Physical and chemical properties

Chemical attack
Efflorecences ASR

Concrete Delayed Ettringite

surface Durability formation

Reinforcement
Sulphate carbonation
resistance
Freeze-thaw
resistance
 Nature of concrete durability
Concrete is porous in its nature. Some aspects
of concrete durability involve the penetration of
certain forms of aggressive agents. Hence the
durability of concrete is mostly associated with its
permeability and/or diffusion Inadequate durability
can be due to external factors and/or internal causes
within the concrete. The ability to resist the flow of
fluids through the porous medium is primarily
governed by microclimate parameters (aggressive
agents, temperature and pressure, etc.), concrete
quality and transport mechanisms. The
intrinsic properties of concrete affecting permeation
are the porosity of the hardened cement paste , the
relative size of the pores and the degree of continuity
of these pores . Higher water to binder ratios (w/b)
result in an increase in pore volume.
Nature of concrete durability
 Durability – Chemical attack

• Volume increase or loss of structure due to

- acid attack
- sulphate attack
- sea water attack

• Influenced by:
- cement mineralogy (C3A content )
- limestone (negative)
- slag (positive)
- porosity (low w/c ratio)
Sulfate Attack
Sulfate salts are harmful to concrete,427 as they can
cause expansion, loss of strength and eventually
transform the material into a mushy mass.
CaSO4 reacts with calcium aluminate hydrates,
forming expansive ettringite
(3CaO·Al2O3·3CaSO4·32H2O). Na2SO4 reacts with
calcium hydroxide and forms expansive gypsum
(CaSO4·2H2O) which in the presence of aluminates,
may in turn give ettringite. MgSO4 reacts with
all cement hydration products, including C-S-H,
forming Mg(OH)2 (brucite) and gypsum which, at a
later stage, can give ettringite. Additionally,
MgSO4 attack results in the replacement of Ca in C-S-
H with Mg, leading to a loss in strength.428 With any
source of sulfate, where carbonate or bicarbonate
and silicate ions are also present, and typically at
temperatures less than 10°C, thaumasite
(CaSiO3·CaCO3·CaSO4·15H2O) can form, with a
consequent loss in strength.
Alkali–Aggregate Reaction “AAR or ASR”
The most common reaction is that occurring between certain types of silica (opal,
chalcedony and tridymite) and cement alkalis. This reaction forms a viscous gel
comprising alkali and alkaline-earth silicates which absorbs water from the environment,
leading to expansion and consequent crack development. Concrete
deterioration manifests itself at the surface as extensive map cracks, often with gel
exuding from these, and sometimes pop-outs and spalling. Other similar alkali–aggregate
reactions (AARs) include alkali-carbonate reaction and alkali–silicate reaction, although
these occur much less widely. Three conditions seem to be essential to start and sustain
AAR:
the alkali content of concrete must be high;
only part of the aggregate must be reactive;
the humidity of the environment must be high.
Furthermore, expansion and damage increases with cement content and water/cement
ratio. A number of methods have been proposed to evaluate the effectiveness of
different types of cement in preventing damage caused by alkali–aggregate reaction but,
owing to their more or less empirical nature, they do not always agree with or reproduce
field behaviour of concrete.
The expansive reaction does not occur with PCs containing < 0.6% Na2O alkali equivalent.
However, modern cement technology and pollution-prevention limits in force in many
countries often make this target prohibitively expensive. 478 Again, for economic reasons,
the problem cannot always be solved by sourcing non-reactive aggregates. Alkalis can
come from external sources (sea water or de-icing salts), and in these cases the use of a
low-alkali cement may not prevent deterioration if free alkali levels are replenished from
such sources.
Soon after the discovery of alkali–silica reaction, it was found that the addition of fine
pozzolanic material to PC could control the expansion. Expansion reduction has been
observed when using natural pozzolanas and volcanic
Acid Attack
Acid attack of concrete takes three forms. First, hydration
products react with the acid to form dissolved ions, leading
to loss of solid material—acidolysis. Second, in the case of
some acids, insoluble salts form, some of which precipitate
to cause expansion and cracking. Finally, some acids give
