcasting, (ii) Polar orbit
radio (iii) Inclined orbit
localization Polar orbit -
S 2-4 1.9 2.2 Navigation Used for Earth mapping and Earth observation.
C 4-8 4 6 Satellite Passes through north and south pole.
communication Situated on (600-900) km height from the Earth.
X 8-12 Missile Kepler's Laws -
guidance Kepler's first law The law of orbits
ku 12-18 11 14 Satellite Kepler's second law The law of equal area
transponders Kepler's third law The law of periods
k 18-26.5 Detecting T 2 ∝ r3
clouds
ka 26.5-40 20 30 Airport Apogee and Perigee -
surveillance Apogee -
Classification of satellite - Maximum distance between satellite and earth.
Apogee distance = (a + ae).
• Based on principle of operation - Where, e = eccentricity of ellipse
(i) Passive Satellite - Low velocity of satellite on Apogee point.
It has no electronic components.
Perigee -
Work as reflector.
Minimum distance between satellite and earth.
Not amplify the signal.
Perigee distance = (a – ae).
Low communication capability.
High velocity of satellite on perigee point.
(ii) Active Satellite -
It has suitable electronic devices.
Work as amplifier.
High communication capability.
Example - IRS - 1A, IRS - 1B
• Based on altitude -
(i) LEO (Low Earth Orbit) Satellite -
Altitude (150 km to 1000 km)
Velocity = 8 km/sec Escape velocity [Ve] -
Path loss is less.
Propagation delay time is less. Ve = 2gR
Coverage area is less. Where,
(ii) MEO satellite - R = Radius of Earth
Altitude 2000 km to 10000 km. Escape speed on Earth = 11.2 km/s
GPS is generally MEO satellite. Orbital velocity (Vo) -
24 satellite required to cover entire world.
Vo = gR
(iii) GEO satellite -
Situated on 36,000 km. Where,
Time period = 24 hour. R = Radius of Earth
Used 3 satellites to cover global earth. Remember -
Coverage area is more. Escape velocity is greater than 2 time of orbital
Path loss is more. velocity.
Electronic Engineering Capsule 76 YCT
 Multiple Access Techniques -
Allow multiple terminals to share the common
communication medium based on multiplexing.

FDMA - Optical fiber -

FDMA stands for Frequency Division Multiple An optical fiber consists of three basic elements.
Access. (i) Core (ii) Cladding (iii) Outer jacket
Frequency band divided into small frequency Works on the principle of total internal reflection
channels. (T.I.R.).
Different channels are allocated to different users.
Multiple users can transmit at the same time but on
different frequency channels.

Refractive index of core (1.5) is always greater than

refractive index of cladding (1.48).
Transmission rate 25 GHz/sec.
TDMA - Made from glass or silica (SiO2).
TDMA stands for Time Division Multiple Access.
Each user is allowed to transmit only in specified
time-slots. With common frequency bands.
Multiple users can transmit at the same frequency
band at different times.

• Step index fiber -

Refractive index of core is uniform.
Refractive index abruptly changes from core to
cladding.
CDMA -
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access.
User may transmit at the same time using the same
frequency band but using different codes.

(a) Single mode step index -

Center core diameter = 5 µm to 10 µm.
Well defined boundary between core and cladding.
Light propagates in straight line.
Optical fiber communication High accuracy.
(b) Multi mode step index -
Center core diameter = 50 µm.
Well defined boundary between core and cladding.
More than one mode can propagates.
Low cost.
Snell's law - • Graded index fiber -
n1 Sinθi = n2 Sinθr Variable refractive index inside the core.
n1 and n2 is refractive index of the different Refractive index is maximum at center of core and
mediums. decreases as radial distance increases from the core.
Electronic Engineering Capsule 77 YCT
 Attenuation -
P 
Attenuation (In dB) = 10log  i  .
 P0 
Caused by absorption, scattering and bending losses.

