CONTENTS

F Introduction
F The Emergence of New Dynasties
F The Emergence of New Dynasties
F Administration In The Kingdoms
F Kingdoms In India
F The Cholas
F The Turkish Invasion
F Causes Of The Defeat Of The Indian Rulers

In the Medieval period there was social, economic and political changes which led to the emergence of new
social groups. It witnessed the development of new technologies and introduction of new ideas. There were
several regional Kingdoms established by the people who came from other parts of the world.
Let us begin our study from 700 AD as it was soon after the death of King Harsha in 647 AD, his vast
kingdom began to disintegrate.

By the seventh century there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent.
Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates or samantas. They were expected to bring gifts
for their kings or overlords, be present at their courts and provide them with military support. As samantas
gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta, maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord
of a "circle" or region) and so on. Sometimes they asserted their independence from their overlords.
One such instance was that of the Rashtrakutas in the deccan. Initially they were subordinate to the
Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya
overlord and performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb). When this ritual was
performed with the help of Brahmanas, it was thought to lead to the "rebirth" of the sacrifice as a kshatriya,
even if he was not one by birth.
In other cases, men from enterprising families used their military skills to carve out kingdoms. For instance,
the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara Pratihara Harichandra were Bramanas who gave up their
traditional professions and took to arms, successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan
respectively.
 During this period a number of powerful regional kingdoms arose in North India, Deccan and South India.
These kingdoms wanted to build a big empire hence they fought with each other continuously in order to
have control over the neighboring territories. In the course of time, the northern and western India were taken
by the Rajputs. The Palas were powerful in the eastern India. The western India and the upper Gangetic
valley was dominated by the Gurjara-Pratiharas . The Rashtrakutas controlled the Deccan and also territories
in North and south India. The Chalukyas also spread their power in the Deccan Region.
Among the Rajput kingdom Chahamanas or the Chauhans were very prominent. In the South, the Cholas
were the most powerful kingdom and were known for the administration and agriculture development. Other
than the Cholas the Pandyas and the Cheras also ruled over South India.

(a) (i) Many of these new kings adopted high-sounding titles such as maharaja-adhiraja great king, overlord of
kings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) and so on. However, in spite of such claims, they
often shared power with their samantas as well as with associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas.
(ii) In each of these states, resource were obtained from the producers – that is, peasants, cattle-keeper, artisans-
who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what they produced. Sometimes these were
claimed as "rent" due to a lord who asserted that he owned the land. Revenue was also collcted from traders.
(iii) These resources were used to finance the king's establishment, as well as for the construction of temples and
forts. They were also used to fight wars, which were in turns expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth in
the form of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes.
(iv) The functionaries for collecting revenue were generally recruited from influential families, and positions
were often hereditary. This was true about the army as well. In many cases, close relatives of the king held
these positions.
(b) Prashastis and Land Grants
(i) Prashastis contain details that may not be literally true. But they tell us how rulers wanted to depict
themselves – as valiant, victorious warriors, for example. These were composed by learned Brahmanas, who
occasionally helped in the administration.
(ii) Kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land. These were recorded on copper plates, which were given
to those who received the land. Unusual for the twelfth century was a long Sanskrit poem containing the
history of kings who ruled over Kashmir. It was composed by an author named Kalhana. He used a variety of
sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts and earlier histories, to write his account.
Unlike the writers of prashatis, he was often critical about rulers and their policies.
(c) Warfare for Wealth
(i) Each of these ruling dynasties was based in a specific region. At the same time, they tried to control other
areas. One particularly prized area was the city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley. For centuries, rulers belonging
to the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for control over Kanauj. Because there were
three "parties" in this longdrawn conflict, historians often describe it as the 'tripartite struggle".
(ii) Rulers also tried to demonstrate their power and resources by building large temples. So, when they attacked
one another's kingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which were sometimes extremely rich.
(iii) One of the best known of such rulers is Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan. He ruled from 997 to 1030,
and extended control over parts of Central Asia, Iran and the north-western part of the subcontinent. He
raided the subcontinent almost every year – his targets were wealthy temples, including that of Somnath,
Gujarat. Much of the wealth Mahmud carried away was used to create a splendid capital city at Ghazni.
 (iv) Sultan Mahmud was also interested in finding out more about the people he conquered, and entrusted a
scholar named al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent. This Arabic work known as the Kitab al-
Hind, remains an important source for historians. He consulted Sanskrit scholars to prepare this account.
(v) Other kings who engaged in warfare included the Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, who ruled over
the region around Delhi and Ajmer. They attempted to expand their control to the west and the east, where
they were opposed by the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh. The best-
known Chahamana ruler was Prithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghan ruler named Sultan
Muhammad Ghori in 1191; but lost to him the very next year, in 1192.

