1-2.

hafta chapter 7

Types of Social Influence – Lecture Notes

1. Social Psychology and Social Influence

 Gordon Allport (1954): Social psychology studies how individuals'

thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual,
imagined, or implied presence of others.

2. Types of Social Influence

1. Conformity

o Adjusting one's behavior or beliefs to match the group.

o Normative influence: Conforming to be liked or accepted.

o Informational influence: Conforming due to a lack of

knowledge, relying on others for guidance.

o Example: Solomon Asch’s conformity experiment (1951).

2. Compliance

o Changing behavior in response to a direct request.

o Techniques:

 Foot-in-the-door: Small request followed by a larger

request.

 Door-in-the-face: Large request followed by a more

reasonable one.

 Low-ball: Offering a good deal, then changing the terms.

3. Obedience

o Following direct orders from an authority figure.

o Example: Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiment (1963).

4. Persuasion

o Changing attitudes through communication.

o Factors affecting persuasion:

 Source (credibility, attractiveness).

 Message (logic, emotions).

 Audience (involvement, prior knowledge).

o Example: Political campaigns, advertisements.

 5. Social Facilitation and Inhibition

o Social facilitation: Improved performance on simple tasks in

the presence of others.

o Social inhibition: Decreased performance on complex tasks

when observed.

6. Group Influence

o Groupthink: Decision-making process where the desire for

harmony leads to poor choices.

o Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in groups, leading to

impulsive behavior.

o Social loafing: People exerting less effort in group tasks.

3. Applications of Social Influence

 Marketing and advertising strategies.

 Leadership and authority in organizations.

 Social norms and behavioral change campaigns.

 Political propaganda and mass influence.

Obedience to Authority – Summary Notes

1. Solomon Asch’s Conformity Study (1951)

 Participants conformed to incorrect judgments of line length.

 Critics argued the task was trivial with no significant consequences.

2. Stanley Milgram’s Criticism and Experiment (1963, 1974, 1992)

 Criticized Asch’s study for its lack of real consequences.

 Designed an experiment where participants believed they were

administering electric shocks.

 Originally intended as a conformity study but became an obedience

study.

3. Influence of Adolf Eichmann’s Trial (1963)

 Eichmann, a Nazi officer, claimed he was "just following orders."

 Hannah Arendt’s Eichmann in Jerusalem described this as the

banality of evil.

4. Agentic State Theory

  People obey authority by transferring responsibility to the authority
figure.

5. Milgram’s Experiment Procedure

 Participants thought they were in a study on punishment and

learning.

 Randomly assigned roles: ‘teacher’ (real participant) and ‘learner’

(confederate).

 Teachers administered shocks for incorrect answers, increasing from

15V to 450V.

 Learners (actors) responded with increasing distress, eventually

becoming unresponsive.

 Experimenter pressured teachers to continue, using phrases like "the

experiment requires you to continue."

6. Key Findings

 Baseline study results: 62.5% of participants administered the

maximum shock (450V).

 Factors influencing obedience:

o Immediacy of the victim: Higher obedience when the victim

was unseen.

o Authority pressure: Participants continued due to perceived

obligation.

o Gradual commitment (foot-in-the-door effect):

Increasingly severe shocks made stopping harder.

 Cross-cultural replications:

o Over 90% obedience in Spain & Netherlands.

o Over 80% in Italy, Germany, Austria.

o Lower rates in Australia (40% for men, 16% for women).

7. Ethical Concerns and Later Replications

 Milgram’s study raised ethical issues due to deception and

psychological distress.

 Burger (2009) conducted a partial replication with slightly lower

obedience rates.

8. Psychological Theories Related to Obedience

  Sunk cost fallacy: People continue harmful actions because they
have already committed.

 Dehumanization: Easier to harm others when they are perceived

as distant or less human.

Summary Notes on "The Ethical Legacy of Milgram’s Experiments

& Conformity"

The Ethical Legacy of Milgram’s Experiments

 Milgram’s study caused debate over research ethics.

 Participants believed they were administering painful electric shocks.

 Follow-up studies found no evidence of psychological harm.

o 83.7% were glad to have participated.

o 1.3% regretted participation.

