Al-Adab Journal –Vol.

(145) (June) 2023 / 1444

Posttraumatic Memories and Feelings of Guilt in Tim O'Brien's
The Things They Carried

Ruwaida Saad Safok Al-Masoudi

Master's degree in English Language and Literature -
Specialization: Literature
Work place: Department of English - College of Arts -
Ahl al-Bayt University
Email: [email protected]

DOI: https://doi.org/10.31973/aj.v1i145.3921

ABSTRACT:
Writing has long been related to communicating emotional
experiences. One of these experiences is war, and the Vietnam War
was a long brutal struggle divided into two periods. The first is called
the good Vietnam War, covering the years from 1964 to 1968. The
second spanned from 1968 to 1972, known as the bad Vietnam War,
through which fighting turned into guerilla war. Battles of the second
phase were characterized by savage killings of soldiers and mass
murder of unarmed civilian Vietnamese. This bad war inspired many
literary narratives in drama, fiction, and poetry. Tim O‘Brien‘s The
Things They Carried is considered one of the most read and vivid
works about this struggle. The text reflects combatants‘ engagements
in foreign lands and their inability to adjust to the trauma after the war
is over. This paper investigates the situations of various characters in
the novel and how their experiences were influential in preventing
them from normally continuing with their lives. Post-traumatic
memories and permanent feelings of guilt and confusion are the main
obstacles veterans face preempting them from indulging once again in
society.
Keywords: guilt, trauma, Tim O‘Brien, veteran, Vietnam.

1. Introduction

Literature of the Vietnam War is known for its sharpness and

recognition of the days of war because most of those who wrote about
it were writing of real experiences. It is famous for its visual portrayal
of the bloody accidents, attacks, and battles that result in huge loss of
causalities. What makes Vietnam War literature infamous is that the
war was illegal, it was based on forged evidence, and it faced severe

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public rejection. The war did not present the Americans as idealistic or
honorable, for there were many violations of the US military Law of
War and the Geneva Conventions. Many of the participants in this war
feel guilty until this day, and those who want to feel fine about it are
convincing themselves that they were trying to prevent a communist
or totalitarian regime from coming into being (Vigil 1999: 306).

Vietnam literature is usually disturbing. It represents access to

experiencing the horrible slaughter and acts as a panorama of the days
of the war. It stresses physical description and details of the inhumane
mass killings of civilians, villagers, innocent people, and even
children and newborns, sometimes as an act of avenging dead soldiers.
Unlike writers of the other wars who relieve the reader from the heavy
representation of killing by insinuating the attention to a love story,
family, or victory, writers of the Vietnam War are insistent on
grabbing the readers into Vietnam's jungles, putting the painful reality
in their faces. Any other subject does not balance the horrors of the
war; burlesque interludes are absurd here (Anisfield 1987: 5). Not
because of humane numbness, or immorality, writers write this way to
thrust the reader into the awful experience of war to formulate a
critical review, to understand what happened for all of this, was it
worthy of what soldiers endured and died for?

Writing became the psychological outlet for the veteran authors

to tranquil the raging furnace of war memories. They write authentic
accounts of their days in the strange lands. Their works have no
catharsis; the whole narrative is a series of episodes depicting the
terrors and pathos of friends' murder until the final parts. Soldiers are
suspended in no-man's-land in a hopeless situation that foreshadows
no salvation.

2. “Good” and “Bad” Vietnam War

The Vietnam War was a defining event of its generation, a fight

that lasted almost twenty years. It greatly influenced United States‘
politics, soldiers, citizens and society in general (Stafford 2002: 16).
According to psychologists, the Vietnam War could be divided into
two types. The first was the so-called "good" war, which lasted from
1964 to 1968. The second was the ―bad‖ war which took place from
1968-1972. According to Hochgesang, Lawyer, and Stevenson, the
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Al-Adab Journal –Vol. (145) (June) 2023 / 1444
"bad war" period was when the Vietnam War turned into a guerrilla
war, and booby traps and mines heavily injured American troops. As a
result, the distinction between enemy soldiers and civilian non-
combatants became muddled (1999: 67).

The idea of ―good war‖ refers to battles free from immorality,

mass killing and destruction. In an ideal situation, soldiers return
home happy and well-adjusted, eager to resume their lives (Mahini
2018: 4). On the contrary, the bad war has no moral causes and is
accompanied by vast unnecessary destructions for the associations of
the enemy, thus ―veterans of the stigmatized ‗bad‘ war become ‗bad‘
veterans, ‗bad‘ citizens, and ‗bad‘ humans‖ (Stafford 2002: 4).