(a) (i) The Gurjara Pratiharas of Kanauj : The Pratihara, kingdom lasted for about 2 centuries. In 836 A.D., the
ruler Raja Bhoj established a powerful empire with Kannauj as its capital. He was a great warrior. He also
took great interest in literature and patronized learned men. He was a devotee of God Vishnu. This empire
received a shattering blow in 916 A.D, when its ruler was defeated by the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The
famous rulers of this period were Raja Bhoj, and Mahendrapala. Nagabhatta I was the founder of the
dynasty. They had trade relations with Central Asia. The successors were weak and could not protect their
kingdom. A result, Mahmud Ghazni invaded and defeated the last ruler of Pratihara.
The Tripartite struggle
Kanauj was the main centre of all political developments in Northern India during the period of King
Harshavardhana since it was accessible by the rivers Ganga and Yamuna. Its location enabled easy trade
relations. Kanauj was rich in soil and attracted the neighbouring dynasties. Hence, there was a long battle
between the Gurjaras, the Rashtrakutas and the Palas to control the Ganga valley in general and Kanauj in
particular. This struggle is known as the tripartite struggle by the historians.
(ii) The Rise of Rajputs
The term Rajput has originated from the Sanskrit word, Rajputra which means the 'Son of a king'. The
tripartite struggle led to the rise of number of kingdoms throughout North and Central India. Many were
courageous and brave and claimed the descent from the sun (Suryavanshis), some others traced their origin
to lunar clan of the Pandavas (Chandravanshis). Among these clans, Chauhans emerged as the most
powerful.
(iii) The Rathors or Gahnarwar of Kanauj : after the decline of Pratihars, Kanauj was occupied by another
Rajput clan known as Rathors. They ruled over Kanauj from 1090 to 1192 A.d. The last ruler of this dynasty
was jai chand.
(iv) The Chauhans of Ajmer and Delhi : they established their kingdom in the 8 th century A.D. The last and the
most powerful ruler of this kingdom was Prithviraj Chauhan. He defeated Mohammad Ghori in the first
battle of Tarain (harayana) on 191 A.D. The deeds of bravery of Prithviraj in this battle have been described
by poet Chandbardai in his epic poem 'Prithviraj Raso'.
In 1192, Mohammad Ghori again marched to Delhi. In this second battle fought at Tarain (about 125 km off
Delhi), Prithviraj was defeated. This was the beginning of India's conquest by foreigners. There are many
legends about Prithviraj's romantic marriage with Sanyogita, daughter of Jai Chand.
The Chauhans founded the city of Ajaymerh, which is now called Ajmer.
(v) The Pawars or Paramars of Malwa : In the region of Malwa, the Pawars built their kingdom after the ruins
of Pratiharas. Their capital was Dhara near Indore. Raja Bhoj (1018 – 1068 A.D.) was the famous ruler of
this dynasty. He himself was a reputed author and a poet. He wrote several books on astronomy, poetry and
grammar. His stories have been collected in a number of books, which are still read with great interest. He
built the beautiful Bhojpur lake and more than 100 temples. The last ruler of this dynasty was defeated by
Alla-ud-din Khalji.
(vi) The Chandelas of Bundelkhand : The kingdom was situated between rivers Narmada and Jamuna. The
temples of Khajuraho were built by the Chandelas. Its capital was Mahoba. The Chandelas lost their power in
1203 when Qutb-ud-din Aibak brought them under his control.
(vii) The Sisodias of Mewar : Mewar was one of the most important kingdoms of Rajputs. Its capital was
Chittor. The fort of Chittor was captured by Ala-ud-din Khalji. Some years later another Rajput chief. Hamir,
took it back and established the rule of chief, Hamir took it back and established the rule of Sisodias.
Maharana Kumbha, Maharana Sangram Singh and Maharana Pratap were some of the famous and powerful
rulers of Mewar.
(viii) The Palas : The Pala rulers established an extensive empire in north India (Bengal and Bihar) that lasted
for about 400 years. Dharampala (770 – 810 A.D.) was the most important ruler. He was a courageous
commander and a skilled diplomat. The Palas wre great patrons of Buddhism and therefore encouraged
Buddhist learning, literature and fine arts. The University of Vikramshila was established with their support.
This university attracted students even from foreign lands.
The first ruler of this dynasty was Gopala. The other prominent rulers were the Devabala and the
Dharamapala who strengthened the kingdom and encouraged trade with south-west Asia. The dynasty
collapsed in the 12th century and was succeeded by the rulers of Sena dynasty.
(ix) The Senas : After the Palas, the Senas succeeded in establishing an empire. The greatest ruler of this dynasty
was Vijaysena (1095 – 1158 A.D.). He brought about peace and prosperity in Bengal. The last king
Laksmansena was defeated by Bakhtiyar Kahalji, a Turkish general.
(x) The Rashtrakutas of the Deccan : The Rashtrakutas ruled for about four centuries i.e., from the beginning
of the 7th century to 10th century A.D. Local self government played an important role in the villages. They
were devotees of Shiva and Vishnu. The rock – cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta belong to this period.
They were very powerful in the deccan region which fulls between the north of Krishna river and the
Tungabhandra river. They gave patronage to Shaivism, Jainism and Vaishvanism. The famous rules were
Dantidurga & Krishna I.
(xi) The Pallavas : Pallavas ruled the South India during the period 6 th century and 9th century AD. Their capital
city was Kanchi. Pallavas were great patrons of art and architecture. Mahendravarman and
Narasimhavarman were the most powerful rulers. The shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kailasanath
temple at Kanchi were constructed by the Pallavas.
(xii) The Pandyas
The Venetian traveller Marco Polo has left an account of the Pandiyan kingdom. The kingdom was to the
south of the Cholas and in the region around Madurai which was also the capital of the kingdom and was
known as a centre of learning.