 Ethical concerns revolve around three questions:

1. Is the research important? If not, the stress is unjustifiable.

2. Can participants freely terminate the experiment?

 Milgram’s study did not make it explicit that participants

could leave.

3. Did participants give informed consent?

 They volunteered but were deceived about the

experiment’s true purpose.

 Deception in research (Kelman, 1967):

o Used either to make people participate in unpleasant studies

(unethical)

o Or to study psychological processes while keeping participants

unaware of the true goal (more acceptable).

 Modern ethical standards require:

o Fully informed consent.

o Clear right to withdraw without penalty.

o Full debriefing after participation.

 Today’s ethical standards are stricter than those in Milgram’s

time.
Conformity & Social Influence

 Conformity = Deep-seated, private, and lasting changes in

behavior due to group pressure.

 Social influence affects behavior not only through obedience but

also through conformity to group norms.

Sherif’s Conformity Study (1936)

 Frame of reference: People look to others to determine correct

behavior in uncertain situations.

 Autokinesis experiment:

o A stationary light in the dark appears to move (optical illusion).

o Alone → participants developed personal estimates of

movement.

o In groups → estimates converged into a shared group norm.

o Even when alone later, participants continued to follow the

group norm.

 Conclusion: Group norms emerge naturally and shape behavior.

Asch’s Conformity Study (1952)

 Built on Sherif’s ideas but tested unambiguous situations.

 If a task is clear and obvious, people should not be influenced by

others.

 However, in his line judgment experiment, many participants still

conformed to incorrect majority answers.

 Key finding: Even when people know the correct answer, they may
conform to group pressure.

Norms & Behavior Change (Lewin, 1947)

 Study on American housewives (WWII)

o Goal: Encourage eating beef hearts & kidneys.

o Three groups:

 Information-only group (just received facts).

 Discussion group (discussed and formed a group

norm).

o Results:
  3% of the information group changed behavior.

 32% of the norm group changed behavior.

o Conclusion: Establishing norms is more effective than just

giving information.

Key Takeaways on Conformity

 People conform to reduce uncertainty and be socially accepted.

 Norms emerge naturally and influence long-term behavior.

 Group discussions can create lasting social change.

 Even in clear situations, people may yield to majority pressure.

Özeti daha kapsamlı bir şekilde yapmadığım için özür dilerim! İşte
Conformity (Uyum) hakkında daha detaylı bir özet:

1. Definition of Conformity:

 Conformity refers to the act of changing one's behavior or beliefs

to align with the group norms, often in response to real or imagined
group pressure.

2. Individual Differences in Conformity:

 People with certain personality traits are more likely to conform.

These include those with low self-esteem, a high need for social
approval, or those feeling socially anxious or inferior.

 However, personality is not the only determinant—situational factors

can often influence conformity more.

3. Gender Differences in Conformity:

 Generally, women tend to conform more than men, especially in

situations where they feel less knowledgeable or competent.

 This difference may be due to a greater emphasis in women on

maintaining social harmony.

 In contrast, men sometimes resist group influence in public settings

or when it threatens their individuality.

4. Cultural Differences in Conformity:

 Collectivist cultures (e.g., many Asian cultures) promote

conformity as it supports group cohesion and harmony.

 Individualist cultures (e.g., many Western cultures) encourage

independence, making people less likely to conform.
5. Situational Factors Influencing Conformity:

 Group Size: The larger the group, the more likely people are to
conform, though this effect levels off after a group size of 3-5
people.

 Unanimity: When all group members agree, conformity is stronger.

However, even one dissenting voice can significantly reduce
conformity.

6. Types of Influence in Conformity:

 Informational Influence: This occurs when individuals conform

because they believe others possess accurate information. This is
common in ambiguous or uncertain situations, where people look to
others for guidance.

 Normative Influence: This is driven by the desire to fit in or be

accepted by others, leading people to outwardly conform without
changing their private beliefs.

7. Support and Dissent:

 Having an ally (someone who shares your opinion) can reduce the
pressure to conform, especially if that ally is seen as credible.

