See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/286410574

TPACK Constructs: A Sustainable Pathway for Teachers Professional

Development on Technology Adoption

Article in Creative Education · January 2015

DOI: 10.4236/ce.2015.616171

CITATIONS READS

4 831

1 author:

Michael Nkwenti
Higher Teacher Training College, University of Yaounde I
15 PUBLICATIONS 35 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Open and Distance Leaning in Cameroon Higher Education View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Michael Nkwenti on 07 May 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Creative Education, 2015, 6, 1697-1709
Published Online September 2015 in SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/journal/ce
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2015.616171

TPACK Constructs: A Sustainable Pathway

for Teachers Professional Development on
Technology Adoption
Michael Nkwenti Ndongfack
Department of Computer Science and Educational Technologies, Higher Teacher Training College, University of
Yaounde I, Yaounde, Cameroon
Email: [email protected], [email protected]

Received 30 July 2015; accepted 13 September 2015; published 16 September 2015

Copyright © 2015 by author and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
As numerous Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) penetrate various facets of life,
teachers are underutilising it in the teaching and learning process. With the introduction of ICTs in
the Cameroon primary school curriculum, teachers have been receiving training on computer
skill-base courses and yet many are unable to adopt the tool in instructional processes. To ensure
that teacher training programmes effectively assist them in integrating technology in instructional
processes, a study was initiated to determine additional set of skills that they need to adopt the
tool in their classrooms. This study employed a quantitative survey methodology in the collection
of data towards the determination of additional skills needed by primary school teachers. A total
of 400 teachers were selected using the stratified random sampling technique from primary
schools across all the 10 Regions of Cameroon. The data were analysed using mean and standard
deviation. The findings of the survey indicated that teacher-participants reported a better mastery
of content knowledge (CK), pedagogy knowledge (PK), pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and
technological content knowledge (TCK). On the other hand, they reported weaknesses in three
other constructs notably: technology knowledge (TK), technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK),
and technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). The researcher concluded that teacher-
participants performed better in the CK, PK and PCK because these constructs constitute the basis
for teacher education in Cameroon. Similarly, they performed well in the TCK construct because
their professional development programme is focused on fostering their computer knowledge as a
standalone skill. Their poor performance in the TK, TPK and TPACK stems from the fact that the
training programmes do not lay emphasis on these constructs. To provide a sustainable teacher
professional development programme on technology adoption, it was therefore recommended
that stakeholders involved in the sector design training packages that focus on the TPACK con-
structs. This will foster teachers’ adoption of the tool for instructional purposes.

How to cite this paper: Ndongfack, M. N. (2015). TPACK Constructs: A Sustainable Pathway for Teachers Professional De-
velopment on Technology Adoption. Creative Education, 6, 1697-1709. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2015.616171
M. N. Ndongfack

Keywords
TPACK, Technology Adoption, Teacher Professional Development, Technology Skills

1. Introduction
In today’s society, new social practices have emerged due to the proliferation and increased use of innovative
digital technologies (Buckingham & Willett, 2006). Although these technologies are rapidly penetrating every
facet of societal life, the rate at which it is used in education to improve learning outcomes is still very low
(Nkwenti Ndongfack, 2014). Every citizen requires additional sets of skills to cope with the new social practices
and to effectively participate in the knowledge economy (Kalantzis & Cope, 2008; Partners for 21st Century
Skills, 2009). These skills include the ability to use Information and Communication Technology (ICT), herein
referred to as technology to identify important questions, locate information, critically evaluate the usefulness of
information, synthesize the information to answer questions, and communicate the information to others (Leu,
Kinzer, Coiro, & Cammack, 2004; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2009).
Because of the significant contributions of ICT in transforming traditional practices and the need for pupils to
acquire the above mentioned skills, most educational systems around the world resolved to integrate them in the
school curriculum (Kozma, 2005).
In 2007, the Cameroon Ministry of Basic Education put in place an ICT Policy and Strategy Plan outlining
guidelines for the development of technology in schools. The plan envisaged the production of an ICT-literate
workforce which will acquire thinking, learning and communication skills to respond to the demands of the 21st
century. With clear policy objectives put in place to develop ICT across the school curriculum, the government
and her development partners are gradually equipping schools with the required ICT resources (Nkwenti
Ndongfack, 2010). Teachers are equally being trained through cascaded approach to teach, using technology
(Inspectorate of Pedagogy in Charge of ICT Annual Report, 2010; Nkwenti Ndongfack, 2015). Although ICTs
are gradually being made available in classrooms, teachers who have access to them in their schools under-
utilise the tools for instructional purposes. Pupils from homes with access to computers and internet connection
are more technology-savvy than their teachers. This category of pupils poses a lot of challenges to their teachers
when it comes to using technology in classrooms (Inspectorate of Pedagogy in Charge of ICT Annual Report,
2011; Nkwenti Ndongfack, 2014). Teachers’ inability to handle them has been largely blamed on inadequate or
no professional development of teachers (Fru, 2011; Karsenti, Collin, & Harper-Merrete, 2012). This paper in-
vestigates the type of additional skills in-service primary school teachers’ need in order to adequately adopt
technology in the teaching and learning process.