The Cholas extablished their empire in south India with Tanjore as their capital.
From Uraiyur to Thanjavur
How did the Cholas rise to power ? A minor chiefly family known as the Muttaraiyar held power in the
Kaveri delta. They were subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya, who belonged to the
ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of
the ninth century. He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini there.
The successors of Vijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in size and power. The
Pandyan and the Pallava territories to the south and north were made part of this kingdom Rajaraja I,
considered the most powerful Chola ruler, became king in 985 and expanded control over most of these
areas. Rajaraja's son, Rajendra I contined his policies and even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka and
countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy for these expeditions.
 Rajaraja Chola I (985-1016) built a strong navy. He led naval expedition to Ceylon and Maldiv islands.
Rajendra Chola I (1016-1044 AD) took the title of Gangaikonda Cholan. He built a new capital called
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the conquerer of Ganga.
E Parantaka I : He expanded the empire and took the title of Maduraikonda, the capturer of Madurai.
E Rajaraja I : he suppressed the Cheras and expanded his kingdom. The most famous Brihadeshwara Temple
at Tanjore was built by him in the 11 th century which was dedicated to Lord Shiva. Most of the temples were
of the Dravidian style.
Splendid Temples And Bronze Sculpture
The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are
architectural and sculptural marvels.
Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements which grew around them. These were centers of craft
production. Temples were also endowed with land by rulers as well as by others. The produce of this land
went into maintaining all the specialists who worked at the temple and very often lived near it – priests
garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, etc. In other words, temples were not only places of
worship; they were the hub of economic, social and cultural life as well.
Amongst the crafts associated with temples the making of bronze images was the most distinctive. Chola
bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world. While most images were of deities, sometimes
images were made of devotees as well.
Agriculture and Irrigation
Many of the achievements of the Cholas were made possible through, new developments in agriculture. The
river Kaveri branches off into several small channels before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. These
channels overflow frequently, depositing fertile soil on their banks. Water from the channels also provides
the necessary moisture for agriculture, particularly the cultivation of rice.
Although agriculture had developed earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it was only from the fifth or sixth
century that this area was opened up for large-scale cultivation. Forests had be cleared in some regions; land
had to be levelled in other areas. In the delta region embankments had to be built to prevent flooding and
canals had to be constructed carry water to the fields. In many areas two crops were grown in a year.
In many cases it was necessary to water crops artificially. A variety of methods were used for irrigation. In
some areas wells were dug. In other places huge tanks were constructed to collect rainwater. Remember that
irrigation works require planning – organizing labour and resources, maintaining these works and deciding
on how water is to be shared. Most of the new rulers, as well as people living in villages, took an active
interest in these activities.
The Chola Administration
The Chola administration was well-organised. The king was the head and was assisted by ministers and they
had a very efficient armed force consisting of cavalry, infantry, elephants and a good navy. The empire was
divided into Mandalams and Valanadus (provinces and districts) consisting of many villages.
How was the administration organized ? Settlements of peasants, known as ur, became prosperous with the
spread of irrigation agriculture. Groups of such villages formed larger units called nadu. The village council
and the nadu performed several administrative functions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes.
Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the nadu under the
supervision of the central Chola government. The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like
muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings), araiyar (chief), etc. as markers of respect and
entrusted them with important offices of the state at the centre.
We have seen that Brahmanas often received land grants or brahmadeya. As a result, a large number
Brahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley as in other parts of the South India.
Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders These
assemblies worked very efficiently. Their decisions were recorded in detail in inscriptions, often on the stone
walls of temples. Associations of traders known a anagrams also occasionally performed administrative
functions in towns.
Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu. Provide details of the way in which the
sabha was organized. The sabha has separate committees to look after irrigation works gardens, temples, etc.
Names of those eligible to be members of these committees were written on small tickets of palm leaf; these
tickets were put into and tickets of palm leaf; these tickets were put into an earthenware pot, from which a
young boy was asked to take out the tickets one by one for each committee.
The Chola Literature
Many literary and religious works were translated from Sanskrit into Tamil, Telugu and Kannada. Kamban
the great writer of this period translated the Ramayana in Tamil. The Mahabharata was translated into
Telugu. Pampa, Ponna and Ranna were the three jewel of Kannada literature.