The distinction between "good" and "bad" Vietnam War phases

is helpful in describing the dramatic changes in American troops'
morale and behavior over time. Soldiers comprehended that the basis
behind the war was flawed and wrong. This second phase of the
Vietnam War has been rich material for accounts, biographies and
literary writings, especially poetry and novels. What is common about
these writings is the negative attitude people had about veterans of this
war (Stafford 2002: 1-2).

3. American veterans of the Vietnam War

The fact that Vietnam War turned out to be a humiliating military

defeat shocked the whole United States. Vietnam Veterans—living
symbols of the trauma—were frequently ignored or treated with
hatred and rejection ―The Vietnam War did not end the day America
began withdrawing from Vietnam. The violence persisted on the home
front as veterans were either demonized or simply rendered invisible‖
(qt in Schmeidl 2011: 7).

Soldiers were mainly left alone with their traumas and were
considered social outcasts, making it difficult for them to reintegrate
into American society. In his ―The Reception Home,‖ Michael
Traynor frankly states how Vietnam War veterans were paid no
courtesy or respect back home:
The protesters, or the people would spit on us. The people that
said whatever we got over there, we deserved it, for being over there.
It was just total lack of respect. When I got home, my wife (now ex)
told me that she didn‘t want to hear anything about it. And I was
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Al-Adab Journal –Vol. (145) (June) 2023 / 1444
literally choking trying to talk to somebody but nobody wanted to hear
it… (Traynor 1968).
Veterans have had enough in battle. Post-traumatic memories are
stored in their minds for years after the war was ended, for the
accidents they witnessed are influential to the extent of making
different persons of them. In his memoir Thomas H. Hodge says:
you have to go into a cold mind. You know, when I say that, you
know, if a buddy of yours gets shot and killed…. and once you see
this happen day in, day out - the enemy getting killed, you got bodies
lying here and there. Your mind starts to get cold (Hodge 2002).
Following a catastrophic experience, post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) is defined as flashbacks, distressing memories, and
anxiety. Only five years after the Vietnam War ended, post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) was formally recognized as a mental health
problem. These symptoms have been described in soldiers from many
wars for hundreds of years under various titles. Vietnam Veterans, on
the other hand, were the first to be labeled with the name "post-
traumatic stress disorder." (Gustafsson 2009: 129).
For most veterans, memories make burdens, weights they cannot
accept as part of themselves. John Carry, the retired lieutenant, states:
―we wish that a merciful God wipe away our memories of that service
as easily as this administration has wiped away their memory of us‖
(Kerry 1971). Soldiers could not assimilate into the same society they
left for Vietnam; people viewed them as criminals instead of victims,
not war heroes. Because of what they have faced of ill-treatment, most
of them felt that home is no more a place to feel secure, a place that is
strange to them, a place where people they had known put it in their
face that they should feel guilty for participating in an unjust war. In
his Passing Time: Memoir of a Vietnam Veteran Against the War,
published almost a decade after the Vietnam experience was finished,
W.D. Ehrhart (1995: 55) explains his going home after finishing a full
tour i.e., more than one year abroad in battle:
when I'd gotten back to the States, I discovered that in my
absence America had become an alien place in which and to which I
no longer seemed to belong... I was depressed and unhappy, drinking
heavily and thinking suicidally when I was sober enough to think at
all. Somewhere in the dim fog, I knew I had to get out of there … And
so within a few months of returning stateside I had requested orders
back to Vietnam where at least it made sense to be lonely.

24
Al-Adab Journal –Vol. (145) (June) 2023 / 1444
Exposing his frustration and anger, W.D. Ehrhart expresses his
personal and political awakening as a Vietnam veteran in the states.
His doubts about this tragic conflict were shortly affirmed after his
rebirth as an aware American and finally feeling strong enough to
announce his perspectives about the government, the country, and
himself. He felt estranged and pained trying to communicate with
others. Still, the barrier was hard to bridge between him and his
friends because of being unable to trust him, in addition to the
psychological crisis he felt in himself: ―…feeling guilty and disgusted
with myself. It was a constant battle between my near - obsessive fear
of sleeping alone and my battered sense of self-respect‖ (1995: 129).
4. Memories in The Things They Carried by Tim O’Brien

In The Things They Carried, O‘Brien tells the accounts of

combatants who served in the Vietnam War and were traumatized and
guilt-ridden due to their experiences. The author employs images to
assist the readers in seeing themselves in the troops' shoes by
explaining how the deaths of so many people have a profound impact
on those impacted, leading to the men losing their sense of humanity
(Hassebrock 2009: 2-3).