 Even an incompetent dissenter can reduce the overall conformity in

a group, as it breaks the majority’s unanimous influence.

8. Other Influences on Conformity:

 Status and Expertise: People are more likely to conform to those

they perceive as more knowledgeable or higher in status within the
group.

 Public vs. Private Responses: People are more likely to conform

in public settings due to the desire to avoid social disapproval, but
they may not feel the same pressure in private.

Here’s a bullet-point summary of the topic "Minority Influence and Social

Change":

1. Majority vs. Minority Influence

 Social influence research often focuses on how individuals conform

to the majority, but the impact of minorities on the majority has
been less explored.

 In certain situations, minorities can influence the majority and bring

about change.
2. Advantages of Minority Influence

 Minorities tend to be smaller in number and are often perceived as

having less legitimate power compared to the majority.

 In Asch’s (1952) experiments, a single deviant was ridiculed by the

majority.

 However, despite having less power, minorities can still influence the
majority in certain conditions.

3. Historical Examples of Minority Influence

 Minorities often bring about social change by introducing new ideas

or innovations. For example, in the 1960s, small civil rights groups
influenced broader societal change.

 Historical movements, such as the civil rights movement, feminist

movements, and LGBTQ+ rights, were initiated and supported by
small minority groups pushing for equality.

4. Social Change through Minority Influence

 Minorities often drive social change by standing firm on certain

issues, leading to shifts in the collective mindset of society.

 Over time, what was once considered an "extreme" or "unpopular"

opinion may become accepted as the new norm (e.g., women’s right
to vote, same-sex marriage).

5. Consistency and Commitment

 For minority influence to be effective, the minority must

demonstrate consistency in its views and commitment to its cause.

 Minorities that exhibit unwavering commitment to their beliefs tend

to influence others to reconsider their views.

6. Social Identity Theory

 According to social identity theory, individuals align themselves with

groups they feel connected to.

 A minority group that creates a strong social identity can influence

majority group members by appealing to shared values or goals.

7. Role of Social Norms

 Minorities can influence change by highlighting discrepancies

between current social norms and the ideals they advocate for.
  This can motivate individuals in the majority to question existing
norms and consider adopting new perspectives.

8. Moscovici’s Theory

 Serge Moscovici’s theory on minority influence highlights that

minorities can change majority views through consistent, confident,
and clear messaging.

 Moscovici proposed the idea of "conversion theory," suggesting that

minorities influence through internalization, where the majority
accepts the minority’s position as their own.

9. Impact on Majority Group

 While majority influence typically leads to conformity, minority

influence often leads to deeper processing of ideas and more
thoughtful reflection, which can ultimately result in permanent
attitude change.

10. Strategies for Effective Minority Influence

 Key strategies for minorities to influence include:

o Consistency in presenting their views.

o Showing commitment to the cause, even in the face of

opposition.

o Appealing to a sense of fairness and justice.

o Providing strong evidence and reasoning to back their beliefs.

Here’s a summary of the text in English, presented as bullet points:

 Moscovici and Lage (1976) Experiment:

o Tested the effect of a consistent versus inconsistent minority

on participants’ colour perception.

o The consistent minority produced conformity (10%

conformity).

o Inconsistent majority had a conformity rate of 12%, lower

than the consistent majority (40%).

o The consistent minority was the only group that led to

changes in participants' blue–green thresholds (colour
perception).
 o Consistency in the minority’s position was crucial for
influence (both synchronic consistency and perceived
consistency).

 Gabriel Mugny (1982) and Behavioral Styles:

o Studied how minorities use behavioral styles to influence

societal change.

o Rigid minorities risk being seen as dogmatic, while flexible

minorities risk being seen as inconsistent.

o Effective minorities should stay consistent on core issues while

adopting a more flexible approach on less central issues.

 Moscovici’s Conversion Theory (1980, 1985):

o Conversion theory explains minority influence as a process of

internal, private change in opinion.

o Majority influence results in public compliance with little

private attitude change (normative or informational
dependence).

o Minority influence causes private, latent change through

cognitive conflict and restructuring, even if there is little public
agreement.

o Conversion results from actively considering the minority

viewpoint.