2. Weaknesses in the Teachers Professional Development on Technology

Adoption
The Cameroon’s Ministry of Basic Education’s ICT Policy and Strategy Plan (Republic of Cameroon, 2007: p.
18) recommends that trainee teachers leaving the Teacher Training Colleges must be computer literate, defined
as being able to use a computer safely to:
• compose a document using word processing functions;
• prepare spread sheets to track school activities;
• prepare a database to store and keep track of school information;
• prepare presentations using specialised software;
• send and receive electronic mail messages;
• access sites in the Internet and collect educational materials; and
• create learning platforms for pupils, etc.
From the objectives outlined above, it can be observed that the policy laid emphasis only on ICT knowledge
and skills training among teachers with nothing said about integrating them in instructional processes. Over the
years, teachers’ professional development programmes have been skill-based with training focused on attaining
policy goals as outlined above (Inspectorate of Pedagogy in Charge of ICT Annual Report, 2009, 2010, 2011).
Valanides & Angeli (2006) upheld that the task of training teachers to effectively integrate technology in

1698
 M. N. Ndongfack

classroom practices is undoubtedly complex. A review of some literatures on teachers’ adoption of technology
in instructional processes indicates that, to a greater extent, ICT professional development for teachers has
mostly centred on learning about technology. The main focus being skills development on the use of various
computer applications, such as word processing, spread sheets, email, internet, and graphics design (Harris, Mi-
shra, & Koehler, 2009; Lieberman & Pointer Mace, 2008; McDonald, 2009; Mishra & Koehler, 2006; Nkwenti
Ndongfack, 2015). Although basic computing skills constitute the cornerstone of ICT knowledge, skills-based
courses are not enough to prepare teachers to integrate ICTs in classroom instructional processes as they are
usually taught in isolation from a pedagogical context (Harris et al., 2009). Professional development models
that do not take into consideration subject-specific pedagogy and the context of application will lead to teachers
having difficulties to link technology with pedagogy (Harris et al., 2009; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). This ac-
counts for the reason why many teachers who received ICT training as part of their professional development
still lack the confidence needed to integrate ICT in the teaching and learning process (Harris et al., 2009; Harri-
son et al., 2002). These reviews seem to indicate that although Cameroon in-service primary school teachers
have been trained on computer skill-based courses, these might be insufficient to empower them adopt the tool
for instructional purposes. Based on these weaknesses, this study was conducted with the following research
question in mind:
What additional set of skills do in-service primary school teachers require to adequately adopt technology in
the teaching and learning process?

2.1. Sustainable Pathway for Technology Adoption

According to Mishra & Koehler (2006), the gaps identified in computer skilled-based programmes can be
bridged by redesigning the training packages to focus on Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
(TPACK). Harris & Hoffer (2011) remarked that for teachers to adequately integrate technology across different
subject areas in the school curriculum, they need to demonstrate a firm mastery of TPACK. TPACK is an amal-
gamation of teachers’ knowledge of curriculum content, general pedagogies, technologies, and contextual fac-
tors that influence learning (Koehler & Mishra, 2008). One approach through which teachers can acquire skills
to effectively adopt technology in the classroom is by working through different stages of professional devel-
opment to blend technology, content and pedagogy (Niess, Ronau, Shafer, Driskell, Harper, Johnston, & Ker-
saint, 2009). While reviewing the model suggested by Niess and colleagues, four major themes emerged from
their proposed TPACK developmental model: curriculum and assessment; learning; teaching and access. Figure
1 shows that, teachers with sufficient background in pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) go through the stag-
es of recognising, accepting, adapting, exploring and advancing with technology for each of the four major
themes. As teachers progress through the model, their TPACK is enhanced (Niess et al., 2009). The figure also
illustrates how the constructs of content, pedagogy and technology intersect through progression in the different
stages of the TPACK developmental model.
Recognising stage: As seen in Figure 1, at the recognizing stage of TPACK development, teachers begin to

Figure 1. Representation of the TPACK development stages extracted from Niess et al. (2009).

