EVOLUTION

6.1 The Universe and Earth’s Formation

• The universe is about 20 billion years old.
• The Big Bang Theory explains its origin via a massive explosion.
• Galaxies formed from hydrogen and helium under gravitational forces.
• Earth was formed 4.5 billion years ago from the solar system of the Milky Way
galaxy.
• Initially, there was no atmosphere on Earth.
• The early atmosphere consisted of water vapor, methane (CH₄), carbon
dioxide (CO₂), and ammonia (NH₃).
• UV rays broke water into hydrogen and oxygen, leading to the formation of
oceans and the ozone layer.
• Life appeared 500 million years after Earth’s formation (~4 billion years ago).
• Did Life Come from Outer Space?
• The Panspermia Theory suggests that life came from space via spores.
• Early Greeks and some astronomers supported this idea.
• Spontaneous Generation vs. Biogenesis
• The Spontaneous Generation Theory stated that life arose from decaying
matter (straw, mud, etc.).
• Louis Pasteur (1861) disproved this by showing that pre-sterilized flasks did not
develop life, whereas open flasks did.
• Chemical Evolution of Life
• Oparin and Haldane (1920s) suggested that life arose from non-living organic
molecules through chemical evolution.
• The early Earth had high temperatures, volcanic storms, and a reducing
atmosphere (containing CH₄, NH₃, etc.).
• Miller-Urey Experiment (1953):
o S.L. Miller simulated early Earth conditions in a lab: electric discharge
in a flask with CH₄, H₂, NH₃, and water vapor at 800°C.
o Result: Formation of amino acids (building blocks of life).
o Further experiments showed the formation of sugars, nitrogen bases,
pigments, and fats.
o Meteorite analysis revealed similar compounds, suggesting that life’s
building blocks might exist in space.
• First Life Forms
 • The first non-cellular forms of life (RNA, proteins, polysaccharides) arose ~3
billion years ago.
• The first cellular life evolved ~2 billion years ago, likely in water environments.
• This theory of abiogenesis (life evolving from non-living molecules) is widely
accepted.
6.2 Theory of Special Creation (Religious Perspective)
• States that all living organisms were created as they are.
• Claims that species diversity has remained constant since creation.
• Suggests Earth is only ~4000 years old.
• This theory was challenged in the 19th century.
• Charles Darwin’s Observations
• Voyage on HMS Beagle helped Darwin observe similarities between living
organisms and extinct species.
• Evolution is gradual:
o Some species have gone extinct over time.
o New species have evolved at different historical periods.
• Variations exist within populations.
• Natural Selection (Darwin’s Theory)
• Individuals with traits that help them survive (e.g., better adaptation to
climate, food, predators) outbreed others.
• "Survival of the fittest": The fittest individuals produce more offspring and
pass on beneficial traits.
• Over generations, these traits become more common, leading to evolution of
new species.
• Alfred Wallace’s Contribution
• Wallace, a naturalist in Malay Archipelago, arrived at similar conclusions
around the same time as Darwin.
• He also supported the idea of natural selection as the driving force of
evolution.
• Earth’s Age and Geological Correlation
• All living forms share common ancestors, but from different time periods.
• The geological history (epochs, periods, eras) aligns with the biological history
of evolution.
6.3 Fossil Evidence (Paleontology)
• Fossils are remains of organisms found in different sedimentary rock layers,
indicating the existence of various life forms in different geological time periods.
• Some fossils resemble modern organisms, while others represent extinct
species like dinosaurs.
• Fossils provide insights into evolutionary changes over time, proving that life
forms have evolved.
• Embryological Evidence
• Ernst Haeckel proposed that embryonic similarities among vertebrates suggest
common ancestry.
• Example: Human embryos and all vertebrate embryos develop vestigial gill
slits behind the head, but they function only in fish.
• However, Karl Ernst von Baer disproved this by showing that embryos do not
pass through adult stages of other animals.
• Comparative Anatomy and Morphology
• Homologous Structures (Divergent Evolution):
o Similar anatomical structures performing different functions in different
organisms suggest common ancestry.
o Examples:
▪ Forelimbs of whales, bats, cheetahs, and humans all have the
same bone structure (humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
metacarpals, phalanges) but serve different functions.
▪ Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita are
homologous structures in plants.
• Analogous Structures (Convergent Evolution):
o Different anatomical structures that perform similar functions, evolved
due to similar environmental pressures.
o Examples:
▪ Wings of butterflies and birds—functionally similar but
structurally different.
▪ Eye of an octopus and eye of mammals—structurally different
but perform the same function.
▪ Flippers of penguins and dolphins—different origins but adapted
for swimming.
▪ Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem
modification)—perform similar storage functions but evolved
differently.
• Biochemical Evidence
• Similar proteins and genes performing the same functions in diverse organisms
indicate a common evolutionary origin.
• Artificial Selection (Selective Breeding by Humans)
• Humans have selectively bred plants and animals for specific traits in
agriculture, horticulture, and domestication.
• Example: Different breeds of dogs have been created through selective
breeding, yet they all belong to the same species.
 • If humans can bring changes within a few hundred years, nature could achieve
similar results over millions of years.
• Industrial Melanism (Natural Selection in Action)
• Observed in peppered moths (Biston betularia) in England before and after
industrialization.
• Before industrialization (1850s): More white-winged moths survived because
they camouflaged against lichen-covered trees, while dark-winged moths were
easily spotted by predators.
• After industrialization (1920s): Soot and pollution darkened tree trunks,
favoring the survival of dark-winged moths as they were better camouflaged,
while white-winged moths were easily preyed upon.
• This demonstrated natural selection, where organisms with advantageous
traits survive better.
• Resistance to Drugs, Pesticides, and Herbicides
• Excessive use of herbicides, pesticides, and antibiotics has led to the
emergence of resistant varieties in shorter time spans.
• Example:
o Microbes developing resistance to antibiotics.
o Pests evolving resistance to pesticides.
Adaptive Radiation
Adaptive radiation is the process of evolution in which different species evolve from a
common ancestor to adapt to various ecological niches in a geographical area. This
leads to the formation of multiple species with different adaptations from a single
ancestral species.