complexes with calcium, aluminium, iron and silicate ions
which produce much higher concentrations of these ions in
solution than would otherwise be the case, again leading to
dissolution. This can potentially occur at pH conditions under
which cement would normally be relatively stable
(complexolysis). Depending on the acid present, more than
one of these deterioration mechanisms may be effective.
Where acidolysis is the predominant mechanism, an acid
solution penetrating the pores of concrete will start to cause
some of the constituents to dissolve. Calcium is usually the
first cation to be dissolved, since portlandite becomes
soluble below relatively high pH values. AFm and AFt phases
typically dissolve at slightly lower pH values, although solid
aluminium and iron hydroxides are precipitated, which
persist until the solution is relatively acidic. Exposure to
acidic solution also causes loss of calcium—decalcification—
of C-S-H gel, leaving relatively weak silica gel behind.
Durability – Carbonation
Carbonation CO 2 + Ca (OH) 2 → CaCO 3 + H2O
Carbon dioxide is present in air at levels of
around 0.04% by volume and is potentially • Reinforcement passivated in alkaline pore solution
an issue for concrete durability inasmuch as
it can react with the hydration products in • Influenced by:
the hardened cement paste. It was revealed
that the CO2 from air occurs in the paste
- Cementitious (decrease of Ca(OH)2)
mainly as crystalline CaCO3. However, a - Porosity
significant part is also present in a non-
crystalline form and is probably incorporated - Concrete overlap
in the C-S-H structure. The process has also
been noted (with high CO2 concentrations) Crack pH13:
to change the density and Steel is
mechanical properties of concrete. protected
The depth of carbonation attains maximum
values at RH levels of between 50% and 70%. CO2 pH11:
In practice, with the climatic conditions in Steel is not
many countries, the degree of carbonation protected
reduces with increasing humidities. Similarly,
atmospheric CO2 concentrations and Crack
temperature also influence the process.
pH: Measure for the intensity of acid or base (alkali)
(14 = strong base; 7 = neutral; 1 = strong acid)
Chloride Ingress
Chloride can harmfully affect the durability of
concrete in structures, mainly due to its corrosion-
causing effects on reinforcement. Therefore, the Cl–
contents of the concrete constituents are usually
controlled and measures taken to minimise
transportation from the external environment. Of
these sources, it is the latter, normally in coastal or
highway exposures, that is likely to represent the
main threat to concrete structures in service.
Chloride can enter concrete by several mechanisms,
depending on the local conditions, mainly by
absorption, permeability and diffusion, and the
ability of concrete to resist these depends on its
microstructure and capacity to adsorb or chemically
bind ingressing ions. Factors including the fineness
and densifying effects, and alumina phases have
been identified as contributing to this, with the
balance of these effects likely to change between
materials.
 Durability – Freeze-thaw resistance
If water freezes in near saturated concrete, increases in volume occur and the
material tends to expand. The opposite happens when the temperature rises
above 0°C. Repeated exposure to freeze–thaw cycles can lead to the
deterioration of concrete, which can be intensified in the presence of de-icing
salt. The freeze/thaw resistance of concrete can be enhanced by increasing
concrete strength and the period of moist curing before exposure. This can
also be achieved by introducing air bubbles into concrete during production to
create an air-void system that can accommodate the pressures occurring
during freezing as ice formation occurs. Laboratory tests indicate that the
latter is most effective in achieving this. Both approaches are covered in
concrete specifications for freeze/thaw exposure conditions, where the
properties of the aggregate are also included with regard to the process.
Investigations to examine freeze/thaw resistance of concrete have tended to
adopt a range of accelerated tests (e.g. internal type methods; scaling with
water or salt water as the freezing medium). It has been noted that the
outcomes of these may not always reflect behaviour in practice and there can
be difficulties selecting appropriate test conditions and performance criteria.
 Surface – Efflorescence's

• Caused by: • Influenced by:

- soluble iron - raw material
- soluble alkalis - burning conditions
- cementitious
Surface - Defects
• Caused by:
- bleeding
- compaction
- segregation
- aggregate size

• Influenced by:
- cement fineness (grinding, CM)
- stiff consistency
- plasticizer over dosage
- cementitious
 Factors affecting durability of concrete and can improve it:
1- Homogeneous mix 2- Compaction 3- Curing 4- Water Cement 5- Mix Proportion
Ratio
The concrete should be mixed Compacting of concrete is very The most important factor for concrete to The mix proportion is to
thoroughly to form a necessary to prevent it from be durable is the proper curing of the provide the ingredient
The water-cement ratio is
homogeneous mixture. If it is segregation. Segregation is the of concrete-like cement,
concrete structure. The process of the ratio of water to be
not mixed thoroughly then all process of separating the ingredient of sand, and aggregate in
spreading water on the structure after a added in cement while
the ingredients of the mixture concrete from each other. It should be few hours and during the hydration period preparing a concrete fixed proportion
like cement, sand, and aggregate kept in mind that concrete should be is known as curing. During the hydration structure. It should be according to design
could not touch each other and compacted with the help of
can not get the required period, concrete gets its strength. Without maintained very wisely criteria. Any disturbance
compacting machine or vibrator layer curing, there is no chance that concrete will because more water causes of the proportion of
strength.
by layer according to design. Over get its full strength. Cement curing has a ingredients may reduce
It can be done with the help of a bleeding in concrete and
mixture of about 15 to 25 compaction of concrete may cause the different time period. OPC needs at least 7 the required durability
less water may cause
rotation of mixture with the ingredient like aggregate to settle days for curing whereas PPC needs about of the concrete
segregation. And both of
limiting capacity of mixture pots. down living the sand and cement at 10 days for curing. It also depends on the structure. So, The
them reduce the strength
If concrete is mixing with hand the upper portion of the structure. hot weather. If the weather is hot, then concrete mix should be
of concrete. So, The water-
manually then it should be This makes concrete weak in different curing time may increase than the actual designed properly and
cement ratio should be
mixed by stirring all gradient up regions. So, Concrete should be requirement of concrete for curing. So, should have all the
appropriate, considering
and down for more than 10 compacted properly to prevent it from Sufficient curing of concrete is required for ingredients in the right
the strength
times. being porous and weak. proportions.
developing its full strength. and workability criteria.

6- Use of fresh water 7- Size of aggregate 8- Quality of Cement

The water used for mixing Aggregate contains more than 50% part of the The most important ingredient is
should be free from all harmful concrete structure. It doesn’t mean that for cement. Cement is the binding
organic substances. The higher strength concrete, we should provide a material of structure so, No structure
presence of organic substances larger size of aggregate. To get proper strength is possible to construct without
may react with concrete and better durability the aggregate should be cement. The cement used for R.C.C.
internally and damage the hard, durable, and properly graded. For most work should be of good quality and
ingredient like steel, quality of R.C.C. works, a 20 mm size of aggregate is measured by weight only, and not by
cement, etc. suitable to make concrete. volume.
Impact of cementitious materials on relevant properties
Concrete properties influenced by cement and cement production
Concrete properties cement Cement production

Workability / water C3A, SO 3 (DH, HH, AH), alkali, grain size Raw mix, grinding,
demand distribution (Blaine), cementitious materials storage

Early strength and heat C3S, C3A, SO 3, alkali, cementitious materials, Raw mix, burning
of hydratation Blaine conditions, fuels

Raw mix, burning

28 day strength C3S, C2S, Blaine, alkali
conditions, fuels

Raw mix, reducing

Color Fe, Mg, cementitious materials
conditions, cooler, fuels

Efflorescence C3S, FeO, alkali Burning conditions, fuels

Stiffening SO3 (DH, HH, AH) Grinding, storage

SO3 (DH, HH, AH), cementitious materials Grinding, storage,
Lumps
(moisture of slag) dispatch