 Conversion Effect:

o Refers to the internal, private change in attitudes caused

by minority influence (e.g., change in perception of blue–green
slides).

o Majority influence causes public compliance, while

minority influence leads to private change.

 Conversion on the Internet:

o Minorities can influence through the Internet by bombarding

the majority with consistent messages.

o However, the Internet often reinforces existing beliefs due to

personalized algorithms (e.g., Facebook, Google), creating
informational bubbles.

o These bubbles can shield individuals from alternative

viewpoints, making conversion harder.
  Empirical Evidence for Conversion Theory:

o Direction-of-attention hypothesis: Majority influence

focuses on interpersonal relationships, while minority influence
focuses on the message.

o Content-of-thinking hypothesis: Majority influence leads to

superficial processing, while minority influence encourages
detailed evaluation.

o Differential-influence hypothesis: Majority influence

causes public compliance, while minority influence causes
private change.

 Studies Supporting Conversion Theory:

o Studies by Moscovici and Personnaz (1980) showed that

majority influence had no effect on after-images (e.g., yellow
after-image for blue slides).

o Minority influence shifted the after-image to purple,

indicating a perception change (i.e., the participants "saw"
green).

o The effect persisted even after the minority confederate was

absent, suggesting latent private change.

 Replication and Controversy:

o Some studies failed to replicate these findings (e.g., Doms and

Van Avermaet, 1980).

o Robin Martin (1998) found that participants who paid more

attention to the slides exhibited more significant after-image
shifts.

o The results suggested that attention, rather than distinct

minority/majority influence processes, might explain the after-
image shift.

 Conclusion:

o The findings raise doubts about the blue–green paradigm as

clear evidence for conversion theory.

o Conversion theory remains valid, but the methodology

used in some studies might have influenced the outcomes.

Here is a summarized English note of the main points about minority

influence based on the text:
1. Convergent–Divergent Theory (Charlan Nemeth)

 Majority Influence: Leads to stress when discovering

disagreement, causing convergent thinking that restricts attention to
a narrow range of ideas, reducing creativity.

 Minority Influence: Because disagreement is less surprising, it

leads to divergent thinking, encouraging creative problem-solving
and innovation.

 Research Support: Studies show minority influence enhances

performance on tasks requiring divergent thinking, while majority
influence improves performance on tasks needing convergent
thinking.

 Difference with Moscovici's Conversion Theory:

o Nemeth: Majority stress inhibits thinking.

o Moscovici: Minority stress enhances thinking.

2. Social Identity and Self-Categorisation Theory

 Majority's Role: Minorities are typically marginalized, seen as

"outsiders," and their opinions are disregarded as deviant or
irrelevant.

 Effective Minority Influence: Minorities become more influential

when they are perceived as part of the ingroup, which shifts focus
from intragroup comparisons to intergroup comparisons (e.g.,
Muslims focusing on Islam vs. the West, rather than internal
divisions).

 Research Findings: Ingroup minorities lead to indirect attitude

changes, while outgroup minorities struggle to influence because
they face rejection.

 Example: Tea Party's influence on Republicans was enhanced when

intergroup comparisons (Republicans vs. Democrats) were
highlighted.

3. Vested Interest and the Leniency Contract

 Challenges for Minorities: Minorities must balance being

perceived as ingroup members while maintaining a distinct
viewpoint.

 Psychological Trick: Minorities should first establish ingroup

credentials before presenting their alternative viewpoint to avoid
rejection.
  Leniency Contract: When minorities are seen as part of the
ingroup, the majority is more lenient and willing to engage with their
message, even if the message challenges core beliefs.

4. Attribution and Social Impact

 Attribution Process: Effective minorities are seen as consistent,

consensual, distinct, and motivated by principle, not external forces.
This leads people to attribute their position to intrinsic merit rather
than self-interest, making their position worthy of consideration.

 Social Impact Theory (Bibb Latané):

o Majority Influence: The influence of the majority increases

with its size, but the effect of each additional source decreases
(diminishing returns).

o Minority Influence: Although less influential initially, the

impact of each additional minority member is more significant
than the majority's, especially as the minority grows.