1699
M. N. Ndongfack

use basic technologies and recognise their potential in enhancing teaching and learning in various subject areas.
At this stage, teachers hardly use technology to introduce a new concept or to carry out pupils’ assessments. The
teachers still believe that the use of technology is time-consuming and as such will hinder them from covering
their syllabuses. They are apt to use technology only when they are sure that they will have enough time to cover
their programmes or when pupils demonstrate a mastery of the content knowledge (Niess et al., 2009).
Accepting stage: Niess et al. (2009) remarked that teachers in the accepting stage of TPACK development
accept the technology as being inevitable in their daily practices. When they see the benefits of using technology
to enhance the teaching and learning process, they begin to integrate it in their lesson though with many difficul-
ties to incorporate it in all subject areas. Faced with these challenges, the teachers begin to seek professional de-
velopment opportunities on technology integration. Their participation in such training enables them to start
trying out the skills learned in their classrooms. The teachers gradually allow pupils to use technology to illu-
strate their understanding. The limited authorisation of the pupils to use technology often arises as a result of
teachers’ worries that they may be distracted from paying attention to their lessons. At this stage, they have se-
rious challenges managing their classes with the availability of technology. The technology use in these teachers’
classes is usually skill-based with teacher-led, step-by-step directions.
Adapting stage: At this stage, the teachers start demonstrating understanding of the benefits of using tech-
nology as a teaching and learning tool. They begin to explore and experiment with technology as tools that en-
hance curriculum practices. Most often, the experimentation process determines the full adoption or rejection of
the tool. They develop some lessons in which pupils can use technology to explore and improve their under-
standing of previously learned concepts. Prior to letting pupils experiment with technologies, the teachers regu-
larly start by illustrating the use of the technology to pupils while cautioning on safety issues. They design basic
technology driven assessments to evaluate learners’ conceptual understandings in addition to procedural under-
standings. These teachers also try to integrate ideas learned from professional development sessions, but adapt
the ideas to meet the needs of their pupils (Niess et al., 2009).
Exploring stage: The exploring stage of TPACK development according to Niess et al. (2009) corresponds to
a phase where technology-motivated teachers begin to review traditional lesson plans of various subject areas to
integrate ICT. As they navigate through the process, they identify which technology to integrate in a lesson plan
to facilitate pupils understanding of lesson concepts. Through the use of technology, these teachers facilitate pu-
pils’ learning by engaging them in critical thinking, explorations, problem solving and decision making. With
pupils’ learning and attitudes as a guiding factor, they “plan, implement and reflect on teaching and learning
outcomes” (Niess et al., 2009: p. 12). These teachers “share classroom-tested, technology-based lessons, ideas
and successes with peers” (Niess et al., 2009: p. 23). Furthermore, they organise themselves into groups to ex-
plore which curriculum area will require the use of technology to clarify abstract concepts. Likewise, the teach-
ers share their experiences of using technology in different subject areas with peers during staff meetings and
also design technology-driven assessments to facilitate the evaluation of pupils’ understandings (Niess et al.,
2009).
Advancing stage: In the advancing stage of TPACK development, teachers understand the need to innovate
various aspects of the school curriculum with technology. They proceed with the modification of the school cur-
riculum to integrate technology in every subject area. Their focus at this stage is the enhancement of learners’
level of understanding through engaging them in high-level thinking and self-directed learning.
Advancing teachers fully embrace technology and view it as a tool that facilitates the accessibility to addi-
tional learning materials that further enhances pupils’ understanding in various subjects in the school curriculum.
Niess et al. (2009: p. 22) observed that this category of teachers “plan, implement and reflect on teaching and
learning with concern and personal conviction for pupils’ thinking and understanding of the lesson to be en-
hanced through integration of the various technologies”. Besides, these highly motivated teachers are perceived
by their peers as very resourceful with novel ideas for teaching and learning with technology. They are often so-
licited by their less knowledgeable colleagues to help them through the difficulties they faced in integrating
technology in the curriculum (Niess et al., 2009).
Figure 1 is the TPACK developmental model that illustrates a better way of assessing teachers’ technology
integration skills. It analyses teachers’ activities in terms of four major themes that occur in the classroom con-
text. In presenting this model, Niess et al. (2009) noted that TPACK development is not a one-time progression.
Rather, it is an iterative process that teachers go through as they encounter new technologies which may be used
as learning tools. Through the various stages of TPACK development, a teacher moves from recognizing the

1700
 M. N. Ndongfack

benefits of a technology in accomplishing the goals of a given subject area to accepting its use, adapting lessons
to include use of the technology, exploring more areas in the curriculum where the technology could be used and
finally to advancing the depth of the curriculum under study through the use of the technology. The exploring
and advancing stages of TPACK development have a high focus on learners’ thinking. In these stages, teachers
design, implement and reflect on technology lessons and share proven technology lesson ideas with peers. This
could become a sustainable pathway for preparing Cameroon’s primary school teachers to adopt technology in
instructional processes.

2.2. TPACK in Teacher Professional Development Programmes

Since Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge was developed as a framework that guides the develop-
ment of teachers’ knowledge in the integration of ICT across the school curriculum, several researchers have
used the framework for different purposes. The available research regarding TPACK development is limited
primarily to pre-service teachers; however, some research is available to give insight into in-service teachers and
their TPACK. Richardson (2009) studied twenty middle school teachers in six schools. These teachers partici-
pated in professional development that sought to increase their TPACK. Data was collected through journal en-
tries, observations, and interactions during professional development activities. The study revealed a need for
professional development to focus on connecting content to technology and pedagogy, as well as focusing on the
multiple representations technology offers. During exit interviews, teachers exhibited a positive disposition to-
ward instructional technologies and also communicated that they perceived an increase in TPACK as they went
through the professional development programme.
Niess (2008) used the TPACK framework to administer professional development to mathematics teachers on
the use of ICT as a pedagogic tool. The study concluded that the majority of teachers testified that the frame-
work was very useful in developing not only their knowledge on the use of the tool in mathematics but also em-
powered them to develop the most needed 21st century skills.
At Arizona State University, researchers created a faculty development package based on TPACK. The pro-
gramme helped faculty staff design uses of Web 2.0 and social networking capabilities for their teacher educa-
tion courses. Results from suggest that faculty members appreciated the focus on content and pedagogy, as well
as technology, and that in some cases faculties were altering their content and/or pedagogy as a result of their
ability to afford the technology (Archambault, Wetzel, Foulger, & Williams, 2010). The TPACK framework for
the work thus helped in moving the focus from using social networking tools to designing uses of social net-
working tools that enhance content and pedagogy.
Schmidt, Seymour, Sahin, & Thompson (2008) also reflected on TPACK development in PreK-6 Teachers.
The researchers observed that TPACK framework acted like a new form of knowledge that requires teachers not
only to understand the complexity of relations between technology, pedagogy and content, but also proposes
solutions for their practices.
Avidov-Ungar & Nagar (2015) explore the TPACK framework within the implementation of the ICT pro-
gramme, to examine how the ICT instructors perceive the encouraging and inhibiting factors of the change im-
plementation, and to examine the factors predicting external district ICT instructors’ sense of empowerment in
comparison with internal school ICT instructors. The focus was to examine the knowledge power PICTK (Pro-
gram Information Communication Technology Knowledge) and TPACK knowledge (Technological Pedagogy
and Content Knowledge) on the sense of empowerment within them. The research findings clarify that the ICT
instructors’ sense of empowerment improves by enhancing their PICTK and TPACK knowledge. This sense of
empowerment helps the instructor in creating viewpoints on the implementation process and the National Pro-
gramme outcome. The researchers concluded that the ICT instructors’ viewpoints have unique significance to
understanding the change elements that the National ICT Programme created in the schools. It was therefore
recommended that they continue to encourage ICT instructors to expand their personal knowledge on the de-
veloping ICT programmes.