The book comprises 22 short stories meant as chapters linked

together, with some characters appearing in several chapters.
Individual chapters can stand alone, but the collection is intended to
be read as a whole. In this autobiographical account of O'Brien's
participation in the Vietnam War, he speaks about the effectiveness of
stories in making memories present. The novel echoes memories that
make both burdens and blessings. Questions stuck in the minds of the
veterans during and after the war expressing feelings of frustration and
wonder ―Why have we became refugee? To think? To make believe?
To play games, chasing poor Cacciato? Is that why? Or did we come
for better reasons? To be happy? To find peace and live good lives?‖
(O‘Brien 1991: 27).

O'Brien uses the chapter ―Spin‖ to convey what appears to be an

endless series of tragic incidents and the emotional toll they take on
the soldiers. "The horrible stuff never stops, it lives in its own
dimension, recreating itself again and over," (1991: 32) he explains.
The story puts the emotional implications of being part of the conflict
into perspective. For O'Brien, the memories of the battle cannot cease

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Al-Adab Journal –Vol. (145) (June) 2023 / 1444
"replaying," as he feels imprisoned in a cycle that constantly forces
him to think about death and loss. This makes it practically hard for
him to achieve mental tranquility free of the traumas of war (Marini,
Katherine L Fiori and Janet M Wilmoth and Anica Pless Kaiser and
Lynn M Martire 2019: 36).

To O‘Brien, the atrocities of war "live" in their own "dimension,"

in the minds of soldiers. He personifies the soldiers' memories and
gives them a life of their own, demonstrating their true power. Their
existence in another dimension communicates that they are beyond the
soldiers‘ control and hence cannot be eliminated or forgotten; they
overpower and overwhelm their brains with negativity as they loop in
their minds over and over (Matthew 1994: 12).

By employing vivid imagery, the author shows how the dread of

war overpowers war participants and hinders them from feeling
normal as humans. O'Brien continues to use imagery to demonstrate
how emotions and feelings are never lost. In the chapter ―Night Life,‖
the character Rat Kiley faces an emotional fit when he sees a
mutilated body, he explains ―These pictures in my head they won‘t
quit. I‘ll see a guy‘s liver. The actual liver‖ (1991: 211). In showing
how this mental image ―won‘t quit,‖ the author is trying to tell the
reader that such a harrowing experience of seeing a liver of a person
who once was a friend is hard to remove from the mind. The
character‘s frequent mentioning of the image confirms that it is
grained in his brain. The text expresses that emotions and memories
that follow are much more potent than the physical experience itself.

The physical things that each man carries during war accompany
the emotional toll that he bears. Soldiers' emotional loads during and
after the war are grief, dread, love, and longing. Henry Dobbins, for
example, from the chapter ―Stocking,‖ carries his girlfriend‘s stocking
around his neck as a reminder of a world safe and comforting away
from war. Reinforcing the idea that femininity serves as a soothing
reminder of home, Henry Dobbins keeps it as a talisman and a good-
luck bringer (Herzog 2018: 5).

In chapter 16, entitled ―Notes‖, Norman Bowker discusses his

emotional breakdown years after the war and how he continued to lose
his identity. "there's no place to go. Not just in this lousy little town. In
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general. My life, I mean. It's almost like I got killed over in Nam . . .
Hard to describe. That night when Kiowa got wasted, I sort of sank
down into the sewage with him .. Feels like I‘m still in deep shit‖
(1991: 150). His description of how he almost died despite being
physically alive demonstrates how his sense of being a functioning
human has been gone as a result of his trauma and loss. He can no
longer cope with his life or get engaged in society in a way that allows
him to feel peace of mind and a sense of humanity. Individuals whose
minds have been torn apart by war cannot simply forget the horrible
experiences they have been forced to suffer. These experiences create
eternal feelings that often influence them negatively.

