A-Level Computer Science

Internet Communications
Data Packets

We have already learnt how the Internet is a massive network of networks, but how does
data travel around the ginormous network? Data packets are the answer!

When files are sent over the internet they are split into millions of data packets. Packets
get sent by different routes according to availability. When you send a file online, the
parts of the file might travel one way around the world and the other parts may go in the
opposite direction! Packets are reassembled at receiving end.

Typical packet structure:

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The amazing way that data is sent across the internet:

IP addressing, MAC addressing, and protocols

So, we have now seen how data is sent around

networks in data
packets,
but because the
internet has
billions of computers and
devices attached to it,
these devices will only be able to
communicate with one
another if they ‘speak the
same language’ (i.e. if these data
packets are produced and
sent in the same standard way). Because of this, the internet is full of protocols, which is
really just a fancy name for rules. By manufacturing nodes and network devices to adhere
to these rules, all devices on the internet can work effectively. We shall now take a look at
some of the major protocols which enables the internet to work. They sound scary but
they really are not!
MAC Addresses

Just like humans have postal addresses, every network card in the world has a MAC
address (MAC - Media Access Control). A MAC address is hard coded into each and
every network device and cannot change. It is a 12-digit hexadecimal number (e.g.
56:b3:8f:90:64:ef). It is there so that data being sent over a network can be sent to the
correct network card. It is known as a PHYSICAL ADDRESS
IP Addresses

Just like each network card will have a MAC address, every computer on a network will
have an IP address. They are usually a 32bit number written as 4 decimal numbers (e.g.:

129.168.1.101). They are required for the same reason…so that data being sent over a
network can be sent to the correct node. The main difference is that an IP address is not
hard coded into the computer. It can change and is therefore said to be dynamic. The
reason for this is so that on a network, similar types of hardware can be grouped by being
assigned similar IP addresses. For example, computers could all be given an IP address
starting 190, printers could be given an IP address staring 200 and so on. This means that
different types of device can be more easily managed on a network.
The TCP/IP Protocol
This is probably the most important protocol as it determines how all data is sent over the
internet. Actually it is made up of two protocols:

TCP – Transmission Control Protocol

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We saw earlier how data is split into packets before being sent across the internet. The
TCP defines the rules for this.

 It ensures all data is split up into data packets in the same way.
 It ensures that these data packets are put back together when received by the
destination device.
 It also ensures that any data received is the same as that sent.

IP – Internet Protocol
This rule is in place to ensure that data packets are directed towards their destination in
the most appropriate way (which may not be the shortest way).

This is called ‘Packet Switching’ and we will now look at this in more detail.
Packet Switching

TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol

Circuit
Switching – an
alternative to
packet

switching
Packet switching is a great way of enabling two or more devices to connect on
communication lines that are shared by a vast number of other devices.

As the internet consists of a network of communication channels that are shared by

millions of users, it is in fact the only efficient way that data can be sent to the right users
on a shared line.

Circuit switching is another way to connect two devices, but this method is actually
inferior (when compared to packet switching) in many ways.
Circuit switching is when two devices are connected together on a dedicated
communication channel. This is the case when people phone one another. The
switchboard route calls from one person to another. This does bring the advantage of the
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data being sent in order meaning that there is no delay in receiving the data (voice call).
However, this massively wastes bandwidth as others cannot use the same communication
channels. Furthermore, it can only be used by two devices which send and receive data
at the same rate.

Nevertheless, circuit witching is another way that data can be sent from one device to
the other, even if it is a less efficient in certain ways.

World Wide Web (website) Protocols

HTTP – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

This is the protocol which governs the way in which websites and web servers are
accessed by web browsers. By conforming to the same standards it means that all
browsers can access all websites on the WWW.
HTTPS – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (SECURE)
This protocol is almost identical to HTTP. The only difference is that it ensures all data being
sent is encrypted and so makes web data communication far more secure.

File Transfer (Upload, Download, Read and Write) Protocols

FTP – File Transfer Protocol

If you have your documents / files stored on a file server, the way you access them will be
governed by the File Transfer Protocol. This standard (FTP) ensure that all clients
(computers) on a network can access files from a server in the same way.

Email Protocols
POP – Post Office Protocol

This is the protocol which governs how emails are accessed from a server. Email clients will
use this protocol to access emails from a server in the same way.
IMAP – Internet Message Access Protocol

This is similar to POP but with one important difference. With IMAP, the email will remain on
the server once it has been downloaded by a mail client. This allows other devices to also

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access the emails which is important for users with multiple devices – they can synchronise
their emails across all devices.

SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

This protocol governs how data is sent between mail servers. By conforming to the same
standards, emails can be sent to and from all mail servers across the internet.

The Layers of a Network

All these protocols which enable the internet to function correctly can be divided into
‘Layers of the Internet’. Each layer has similar functions, and each layer provides a base
for the layer above it – in other words, each layer does all the hard work for the layer
above it!

For example, if you are accessing a website (HTTP - layer 4), it requires data to be split into
packets and sent across the internet (TCP – layer 3 / IP – layer 2), which in turns requires
the physical transport of data via cables (cables / Wi-Fi – layer 1).

Physical Vs Logical Protocols

The protocols that govern the internet can be grouped into two categories: Physical &
Logical.
Physical protocols are rules which govern the physical mediums through which the data is
travelling which might be via cables or using wireless technology.

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Logical protocols are rules which govern the data being sent, for example, packet size or
routing.

Handshaking

When two devices communicate over the internet they need to decide on certain
protocols and this process is known as handshaking. It is simply carried out by one device
sending a list of protocols to use to another device and receiving an acknowledgement
back in return. If the devices fail to agree with the choice of protocols, another set must
be chosen, or they will fail to communicate.

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