3. Theoretical Framework
According to Shulman (1986), effect teachers should demonstrate a firm mastery of content and pedagogy
knowledge in order to effectively teach in their classrooms. Based on this view, Shulman introduced the concept
of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) as the way pedagogy and content knowledge can be blended to pro-

1701
M. N. Ndongfack

vide an understanding on how particular topics can be represented and adapted to pupils’ characteristics, inter-
ests and abilities. Shulman (1987, 1986: p. 9) argued that PCK is the understanding of what makes the learning
of specific concepts easy or difficult and “embodies the aspects of content most germane to its teach-ability”. As
various ICTs started gaining the central stage in education, Mishra & Koehler (2006) proposed the integration
of technology into Shulman’s (1987) PCK model and named the resulting combination, Technological Peda-
gogical Content Knowledge (TPACK). Teaching successfully with technology requires continually creating,
maintaining, and re-establishing a dynamic equilibrium between the components of technology, pedagogy and
content.
The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework (Figure 2) provides a better ap-
proach for studying the complexity involved in integrating technology into different subject area (Mishra &
Koehler, 2006). It attempts to illustrate the fundamental knowledge teachers need in order to adopt technology
effectively in their classrooms. The framework present the knowledge teachers need to teach with and about tech-
nology across the school curriculum and in different levels of education. At the centre of the TPACK framework, is
the amalgamation of three primary forms of knowledge: Content Knowledge (CK), Pedagogical Knowledge (PK),
Technological Knowledge (TK) and their intersections with each other (Nkwenti Ndongfack, 2014).
Content knowledge (CK) is knowledge about the actual subject matter that is to be learned or taught (Mishra
& Koehler, 2006; Harris, Mishra, & Koehler, 2009). Different levels of an educational system such as the pri-
mary and secondary have a way of structuring their content. The degree of difficulty of the content varies as the
level of education or grade level increases thus necessitating the teacher to a have strong mastery of content
knowledge. As Shulman (1986) noted, content knowledge would include: knowledge of concepts, theories, ideas,
organizational frameworks, knowledge of evidence and proof, as well as established practices and approaches
towards developing such knowledge.
Pedagogical knowledge (PK) is deep knowledge of the processes and practices or methods of teaching and
learning and how it encompasses, among other things, overall educational purposes, values, and aims (Mishra &
Koehler, 2006). It also includes knowledge of different theories about learning, learning styles, planning,

Figure 2. The TPACK framework and its knowledge components extracted from
Harris, Mishra, & Koehler (2009).