The author's several imageries in the novel emphasize how war

not only robs people of serenity and normalcy but that the emotions
evoked by catastrophic physical experiences are more substantial and
permanent. The author is speaking for the many soldiers who have
been affected and are experiencing emotional anguish due to their
participation in combat on the front lines of war.

Reflections of soldiers' memories are used in the novel to reveal

cowardly self-image and fear over not being good enough or heroic in
critical situations. When they replay a regretful recollection in their
minds, they strive to make it appear as if it was impossible to achieve.
Consequently, it would not look shameful in memory, and they won‘t
feel guilty (Tran 2010: 123).

For example, in the episode ―Speaking of Courage,‖ Norman

Bowker is a character who is unable to move on a memory for which
he considers himself responsible. Although he achieved seven medals,
he cannot wipe away the memory of losing his friend Kiowa.
―Norman Bowker remembers how he had taken hold of Kiowa's boot
and pulled hard, but how the smell was too much, and how he'd
backed off and lost the Silver Star that way. He wished he could've
explained some of this‖ (O‘Brien 1991: 143). He cannot escape the
idea that people are frowning with disappointment and judging him as
a coward.

Usually, people seek praise and admiration to maintain their

reputation. When they can't forgive themselves for not being brave
enough in a crisis, their memories undergo frequent reconsideration to
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justify why they weren't capable of stepping up. Replaying guilt in
one's mind can lead to disappointment and a lack of confidence in
one's abilities (Marini et al. 2019: 54). What consumes veterans is
their overthinking about traumatic experiences, which controls their
minds to the point of preventing them from forgiving themselves for
being unable to do something easy to accomplish:

By telling stories, you objectify your own experience. You

separate it from yourself. You pin down certain truths. You make up
others. You start sometimes with an incident that truly happened, like
the night in the shit field, and you carry it forward by inventing
incidents that did not in fact occur but that nonetheless help to clarify
and explain (O‘Brien 1991: 152).

Some of Tim O'Brien's experiences continue to haunt him. One

of the instances was when he assassinated a man who was very similar
to himself, following the orders of the authorities without justification.
He was filled with shame and guilt as he stared at the man. He even
imagined how the guy‘s life would be if he didn‘t kill him ―His life
was a constellation of possibilities… He devoted his life to studies…
He spent his nights alone, wrote romantic poems in his journal..he fell
in love with a classmate, a girl of seventeen‖ (O‘Brien 1991: 122).

The psychological weights men bear during the conflict continue

to characterize them after the war. Many of the stories in the novel are
about these participants' attempts to come to terms with their
experiences. Participants who survive carry guilt, confusion, and
bloody experiences of the combat. The grief-stricken Norman Bowker
from ―Speaking of Courage‖ drives without apparent reason around
his hometown, having no outlet for his sorrow. He writes a long letter
explaining how he never felt right after participating in the war and
finally hangs himself.

In The Things They Carried, shame and guilt are recurring and
often inextricable themes. Soldiers felt compelled to fight because
fleeing would shame them, their families, and their communities. In
addition to the embarrassment, there‘s the shame of not being
"masculine" enough—not being bold, heroic, or patriotic enough to
save the situation. They feel responsible for the deaths of troops in

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Al-Adab Journal –Vol. (145) (June) 2023 / 1444
their platoons, the deaths of Vietnamese soldiers, and for being
inadequate (Hassebrock 2009: 37).

When they look for someone to blame, they look for it on a large
scale blaming the war, American voters, and the Viet Cong. On a
personal scale, they blame a physician who mistreats O'Brien's wound
or when they blame a soldier for his inadequacy to choose a proper
spot to set up camp for the night. For example, in the story ―In the
Field,‖ soldiers blame Lieutenant Jimmy Cross for placing them in a
precarious place (Tran 2010: 122).

O'Brien detailed what his fellow soldiers in Vietnam took into

battle, both literally and metaphorically ―They shared the weight of
memory. They took up what others could no longer bear. Often, they
carried each other, the wounded or the weak. They carried infection
….They carried the sky‖ (O‘Brien, 1991 14). However, after the
experience is over, veterans share heavier burdens. What is mutual
among Vietnam Veterans is withdrawal from family and friends and
avoiding objects, locations, thoughts, and events they may connect
with the traumatic memories. They kept showing exaggerated
negative attitudes towards the entire world and facing trouble in
experiencing happy emotions. They became emotionally sensitive and
irritable on the slightest occasion.