Bending losses -
Numerical aperture - Bending losses are two types.
Measure of light collecting ability of fiber. • Macro bending loss -
( n1 ) − ( n 2 )
2 2
N.A. = Due to curvature of the bend is much larger than
fiber diameter.
N.A. = n1 1 − Sin 2 φc • Micro bending loss -
Due to discontinuity of fiber.
Acceptance angle - It increases by external forces.
Maximum value of incident angle to propagate a
light signal into fiber. Linear scattering losses -
θa = Sin–1[NA] It is two type
Meridional ray - • Rayleigh scattering losses -
It passes through core axis. 8π3
γ R = 4 n 8ρ2βC ΚΤF
Essay to track the path of meridional rays. 3λ
It classified in two type. Occurs when the size of the density fluctuation is
(a) Bound ray (b) Unbound ray less than one-tenth of the operating wavelength of
Skew Ray - light.
Not passes through core axis. 1
Rayleigh scattering loss α 4 .
Difficult to track. λ
Follow helical path. • Mie scattering losses -
Remember Point - Occurs when the size of the defect is greater than
Acceptance angle of skew rays is always greater than one-tenth of the wave length of light.
acceptance angle of meridional rays. RADAR
Splices - Radar [Radio Detection and Ranging] -
It is permanent joint. Electro-magnetic device.
Used in optical fiber. Detect the presence and location of any object or
Two type of splices. target.
(i) Mechanical splices (ii) Fusion splices
Connector -
It is temporary joint.
Essay to coupling and decoupling of fiber.
Fiber coupler -
Used to distribute the light from main fiber to branch
fiber.
Isolators -
Unidirectional.
Allow the transmission of light in only one direction. Duplexer -
Used to prevent the back reflection of light in fiber. Switch that alternately connects the transmitter or
Dispersion - receiver to the antenna.
Dispersion ↑↑ pulse broadening ↑↑ B.W. ↓↓ Purpose to protect the receiver from the high power
Information carrying capacity ↓↓ system will be output of the transmitter.
slow. Duplexer permits same antenna to be used for
Multimode step index is most affected by dispersion. transmission and reception.
Duplexer is used to isolate the transmitter and
receiver during transmission and reception.
Power density (PD) -
PT
PD = [If antenna is isotropic]
4πr 2
RIP [Refractive Index Profile] - P .A
It controls the B.W. PD = T 2er [If antenna is directional]
Measured by transferred near field method. 4πr

Electronic Engineering Capsule 78 YCT

 Duty - Cycle - RADAR Beacons -
Duty cycle is the fraction of one period in which a It is used for target identification.
signal or system is active. It is used for Navigation.
TON It is used in aircraft for traffic control.
Duty cycle =
TON + Toff Remember -
IFF - Identification of friend or foe.
Radar resolution (Range resolution)- OME - Distance measuring equipment.
Minimum distance over which radar can detect two VOR - VHF Omni directional Range.
target at a given time.
For higher range resolution pulse width should be Need of Doppler effect in radar
minimum. technology-
1 Speed measuring.
Radar resolution ∝ B.W. ∝
Pulse width Moving target indication.
Maximum range of RADAR - Doppler Frequency -

1/ 4 2v r
 4πA  2 
2
fd =
 Pt σ  2 er  λ  λ
R max =   λ   Where, vr = relative velocity of target with respect to
 ( 4π ) S 
3
radar
 
  c
R max =
Where, Aer = Radar aperture cross sectional area 2f d
S = Received power at radar antenna Where,
c = Velocity of light in free space
Rmax = target of run-ambiguous
Mobile Communication
Radio Pager -
One way mobile communication.
Wireless Tele communication device.
Small personal radio receiver.
Also known as beeper or bleeper.
Hand off -
Received its own echoes. Process of transferring an active call on data from
Primary Radar
Transmits high frequency one cellular network to another cellular network.
Secondary
Radar transmission pulses. It takes approximate 300 m/sec.
Pulse Radar Transmit power pulses GSM -
Pulse RADAR provides range GSM stands for Global System for Mobile
and position of the target. Communication.
It will not provide velocity of It is a digital mobile telephony system.
target, this is the main Its uses TDMA technique.
disadvantage of pulse RADAR. it operates on 900 MHz or 1800 MHz frequency.
Doppler effect can not be used Gaussian minimum shifting keying (GMSK)
for pulse RADAR. modulation used in GSM.
Continuous Transmit high power continuous
Wave Radar signal. GPRS -
CW RADAR provide velocity of GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Services.
target. It is packet based wireless communication.
CW RADAR is not find the range It is communication service based or GSM.
of target. High data rate.
Un-modulated Transmitted signal is of constant GPS -
Wave Radar amplitude and frequency. GPS stands for Global Positioning System.
Modulated Transmitted signal is frequency GPS used in navigation field, automobile guidance,
Wave Radar modulated. hacking and aircraft landing.
Blind Speed - It is space-based satellite navigation system.
λ GPS consist three parts.
Vblind =
2Τ (i) Space segment
Where, (ii) Control segment
T = Pulse repetition time (PRT) (iii) Uses segment
Electronic Engineering Capsule 79 YCT
 Microwave Engineering
The term of microwave is used to describe Supports larger bandwidth (Higher data rates)
electromagnetic waves with frequencies 300MHz to More antenna gain is possible.
300 GHz. The corresponding wavelength Antenna size gets reduced (as higher frequencies)
 c Effect of fading gets reduced (by LOS propagation)
 λ =  range is 1m up to 1mm for 300 MHz to 300 Provides effective reflection area in the radar
 f
systems.
GHz waves.
Satellite and terrestrial communications with high
Microwave frequency range is (109Hz to 1013Hz).
capacities are possible.
Microwave is used for terrestrial range and can’t be Low-cost miniature microwave components can be
used for ground wave communication. developed.
σ Disadvantages of microwave
For microwave frequency << 1 , ground behaves
ω∈ Installation cost is high.
as dielectric so can’t reflect back the EM waves at Occupy more space.
microwaves frequencies. Electromagnetic interference may occur.
Properties of microwaves Inherent in efficiency of electric power.
Radiates electromagnetic energy with shorter Variations in dielectric properties.
wavelength. Applications of microwave
Wireless communication Commercial uses
Not reflected by ionosphere.
Navigation Military and Radar
Travel in a straight line and reflected by the
Research application Radio astronomy
conducting surfaces.
Food industry Industrial uses
Easily attenuate within shorter distance.
Medical application
Microwave currents can flow through a thin layer of
EM wave spectrum
a cable.
Advantages of microwaves
Frequency (f) range Wavelength (λ) EM Spectrum Nomenclature Typical Application
range
30 - 300 Hz 107 – 106 m Extremely low frequency (ELF) Power line communication
6 5
0.3 - 3 kHz 10 – 10 m Voice frequency (VF) Face to face speech,
communication intercom
3 - 30 kHz 105 – 104 m Very low frequency (VLF) Submarine communication
4 3
30 - 300 kHz 10 – 10 m Low frequency (LF) Marine communication
3 2
0.3 - 3 MHz 10 – 10 m Medium frequency (MF) AM broadcasting
2 1
3 - 30 MHz 10 – 10 m High frequency (HF) Landline telephony
30 - 300 MHz 101 – 100 m Very high frequency (VHF) FM broadcasting, TV
0 –1
0.3 - 3 GHz 10 – 10 m Ultra high frequency (UHF) TV, cellular telephony
–1 –2
3 - 30 GHz 10 – 10 m Super high frequency (SHF) Microwave oven, radar
–2 –3
30 - 300 GHz 10 – 10 m Extremely high frequency (EHF) Satellite communication, radar
0.3 - 3 THz 0.1 – 1 mm Experimental For all new explorations
3 - 430 THz 100 – 0.7 µm Infrared LED, Laser, TV remote
430 - 750 THz 0.7 – 0.4 µm Visible light Optical communication
750 - 3000 THz 0.4 – 0.1 µm Ultraviolet Medical application
> 3000 THz < 0.1 µm X-rays, gamma rays, cosmic rays Medical application