1702
 M. N. Ndongfack

management and evaluation. Furthermore, it includes knowledge about techniques or methods used in the class-
room; the nature of the target audience; and strategies for evaluating pupils’ understanding (Kanuka, 2006). A
teacher with deep pedagogical knowledge understands how pupils construct knowledge and acquire skills, and
how they develop habits of the mind and positive dispositions towards learning. As such, pedagogical know-
ledge requires an understanding of cognitive, social and developmental theories of learning and how they apply
to pupils in the classroom (Harris et al., 2009).
Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is knowledge of how to combine pedagogy and content effectively, as
conceptualized by Shulman (1987). Central to Shulman’s conceptualization of PCK is the notion of the trans-
formation of the subject matter for teaching. According to Shulman (1987), this transformation occurs as the
teacher interprets the subject matter, finds multiple ways to represent it, and adapts and tailors the instructional
materials to alternative conceptions and pupils’ prior knowledge. Mishra & Koehler (2006) held that this works
well if teachers know the teaching approach that fit the content and how elements of the content are arranged for
better understanding.
Technology knowledge (TK) is knowledge about standard technologies used in the instructional process such
as books, chalk and blackboard to more advanced technologies such as the computer, internet connection and
digital video (Mishra & Koehler, 2006; Harris et al., 2009). TK does go beyond digital knowledge to having
knowledge of how to change the purpose of existing technologies so that they can be used in a technology-
enhanced learning environment. The integration of technology in teaching and learning requires a deeper under-
standing of the complex set of interrelationships between pedagogy, content, tools, learners, and context (Mishra
& Koehler, 2006).
Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) deals with the manner in which technology and content are reci-
procally related. TCK helps teachers imagine instances where technology can be effectively integrated into their
teaching (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Although technology constrains the kinds of representations possible, newer
technologies often afford newer and more varied representations and greater flexibility in navigating across
these representations (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). For example, significant developments can be realized by using
computer simulations in subject areas where pupils have difficulties to understand. In teaching the planetary
system in a geography lesson for example, a teacher can use a computer simulation programme to illustrate what
happens in space.
Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) requires an understanding of general pedagogical strategies ap-
plied to the use of technology (Koehler & Mishra, 2009). Furthermore, it is knowledge of the existence, compo-
nents, and capabilities of various technologies as they are used in teaching and learning settings, and conversely,
knowing how teaching might change as the result of using particular technologies. Koehler & Mishra (2009)
observed that majority of popular computer software are not designed for educational purposes. They are pro-
duced for businesses, entertainment, communications, and social-interaction purposes. Thus this knowledge will
include the understanding of how the software created for other purposes can be used to achieve an educational
goal. The ability to choose an ICT based on its usefulness and strategies for using the tool; knowledge of peda-
gogical strategies and the ability to apply those strategies for use of technologies; knowledge of tools for main-
taining class records, attendance, and grading, and knowledge of generic technology-based ideas such as discus-
sion boards like forums and chat rooms (Mishra & Koehler, 2006).
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) is thus a framework to understand and describe
the kinds of knowledge needed by a teacher for effective pedagogical practice in a technology enhanced
learning environment (Harris & Hoffer, 2009). It is an emergent form of knowledge that goes beyond all three
components (content, pedagogy and technology). TPACK is the basis for effective use of technology in
teaching and a condition for efficient adoption of ICT in the teaching and learning process (Koehler & Mishra,
2008). This knowledge is different from knowledge of a particular subject and also from the general peda-
gogical knowledge shared by teachers across disciplines. A better application of TPACK requires an under-
standing of the representation of concepts using technologies; pedagogical techniques that use technologies in
constructive ways to teach content; knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn and how
technology can help redress some of the problems that pupils face; understanding of pupils’ prior knowledge
and theories of epistemology; and knowledge of how technologies can be used to build on existing knowledge
and to develop new epistemologies or strengthen old ones (Koehler & Mishra, 2008). Thus, teachers need to
develop competencies and be cognitively flexible enough in not only each of these key domains (T, P, and C)
but also in the manner in which these domains interrelate so that they can be able to implement them in diversi-

1703
M. N. Ndongfack

fied situations (Harris et al., 2009).

Harris et al. (2009) cautioned that teaching with technology is a difficult thing to do and thus the TPACK
framework suggests that Content, Pedagogy, and Technology have roles to play individually and collectively.
Teaching successfully with technology requires continually creating, maintaining, and re-establishing a dynamic
equilibrium between each component.
Since the in-service primary school teachers’ professional development programme was initially focused on
skill-based training, TPACK is used in this study to guide the evaluation of teachers Technological Pedagogical
Content Knowledge. This will enable us to clearly discern what skills they need to sustainably adopt technology
in their classrooms.

4. Methodology
The study employed quantitative research methodology in the determination of the skills teachers need to adopt
technology in the teaching and learning process. According to the Ministry of Basic Education Statistical Year
Book (2011), there are 53,452 government primary school teachers teaching in 14,712 primary schools nation-
wide. Regarding the teaching staff, 57% of them are female while 43% are male; 50% of the teachers teach in
urban schools, 30% teach in semi urban schools and 20% teach in rural schools. To get an appropriate sample
size for the study, the Research Advisors (2006) spreadsheets application was used. The results study yielded
382 teachers thus approximately 218 females and 164 males at a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error
(degree of accuracy) of 5%. For easy distribution of the sample size across the ten Regions and taking into con-
sideration gender and location of the teachers, the researcher increased the number to 400 (230 females and
170 males) teachers which is greater than the minimum sample size suggested by Research Advisor (2006).
Table 1 indicates the demographic information of teacher-participants in terms of gender, age, and teaching
experience. The bulk of the participants were females because 52.5% of teachers in Cameroon primary
schools are females.
The sample size for schools yielded 378 as per the Research Advisor application at the same confidence in-
terval. The Statistical Year Book reveals that, 38% of the primary schools are in urban settlements; 22% in semi-
urban settlements and 40% are in rural settlements. To ensure that the schools where the teacher-participants
will be drawn from are adequately distributed, proportionate sampling technique was applied in the selection of
schools from each region taking into consideration the type of settlement (Moore & McCabe, 2005). A Propor-
tionate sampling technique is used when the researcher knows the distribution of target schools or population
across a set of groups and when there is a desire to ensure that minorities are properly represented in the study.
This guideline enabled the researchers to identify the groups to be used for the sub-segments and the proportion
of the population in each group. To get the sample for each group, the percentages were multiplied by the total
sample size. Table 2 indicates the distribution of participating schools per Region in terms of school location.
The Centre Region had the highest number of schools because it has the highest number of schools. It is worth
noting that the schools were distributed in terms of the number of schools in each Region.

Table 1. Demographic information of teacher-participants.