The Rajputs were caught unaware by the Turks and Afghans who invaded India towards the end of the 10 th
century AD. The Turks along with Afghans came into India through passes in the mountains of north west.
Mahmud of Ghazni
The son of Sabuktgin by name Mahmud Ghazni attacked India several times between 1010 AD and 1026
AD. He captured Kangra, Mathura, Kanauj, Thanesar, Gwalior and Somnath. He attacked the Somnath
Temple seventeen times and took away the gold and the idol.
Muhammad Ghori
Muhammad Ghori became the Governor of the province of Ghazni. He was a general in the Ghori's
dynasty. He conquered Multan, Peshawar and Lahore. He fought with Prithviraj in the Second Battle of
Tarain and defeated him in 1192 AD. He established the Muslim rule in India.

The research shows that the Turks did not have superior weapons but their horses were fast and the archers
were too quick. On the other hands the elephants of the Indian rulers were very slow. The Muslim rulers
were both efficient and good commanders.
The Turks were well-trained. The Indian rulers were not united and did not have a common plan of action.
Al-Beruni, who came to India as a traveller, has given a report about the society and his observations. He
wrote a book on India called the Tarikh-i-Hind. However, the invasion had its impact on the society. It led
to intermingling of culture and tradition, and it also paved way for the spread of the Islamic culture.
 EXERCISE