Electronic Engineering Capsule 80 YCT

 IEEE bands for Microwave- • Helmholtz equation - The electric and magnetic
Designation Frequency range wave equations in frequency domain.-
L 1-2 GHz ∇2 E = γ 2 E
S 2-4 GHz ∇2 E = γ 2 H
C 4-8 GHz
X 8-12 GHz Where
Ku 12-18 GHz γ = propagation constant of EM wave
E, H= Electric and Magnetic field.
K 18-27 GHz
• Boundary condition- If the cross section of the wave
Ka 27-40 GHz
guide is the rectangle, the boundary condition are
• Comparison between waveguide and Transmission such that the tangential electric field is zero on all the
line
E tang = 0
Waveguide Transmission line PEC walls.
Metal waveguides are Two or more conductors H Norm = 0
typically one separated by some Etang- Tangential component of electric field at
conductor filled with insulating medium (Two conductor surface.
an insulating medium wire, micro strip, coaxial etc
Hnorm - Normal component of magnetic field at
(Rectangular, circular, )
cylindrical) conductor surface.
Lower signal Significant signal attenuation • Propagation constant:
attenuation at high at high frequencies due to 2 2
 mπ   nπ 
frequencies than conductor and dielectric γ=     − ω µ0 ε0
+ 2

transmission line. losses.  a   b 

Large cross section Large cross section Where,
(low frequency) transmission line (like power
γ = Propagation constant along z-axis
waveguides are transmission lines) can
2
impractical due to transmit high power level.  mπ 
large size and high   = Propagation constant along x-axis
cost.  a 
2
Maxwell’s equation predicts that electromagnetic  nπ 
waves can also be guided through metallic tubes. Two   = Propagation constant along y-axis
 b 
common metallic waveguides, rectangular and
circular cross section. m, n is integer value.
If γ is real quantity, then wave will not propagate
through waveguide rather it attenuates.
If γ is imaginary quantity, then wave will propagate
through waveguide.
• Cut-off frequency (fc) :
Waveguide : A waveguide is a structure that guides
2 2
wave, such as electromagnetic wave or sound, with c  mπ   nπ 
minimum loss of energy by restricting the fc =   + 
2π  a   b 
transmission of energy to one direction without the
physical constraint of waveguide. Hz → For free space.
Waveguide, like transmitter are used to guide a, b → waveguide dimensions
electromagnetic wave from one point (Source) to
m, n → number of half cycle completed by the wave
another (load).
between the guide walls or number of maxima
A waveguide section in a microwave circuit acts as a
high pass filter. between guide wall or number of P-phase
completions.
Rectangular waveguide-
Cut-off frequency for waveguide where medium is
perfect dielectric-
2 2
c  mπ   nπ 
fc =   + 
2π µ r ∈r  a   b 
If frequency for a particular mode is greater than cut
off frequency then wave will travel through
waveguide.
Electronic Engineering Capsule 81 YCT