Description Male Female

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Participants 170 42.5 230 57.5

Age <32 years 57 14.25 72 18

≥32 years 113 28.25 158 39.5

≤5 years 44 11 67 16.75

6 - 10 years 49 12.25 53 13.25

Teaching
experience
11 - 15 years 44 11 60 15

≥15 years 33 8.25 50 12.5

1704
 M. N. Ndongfack

Table 2. Number of participating schools from each region in terms of school location.

School location
Region Number of primary schools
Rural Semi-Urban Urban

Adamawa 22 9 5 8

Centre 65 26 14 25

East 23 9 5 9

Far North 50 20 11 19

Littoral 43 17 9 17

North 29 12 6 11

North West 49 19 11 18

West 47 19 10 18

South 29 12 7 11

South West 21 8 5 8

Total 378 151 83 144

5. Data Collection
Quantitative data was collected through a nation-wide survey involving 400 in-service primary school teachers.
To respond to the research question, survey questionnaires containing Likert Scale items were administered to
400 teacher-participants selected using the stratified random sampling technique from the 10 Regions of Came-
roon.
The questionnaire included:
• Demographic items related to name of the school, gender, age and teaching experience;
• Seven Technology Knowledge (TK) items;
• Twelve Content Knowledge (CK) items;
• Seven Pedagogical Knowledge (PK) items;
• Four Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) items;
• Four Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) items;
• Four Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) items;
• Six Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) items;
Each item in the sets of questionnaires was rated with a 5-point Likert-scale with each response associated
with a numeric value (1 to 5) to ensure the reliability of measurement (Thorndike, 2005). The responses to the
questionnaire were anonymous. The instruments were adapted from previous similar studies in the field notably
from Schmidt, Baran, Thompson, Koehler, Mishra, & Shin (2009); Archambault & Crippen (2009). To further
guarantee the reliability of the data collection instruments, they were pilot tested with teachers not taking part in
the study. The scores obtained from the returned pilot questionnaires were assessed using Cronbach’s alpha
(Hogan, Benjamin, & Brezinski, 2000). The test items were designed to investigate teachers’ knowledge of
technology, pedagogy and content.
Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 17 was used to analyse the quantitative data in the form of
mean and standard deviation.

6. Findings
Research question: What additional set of skills do in-service primary school teachers require to adequately
adopt technology in the teaching and learning process?
To answer this research question, a total of 400 teacher-participants were surveyed on the seven TPACK
knowledge constructs notably: Technological Knowledge (TK); Content Knowledge (CK); Pedagogical Know-
ledge (PK); Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK); Technological Content Knowledge (TCK); Technological

1705
M. N. Ndongfack

Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK); and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK). All the seven
constructs were made up of 44 test items.
Figure 3 indicates the mean and standard deviation of survey conducted to determine the additional set of
skills teachers need to adopt technology in instructional processes. It can be observed that the constructs of
Technological Knowledge (TK), Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) and Technological Pedagogical
Content Knowledge (TPACK), all scored a mean of less than 3.00 (M < 3.00). The construct of Pedagogical
Knowledge (PK), scored a mean greater than 3.00 (M > 3.00) while the constructs of Content Knowledge (CK),
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) and Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) all registered higher
means (M > 4.00).

7. Discussion of Findings
The research question was formulated to investigate the type of skills teacher-participants need in terms of
technology, pedagogy and content knowledge. The respondents were surveyed on three knowledge domains:
technology, pedagogy and content which were further broken down into seven constructs namely: Technological
Knowledge (TK), Content Knowledge (TK), Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), Pedagogical Content Knowledge
(PCK), Technological Content Knowledge (TCK), Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), and Tech-
nological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK). Mishra & Koehler (2006) in a study had demonstrated
that teachers can effectively teach with technology if they are able to blend technology, pedagogy and content
knowledge. This assertion has been widely investigated and confirmed by other researchers in both pre and
in-service teacher programmes (Niess, 2008; Archambault et al., 2010; Schmidt et al., 2008).
The findings of the survey indicated that teacher-participants reported a better mastery of content knowledge
(CK), pedagogy knowledge (PK), pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and technological content knowledge
(TCK). In the researcher’s view, this can be justified by the fact that before the introduction of technology in
2007 in the pre-service teachers’ training programme, their curriculum was essentially focused on developing
their knowledge of pedagogy and content. Shulman (1986) introduced Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)
in teachers’ programmes as an approach that relates to the transformation of several types of knowledge. These
types of knowledge include an understanding of what makes the learning of specific concepts easy or difficult.
More explicitly, PCK is based on assisting teachers to critically reflect on and interpret the subject matter; find
multiple ways to represent the information as analogies, metaphors, examples, problems, demonstrations, and/or
classroom activities; adapt the material to pupils’ developmental levels and abilities, gender, prior knowledge,
and misconceptions; and finally tailor the material to those specific individuals or groups of pupils to whom the
content will be taught. Pre-service teachers, upon graduation must demonstrate a mastery of pedagogy and con-
tent knowledge. Given that their professional development programme has been computer skill-based, they
equally demonstrated a strong mastery of technological content knowledge (ICT Policy and Strategy Plan for
Basic Education, 2007).

Mean STD

4 4.1 4.1
3.81

2.53 2.55 2.49

1.01 1.01 0.99

0.81 0.67 0.67
0.45

TK CK PK PCK TCK TPK TPACK

Figure 3. Mean and standard deviation of each construct in the nation-

wide survey.