Megan Gerber (2020: 1) describes her meeting a Vietnam veteran

at Veterans Affairs (VA) medical center. After knowing that he was a
patient of COVID-19, she asked how is he doing and was startled by
his answer, ―I feel like I‘m in Vietnam.‖ Feeling strange intimacy,
Garber dared to add, ―How is this like Vietnam for you?‖ he replied,
―indecisive leadership, the constant invisible threat and feeling on
edge.‖ Memories of the Vietnam experience lasted for more than fifty
years in the mind of this veteran and are awakened by the least
incidents.

5. Conclusion

Books about the Vietnam War abound with stories of painful

wounds that plague the bodies and souls of individuals who lived
through the violent and lengthy conflict long after it ended. Veterans
are troubled with memories of images of killing, blood, and blowing

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of villages. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a consequence of
this bloody war; it is the outcome earned particularly by the United
States.

The clearest message that O‘Brien‘s The Things They Carried

communicates is that; there are no winners in war. The novel captures
the life of soldiers in Vietnam and comments on war as more about
boredom and loss than heroism and patriotism. In an interview,
decades after the war, the author declares that he still carries the war
inside him, remembering the people, fellow soldiers, and places there
in Vietnam, and adds responsibility and a sense of abiding guilt.
O‘Brien admits that memories of Vietnam and the experiences of
being near death stay the strongest and most vivid memories he and
other veterans have.

O‘Brien ends his novel with a chapter entitled ―The Lives of the
Dead.‖ In this final chapter, he states that he writes about dead fellows
to make them alive again. In an attempt to relieve himself from the
pathos of his memory, he imagines them smiling, sitting up, and
returning to the world. To him, this is not only saving the lives of
those characters by writing their stories; writing also saves his life.

He concludes that man‘s sense of responsibility towards his

family, friends, and country significantly influenced him more than
his politics. Affirming his statement in the chapter How to Tell a True
War Story, he says that a real war story isn‘t about war; it is about
love and memory, about sisters and brothers who never wrote back to
each other.

References
Anisfield, Nancy. (1987). Vietnam Anthology: American War Literature.
Madison: Wisconsin University of Wisconsin Press.
Ehrhart, W.D. (1995) Passing Time: Memoir of a Vietnam Veteran Against the
War. Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press.
Gerber, Megan R. (2020). The Things They Carry: Veterans and the COVID-19
Pandemic. Article in Journal of General Internal
Medici.Gerber2020_Article_TheThingsTheyCarryVeteransAndT.pdf (Retrieved
on 14 March, 2020).
Gustafsson, Mai Lan. (2009). War and Shadows: The Haunting of Vietnam.
London: Cornell University Press.

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Hassebrock, Frank. (2009). Memory and Narrative: Reading 'The Things They
Carried' for Psyche and Persona. Ohio: Denison University, Granville.
Herzog, Tobey. (2018) Tim O'Brien: The Things He Carries and the Stories He
Tells. New York: Routledge.
Hochgesang, J., Lawyer, T. and Stevenson. (1999). The Psychological Effects
of the Vietnam War. Web.stanford.edu.
<https://web.stanford.edu/class/e297c/war_peace/media/hpsych.html> (Retrieved
on 14 April, 2020)
Hodge, Thomas H. (20 November 2002). Personal communication [Personal
interview].
Kerry, John. (23 April 1971). Vietnam Veterans Against the War Statement to
the Senate Committee of Foreign Relations. [Personal interview].
Mahini, Noor. (2018). Tim O’Brien’s “Bad” Vietnam War: The Things They
Carried & Its Historical Perspective. Berkeley: University of California.