3. After the victory over the Palas, Rajendra

1. Mandalam : A Chola province. Chola I built the city called –
2. Rajput : A term originated from the Sanskrit (A) Tanjore (B) Kanauj
word 'Rajputra' meaning the son of a king. (C) Gangaikondapuram
3. Ur : A village assembly. 4. A Chola village assembly of was called –
4. Sabha : An assembly of learned people. (A) Nagaram (B) Sabha
(C) Ur
5. Initially Rashtrakutas were subordinate to –
1. Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated in the Battle (A) Chalukyas (B) Pandyas
of Tarain.
(C) Cholas (D) Cheras
2. The Brihadeshwara Temple was built by
6. Chalukya belongs to which state –
Rajaraja Chola.
(A) Uttar Pradesh (B) Karnataka
3. Madurai was the capital of Pallavas.
(C) Bengal (D) Punjab
4. Ajaymeru was the original name of Ajmer.
7. Kadamba Mayurasharman & the Gurjara
5. Mahmud Ghazni attacked the Somnath Pratihara were -
Temple 20 times. (A) Brahmanas (B) Shudras
(C) K shatriyas (D) Vaishnav
8. Vetti collected in Tamil Nadu was –
1. …………. established the Muslim rule in
India. (A) Land revenue
2. Tarikh-i-Hind was written by ……… (B) Tax taken not in cash but in the form of
forced labour
3. The Vikramshila University was built by
………. (C) Tax collected on thatching the house
4. ………….., ………………, …………….. (D) A cess on succession to family property
were the three jewels of the Kannada 9. Who wrote a long Sanskrit poem containing
Literature. the history of kings who ruled over Kashmir –
5. Mahmud Ghori defeated the last ruler of (A) Amir Khushro (B) Kalhana
……………… (C) Nagabhata (D) Chandarbardai
10. Tripartitle struggle was between –
(A) Gurjana-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta & Pala
1. This ruler belonged to the Pallava dynasty - dynasties
(A) Raja Bhoj (B) Paramars, Chandellas & Pala
(B) Mahendravarman I (C) Cholas, Cheras & Pandyas
(D) Rashtrakutas, Cholas & Cheras
(C) Rajendra Chola
11. Kitab-al-Hind was written in –
2. The Second Battle of Tarain was fought in –
(A) Arabic (B) Persian
(A) 1292 AD (B) 1182 AD (C) Sanskrit (D) Urdu
(C) 1192 AD 12. Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni ruled over –
 (A) Afghanistan (B) India 1. Which period led to the emergence of new
(C) Greece (D) China social groups ?
2. Name some rulers of the Pala dynasty.
13. Al-Biruni wrote – 3. When did the Pala dynasty collapse ?
(A) Ain-i-Akbari (B) Akbar Nama 4. Who was Nagabhata I?
(C) Kitab-al-Hind (D) All of these 5. Explain the Tripartite Struggle.
14. Prithviraja III was a …….. ruler – 6. Name the two famous Kings of Chola
(A) Chalukyas (B) Palas dynasty.
(C) Chola (D) Chera 7. Give reasons for the defeat of Indians by
15. Cholas were subordinate to – Turks.
(A) Parmar (B) Pallava 8. Write short notes on the invasions of
(C) Chalukya (D) Yadavas Mahmud Ghazni.
16. Who built the town of Thanjaver – 9. Who were the parties involved in the
(A) Muttarailyar (B) Vijayalaya 'tripartite struggle'?
(C) Rajaraja (D) Rajendra I 10. What were the two major cities under the
control of Chahamanas ?
17. Who was considered as the most powerful
Chola ruler – 11. What kind of irrigation works were developed
(A) Rajaraja I (B) Rajendra I in the Tamil region ?
(C) Vijayalaya (D) None of these 12. State briefly the political conditions of India
18. Settlement of peasants in Chola empire were at the time of foreign invaders in the 11 th and
known as – 12th centuries.
(A) Ur (B) Nadu 13. How the resources were obtained by the
states of the new kingdoms ?
(C) Muvendavelan (D) Araiyar
19. Match the following 14. How rulers tried to demonstrate their power
and seventh century.
(a) Vellanvagai
15. Describe the emergence of new dynasties in
(i) Land for the maintenance of
India after seventh century.
School
16. Describe the warfare in which Chauhans of
(b) Brahmadeya
Delhi and Ajmer were engaged during 1191
(ii) Land of non-Brahmana peasants and 1192.
Proprietors 17. How did the Cholas rise to power ?
(c) Shalabhoga
18. Narrate the splendid temples and bronze
(iii) Land donated to Jaina sculpture built during Chola dynasties.
institutions 19. What were the qualifications necessary to
(d) Palli Chohhandam become a member of a committee of the
(iv) Land gifted to Brahmanas Sabha in the Chola empire ?
(A) a-(ii), b-(iv), c-(i), d-(iii)
(B) a-(i), b-(ii), c-(iii), d-(iv)
(C) a-(iii), b-(i), c-(iv), d-(ii)
(D) a-(iv), b-(iii), c-(i), d-(ii)