1706
 M. N. Ndongfack

On the other hand, the survey findings indicated that teacher-participants reported weaknesses in three other
constructs notably TK, TPK, and TPACK. These weaknesses in the researcher’s opinion can be justified by the
fact that most teachers graduated from the pre-service programme when ICT had not yet been introduced in their
curriculum. A majority of the in-service primary school teachers have been practising for more than five years
as observed in the demographic information of those who took part in the study. Besides, the pre-service teach-
ers’ ICT curriculum does not lay emphasis on blending technology, pedagogy and content knowledge. Its focus
is on teaching some basic computer skills using Microsoft Office applications as a standalone programme. Sev-
eral researchers have warned that although basic computing skills constitute the cornerstone of ICT knowledge,
skill-based courses are not enough to prepare teachers to integrate ICT in classroom instruction as they are
usually taught in isolation from a pedagogical context (Harris et al., 2009; Mishra & Koehler, 2006).
Although the professional development model that has been in practice does not offer enough time to teachers
to learn how to use technology in pedagogic practices, its content does not very much change from the pre-
service teacher ICT curriculum. The study was one of the first to be conducted in Cameroon to introduce the no-
tion of blending technology, pedagogy and content knowledge in teaching. It is hoped that after attending a pro-
fessional development programme, teachers will be able to blend technology, pedagogy and content knowledge
in the teaching-learning process.

8. Conclusion
The TPACK framework constitutes a rich package of knowledge that each teacher should possess to effectively
adopt ICTs in his/her classrooms in preparing learners not only for the knowledge economy but for the technol-
ogy-driven society. The premise of the TPACK framework suggests that if teachers have appropriate knowledge
in all of these areas, it can promote pupils’ learning. The findings of the survey indicated that teacher-partici-
pants reported a better mastery of content knowledge (CK) and pedagogy knowledge (PK). This can be justified
by the fact that their pre-service programmes are essentially focused on developing their knowledge of pedagogy
and content separately. The weaknesses demonstrated in the three constructs of TK, TPK and TPACK are based
on the fact that their professional development programme does not lay emphasis on blending technology, pe-
dagogy and content knowledge. The focus is on empowering them with some basic computer skills and not how
to integrate them in the teaching and learning process. By effectively identifying the types of knowledge teach-
ers need (content, pedagogy, technology, contexts and their interactions), teacher trainers will be in a better po-
sition to design instructional packages that can empower them to adopt the tool in teaching and learning. For this
reason, it is highly recommended that training experts assess teachers’ technology adoption needs based on the
TPACK framework. This will ensure that the professional development programme is implemented in a way
that it integrates technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge-based activities. This might increase the chances
of teachers using technology in their classroom after attending a TPACK professional development programme.

References
Archambault, L., & Crippen, K. (2009). Examining TPACK among K-12 Online Distance Educators in the United States.
Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9, 71-88.
http://www.citejournal.org/vol9/iss1/general/article2.cfm
Archambault, L., Wetzel, K., Foulger, T. S., & Williams, M. K. (2010). Professional Development 2.0: Transforming
Teacher Education Pedagogy with 21st Century Tools. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 27, 4-11.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21532974.2010.10784651
Avidov-Ungar, O., & Nagar, N. M. (2015). ICT Instructors’ Sense of Empowerment and Viewpoint on the Implementation
of a National ICT Program. Journal of Computers in Education, 2, 163-182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40692-015-0030-5
Buckingham, D., & Willett, R. (2006). Digital Generations: Children, Young People, and New Media. Mahwah, NJ: Law-
rence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Fru, M. (2011). ICT Readiness in Cameroon Primary Schools: A Case Study of Some Primary Schools Yaounde 6 Sub-Di-
vision. A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of an Award of a Master’s Degree in Education, Cameroon: Univer-
sity of Yaounde I.
Harris, J. B., & Hofer, M. (2011). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Action: A Descriptive Study of Sec-
ondary Teachers’ Curriculum-Based, Technology-Related Instructional Planning. Journal of Research on Technology in
Education, 43, 211-229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2011.10782570