Examples of Adaptive Radiation:

1. Darwin’s Finches (Galapagos Islands)

a. Charles Darwin observed a variety of finches on the Galapagos Islands,
each having different beak structures adapted to different food sources.
b. These finches evolved from a common ancestral seed-eating species but
later adapted to insectivorous and vegetarian diets, leading to the
evolution of multiple species with specialized beaks.
c. This is one of the most famous examples of adaptive radiation.
2. Australian Marsupials
a. A diverse range of marsupials evolved from a common ancestor in
Australia.
b. Despite their differences, all evolved within the Australian continent,
adapting to different habitats and ecological roles.
 c. Examples include marsupial moles, marsupial anteaters, marsupial
wolves, and kangaroos.
3. Convergent Evolution in Australian Placental Mammals
a. In Australia, placental mammals evolved into forms that resemble
marsupial species due to similar environmental pressures.
b. Example: Placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf (marsupial) look similar
but evolved independently through adaptive radiation in their respective
groups.

Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

1. Natural Selection and Fitness

a. Evolution occurs due to natural selection, where nature selects
individuals with traits best suited to their environment.
b. Organisms with beneficial traits survive and reproduce, passing these
traits to the next generation.
c. Example: Bacteria with resistance to a certain antibiotic survive,
multiply, and appear as a new species within days, whereas in larger
animals like fish or birds, evolution takes millions of years due to their
longer life spans.
d. Fitness is the result of an organism’s ability to adapt and survive under
specific environmental conditions.
2. Branching Descent
a. Over generations, variations accumulate, leading to the formation of new
species from a common ancestor.

Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution (Now Disproven)

Before Darwin, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed that evolution was driven by the use
and disuse of organs.

• Example: He believed giraffes developed long necks because they stretched

their necks to reach leaves on tall trees, and this acquired trait was passed to
their offspring.
• This idea has been disproven, as acquired traits (like muscle growth from
exercise) are not inherited.
Influence of Thomas Malthus

• Darwin was influenced by Thomas Malthus’ work on populations, which

highlighted that natural resources are limited and that not all individuals
survive due to competition.
• Observations supporting Natural Selection:
o Natural resources are limited.
o Populations remain stable except for seasonal fluctuations.
o Individuals within a population show heritable variations.
o If every organism reproduced maximally, populations would grow
exponentially (as seen in bacteria).

Mechanism of Evolution

Evolution occurs due to the gradual accumulation of genetic variations in a population

over generations. But how do these variations arise, and how does speciation occur?