Marini, Christina M. and Katherine L Fiori and Janet M Wilmoth and Anica
Pless Kaiser and Lynn M Martire. (2019). Psychological Adjustment of Aging
Vietnam Veterans: The Role of Social Network Ties in Reengaging with Wartime
Memories, 66(2): 138–148,
Matthew J. Friedman and Paula P. Schnurr and Annmarie McDonagh-
Coyle. (1994). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Military Veterans. Hanover,
New Hampshire: Departments of Psychiatry and Pharmacology.
O’Brien, Tim. (1991). The Things They Carried. New York: New York:
Harpercollins Pub Ltd; New Ed edition.
Olson, James S., and Randy Roberts. (1991). Where the Domino Fell: America
and Vietnam, 1945–1990. New York: St. Martin‘s Press.
Schmeidl, Eva. (2011). The Vietnam Veterans Memorial And Its Impact On US
Memorial Culture. Germany, Munich: University of Munich.
Stafford, Shelley R. (2002). The Good War v The Bad War: An Analysis of
Combat Veterans' Experience in World War II and Vietnam by Removing Social
Stigma. Knoxville: University of Tennessee.
Tran, Jonathan. (2010). The Vietnam War and Theologies of Memory: Time and
Eternity in the Far Country. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Traynor, Michael. (1968). 1968 Reflections, The Reception Home. Library of
Congress.
Vigil, Ernesto B. (1999). The Crusade for Justice: Chicano Militancy and the
Government's War on Dissent. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

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‫)‪Al-Adab Journal –Vol. (145) (June‬‬ ‫‪2023 / 1444‬‬

‫ذكريات ما بعد الصدمة ومشاعر الذنب في رواية تيم أوبراين "األشياء التي حملهها"‬

‫م‪.‬م‪ .‬رويذة سعذ صفىك الوسعىدي‬

‫هاجستير في اللغت االنكليزيت وآدابها ‪ -‬التخصص الذقيق‪ :‬ادب‬
‫هكاى العول‪ :‬قسن اللغت االنكليزيت‪ -‬كليت اآلداب‪ -‬جاهعت اهل البيت عليهن السالم‬

‫لطالم اااتبطت ط اااتبل ا ا ا تب وص ااالتبل ب اااططتبل‪.‬اواحا ا نتهبه ااتجتر اايت ا ا تبل ب اااططت ا ا ت‬
‫بلحرط‪،‬تهكاناتهارطتيا اااصتصاربقاتيا احاتواو تتتامتتإلاحمتتتلا‪.‬تي ارتاينت لام‪.‬تب ه تهارطت‬
‫يا ااااصتبلباااتج‪،‬تبل ا تتسط ا تبللاااوب تراايت‪4691‬تتلاا‪.‬ت‪4691‬نتبر اات تبلر ارجتبلةانح ا تراايتقاااصت‬
‫‪،‬تهقريااات ا اامتهاارطتيا ااااصتبللااا ‪،‬تهتحااو تبلإ ااا تيالاااتتلاا‪.‬تهاارطت‬
‫‪4691‬تتلاا‪.‬تقاااصت‪ُ 4691‬‬
‫قص ا ااا ا نتتما ا اات تبما ا ا ااا تبلمرهتا ا ا تبلةانحا ا ا ت الإ ا االتبلوه ا ا ا تلتبا ا ااو تهبلإ ا االتبلبم ا اااق ت‬
‫لترا ااراايتبل‪.‬ت نتأللماات ا تبلحارطتبللاا تقات بترايتباقماا تب بحا تيا تبلملار تهبلرهب ا ت‬
‫هبل ‪.‬رنتهت‪.‬تتطهب تتحمتأهبربييت"ب محاءتبل تهمتو ا"تهبهتجتريتأاةرتب قما تياربءجتههبيةحا ت‬
‫تر‪.‬ااطاتبلمإااتتايتيا تب بطلا تبل ‪.‬ااتجتهصا‪.‬وب تت احرلمترا ت‬ ‫هو ت بتبلصربعنت ‪.‬رضتبلاا‬
‫بلصتر ت ‪.‬تتبن لاءتبلحرطنتي حار تبل حااتبهلااعتبل اصاحا تبلما ترا تيا تبلرهب ا تهتا ر مت‬
‫بل تبل بربا تتلا‪.‬ته ااتتهاا ت هتتب ا مربطتهحااتلمت ايلتومح‪.‬ا نتهرايتبل‪.‬ي اا تبلر حلاح تبل ا ت‬
‫يوبجللاااتبلمحاااطبوتت ا ت كر ااا ترااات ‪.‬ااتتبلصااتر تهباهلااا تبلملا مرت الا ن تهبلحاارجتهبل ا ت‬
‫تما‪.‬لمتريتبانسما تررجتأخر تي تبلمب م ن‬
‫الكلمات المفتاحية‪:‬تبل ن ‪،‬تبلصتر ‪،‬تتحمتبهبربيي‪،‬ترحاطط‪،‬تياا ااصن‬

‫‪32‬‬