1707
M. N. Ndongfack

Harris, J., Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. (2009). Teachers’ Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Learning Activ-
ity Types: Curriculum-Based Technology Integration Reframed. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 41,
393-416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2009.10782536
Harrison, C., Comber, C., Fisher, T., Haw, K., Lewin, C., Lunzer, E., McFarlane, A., Mavers, D., Scrimshaw, P., Somekh, B.,
& Watling, R. (2002). ImpacCT2: The Impact of Information and Communication Technologies on Pupil Learning and
Attainment. London: DfES and Becta.
Hogan, T. P., Benjamin, A., & Brezinski, K. (2000). Reliability Methods: A Plans on the Frequency of Use of Various Types.
Educational and Psychological Measurement, 60, 523-531. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00131640021970691
Inspectorate of Pedagogy in Charge of ICT (2009). Annual Report on the Teaching and Learning of ICT across the School
Curriculum.
Inspectorate of Pedagogy in Charge of ICT (2010). Annual Report on the Teaching and Learning of ICT across the School
Curriculum.
Inspectorate of Pedagogy in Charge of ICT (2011). Annual Report on the Teaching and Learning of ICT across the School
Curriculum.
Kalantzis, M., & Cope, B. (2008). New Learning. Elements of Science of Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511811951
Kanuka, H. (2006). Instructional Design and eLearning: A Discussion of Pedagogical Content Knowledge as a Missing Con-
struct. The e-Journal of Instructional Science and Technology, 9.
Karsenti, T., Collin, S., & Harper-Merrete, T. (2012). Pedagogical Integration of ICT: Success and Challenges from 100+
African Schools. Ottawa, ON: IDRC.
Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2008). Introducing Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge. In AACTE Committee on
Innovation and Technology (Eds.), Handbook of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) for Educators
(pp. 3-29). New York: Routledge.
Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What Is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge? Contemporary Issues in
Technology and Teacher Education, 9, 60-70.
Kozma, R. (2005). National Policies That Connect ICT-Based Education Reform to Economic and Social Development.
Human Technology, 1, 117-156. http://dx.doi.org/10.17011/ht/urn.2005355
Leu, D. J., Kinzer, C. K., Coiro, J. L., & Cammack, D. W. (2004). Toward a Theory of New Literacies Emerging from the
Internet and Other Information and Communication Technologies. In R. B. Ruddell, & N. J. Unrau (Eds.), Theoretical
Models and Processes of Reading (5th ed., p. 1570). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Lieberman, A., & Pointer Mace, D. H. (2008). Teacher Learning: The Key to Educational Reform. Journal of Teacher Edu-
cation, 59, 226-234. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022487108317020
McDonald, S. E. (2009). A Model of Teacher Professional Development Based on the Principles of Lesson Study. PhD The-
sis, Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology.
Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A New Framework for Teacher
Knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108, 1017-1054. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00684.x
Moore, D. S., & McCabe, G. P. (2005). Introduction to the Practice of Statistics (5th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman &
Company.
Niess, M. L. (2008). Knowledge Needed for Teaching with Technologies: Call It TPACK. AMTE Connections, 17, 9-10.
Niess, M. L., Ronau, R. N., Shafer, K. G., Driskell, S. O., Harper, S. R., & Johnston, C. (2009). Mathematics Teacher
TPACK Standards and Development Model. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9, 4-24.
Nkwenti Ndongfack, M. (2010). ICT Integration in Cameroon Primary Schools: A Case Study of Government Primary
Practicing School Angele, South Region. A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of an Award of a Master’s De-
gree in Instructional Design and Technology, Kuala Lumpur: Open University Malaysia.
Nkwenti Ndongfack, M. (2014). Development and Evaluation of a Technology Integration Model for Primary School
Teachers to Achieve Cameroon’s 2035 Vision. A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of an Award of a PhD in Educa-
tional Technology, Kuala Lumpur: Open University Malaysia.
Nkwenti Ndongfack, M. (2015). Mastery of Active and Shared Learning Processes for Techno-Pedagogy (MASLEPT): A
Model for Teacher Professional Development on Technology Integration. Creative Education, 6, 32-45.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2015.61003
OECD (2009). 21st Century Skills and Competences for New Millennium Learners in OECD Countries. OECD Education
Working Papers, No. 41, OECD publishing, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/224131752784

1708
 M. N. Ndongfack

Partnership for the 21st Century (2009). A Framework for 21st Century Learning. Washington DC: Partnership for the 21st
Century.
Republic of Cameroon, Ministry of Basic Education (Department of Projects and Cooperation) (2011). Statistical Year Book.
Republic of Cameroon, Ministry of Basic Education (Inspectorate of Pedagogy in Charge of Computer Science Education)
(2007a). Information and Communication Technology Policy and Strategies Plan.
Republic of Cameroon, Ministry of Basic Education (Inspectorate of Pedagogy in Charge of Computer Science Education)
(2007b). Information and Communication Technology Framework and strategies Plan for Basic Education Sub-Sector.
Richardson, S. (2009). Mathematics Teachers Development, Exploration, and Advancement of Technological Pedagogical
Content Knowledge in the Teaching and Learning of Algebra. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education,
9, 117-130. http://www.citejournal.org/vol9/iss2/mathematics/article1.cf
Schmidt, D. A., Baran, E., Thompson, A. D., Koehler, M. J., Shin, T. S., & Mishra, P. (2009). Technology, Pedagogy and
Content Knowledge (TPACK): The Development and Validation of an Assessment Instrument for Pre-Service Teachers.
Paper Accepted for Presentation at American Educational Research Association (AERA) Annual Meeting, San Diego.
Schmidt, D., Seymour, J., Sahin, E., & Thompson, A. (2008). Developing Effective Technological Pedagogical and Content
Knowledge (TPACK) in PreK-6 Teachers. In K. McFerrin, R. Weber, R. Carlsen, & D. A. Willis (Eds.), Proceedings of
Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2008 (pp. 5313-5317).
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching. Educational Researcher, 15, 4-14.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0013189X015002004
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the New Reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1-22.
http://dx.doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411
The Research Advisors (2006). http://research-advisors.com/tools/SampleSize.htm
Thorndike, R. M. (2005). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Valanides, N., & Angeli, C. (2006). Preparing Pre-Service Elementary Teachers to Teach Science through Computer Models.
Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 6, 87-98.

1709

View publication stats