Darwin vs. Hugo de Vries: Theories of Variation

1. Darwin’s View (Gradualism)

a. Darwin proposed that small, heritable variations accumulate gradually
over generations through natural selection, leading to evolution.
b. These variations are directional, meaning they help organisms adapt to
their environment over time.
2. Hugo de Vries’ View (Mutation Theory & Saltation)
a. In the early 20th century, Hugo de Vries studied evening primrose and
observed sudden large changes (mutations) in traits.
b. He proposed that mutations, rather than small variations, are the main
cause of evolution.
c. Unlike Darwinian variations, mutations are random and directionless.
d. He introduced the concept of saltation, meaning evolution can happen in
sudden jumps due to large mutations rather than gradually.

Modern Understanding: Population Genetics

• Later studies in population genetics helped clarify that both small variations
(Darwinian evolution) and mutations (de Vries' theory) contribute to evolution.
 • Evolution is now understood as a combination of natural selection, genetic
mutations, and genetic drift, leading to speciation (formation of new species).

Hardy-Weinberg Principle:

The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele frequencies in a population remain

constant across generations, maintaining genetic equilibrium, unless disturbed by
evolutionary forces. The total sum of allelic frequencies is 1, represented by the
equation p² + 2pq + q² = 1, where p and q are the frequencies of two alleles in a diploid
organism. Any deviation from expected values indicates evolutionary change.

Factors Affecting Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:

1. Gene Migration (Gene Flow): Movement of a population segment to a new

location alters allele frequencies in both the original and new populations.
Repeated migration leads to gene flow.
2. Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequency, which can lead to
speciation. If a new population arises from a small isolated group, the Founder
Effect occurs, where the genetic composition of the new group differs
significantly from the original.
3. Mutation: Sudden genetic changes introduce new alleles, potentially affecting
evolutionary trends.
4. Genetic Recombination: Occurs during gametogenesis, leading to genetic
variation in offspring.
5. Natural Selection: Heritable traits that enhance survival and reproduction
increase in frequency over generations.

Types of Natural Selection:

• Stabilizing Selection: Favors the average trait, reducing extremes.

• Directional Selection: Favors an extreme trait, shifting population
characteristics.
• Disruptive Selection: Favors both extreme traits, reducing intermediate forms.

Evolutionary Timeline

• 2000 mya: First cellular life appeared, possibly evolving from non-cellular
macromolecular aggregates. Some early cells developed the ability to release
oxygen, likely through a process similar to photosynthesis.
• 500 mya: Evolution of multicellular organisms, followed by invertebrates.
 • 350 mya: Jawless fish appeared; some fish developed stout fins that allowed
movement on land, leading to the evolution of amphibians (e.g., ancestors of
frogs and salamanders).
• Reptiles evolved from amphibians, laying thick-shelled eggs to prevent
drying.
• 200 mya: Reptiles diversified into dinosaurs and marine reptiles
(Ichthyosaurs).
• 65 mya: Dinosaurs became extinct, possibly due to climate change. Some may
have evolved into birds.
• Mammals evolved from reptilian ancestors, starting with small shrew-like
creatures that were viviparous (giving birth to live young).
• Continental drift influenced species distribution. Pouched mammals thrived in
Australia due to lack of competition.
• Aquatic mammals (e.g., whales, dolphins, seals) evolved.

Origin and Evolution of Man

• 15 million years ago (mya): Dryopithecus (ape-like) and Ramapithecus (more
man-like) existed.
• 3-4 mya: Hominid fossils from Ethiopia and Tanzania suggest early man-like
primates walked upright (~4 feet tall).
• 2 mya: Australopithecines lived in East African grasslands, used stone weapons
but mostly ate fruits.
• Homo habilis: First human-like hominid (650-800 cc brain), likely did not eat
meat.
• 1.5 mya: Homo erectus (900 cc brain), discovered in Java, probably ate meat.
• 100,000-40,000 years ago: Neanderthal man (1400 cc brain), lived in Central
Asia, used hides for protection, buried their dead.
• Modern Homo sapiens: Arose in Africa, spread across continents, and evolved
into races during the Ice Age (75,000-10,000 years ago).
• 18,000 years ago: Cave art appeared (e.g., Bhimbetka rock shelters, India).
• 10,000 years ago: Agriculture began, leading to human settlements and
civilizations.