 Minority Influence Paradox: Despite being fewer in number,

minorities can have greater influence because their viewpoint has
not yet plateaued, unlike majority influence.

5. Summary of Key Concepts

 Convergent Thinking (Majority): Focused, reduces creativity.

 Divergent Thinking (Minority): Open to new ideas, encourages

innovation.

 Ingroup vs Outgroup Dynamics: Minorities need to be seen as

part of the ingroup to influence effectively.

 Leniency Contract: Majority is more open to minorities that are

perceived as part of the ingroup.

 Attribution: Minorities gain influence by being seen as principled

and not self-interested.

Social Influence - Summary in Bullet Points:

 Social influence can lead to surface behavioral compliance with

requests, obedience to commands, internalized conformity to
group norms, and deep-seated attitude change.

 People tend to be more influenced by reference groups (those

psychologically significant to us) than membership groups (those
based on external criteria).
  Given the right circumstances, people have the potential to blindly
obey commands, even if they harm others.

 Obedience is influenced by factors such as:

o Proximity and legitimacy of authority.

o Proximity of the victim.

o Degree of social support for obedience or disobedience.

 Group norms are powerful sources of conformity, with individuals

often yielding to the majority.

 Conformity can be reduced if:

o The task is unambiguous.

o There is no surveillance, although residual conformity remains.

o Lack of unanimity among the majority is effective in

reducing conformity.

 People may conform for various reasons:

o To feel sure about the objective validity of their perceptions

and opinions.

o To gain social approval or avoid social disapproval.

o To express or validate their social identity as part of a group.

 Active minorities can influence majorities, which is key to social

change.

 For minorities to be effective:

o They should be consistent but flexible, showing personal

sacrifice and acting from principle.

o They should be seen as part of the ingroup.

 Minority influence causes latent cognitive change, unlike majority

influence that often results in mindless compliance.

 Minorities are more effective if treated as part of the ingroup rather

than as outgroup minorities.

Key Terms and Their Meanings:

 Agentic State: A state in which an individual attributes
responsibility for their actions to an authority figure, often leading to
blind obedience.

 Attribution: The process of explaining one's behavior or the

behavior of others.

 Autokinesis: The apparent movement of a stationary light in a dark

environment due to eye movements.

 Compliance: Conforming to a request or demand, often to avoid

conflict or punishment.

 Conformity: Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to match a group

standard.

 Conformity Bias: The tendency to adjust one's opinions or behavior

to fit the group.

 Conversion Effect: The lasting attitude change resulting from

minority influence.

 Dual-Process Dependency Model: A theory proposing two

processes (informational and normative) that influence social
behavior.

 Frame of Reference: The perspective or context from which an

individual perceives and interprets information.

 Informational Influence: Influence resulting from the need to be

correct or accurate in uncertain situations.

 Membership Group: A group to which an individual belongs based

on external criteria (e.g., family, country).

 Meta-Contrast Principle: The principle that perceiving a group as

different from others enhances group cohesion.

 Minority Influence: The ability of a smaller group to influence the

majority, leading to attitude change.

 Normative Influence: Influence resulting from the desire to gain

social approval or avoid disapproval.

 Norms: Shared expectations about behavior within a group.

 Power: The ability to influence others' behavior or decisions.

 Reference Group: A group to which an individual compares

themselves, influencing their attitudes and behaviors.
  Referent Informational Influence: Influence based on identifying
with and wanting to be accepted by a group.

 Social Identity Theory: A theory suggesting that individuals derive

part of their identity from the groups they belong to.

 Social Impact: The effect that social groups or others have on an

individual’s behavior.

 Social Influence: The process by which individuals' thoughts,

feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.

Derste aldığım notlar

Social Influence and Norms:

 Norms: These are unwritten rules that guide how people should
behave in different contexts. They are influenced by culture, time,
and societal expectations. For example, in a library, the norm is to
be quiet. Norms help create predictability in social interactions.

 Compliance: This involves responding positively to requests or

persuasion, often due to social pressure or a sense of obligation
(e.g., through propaganda or persuasive tactics). People might
comply even if they don’t necessarily agree with the request.

 Conformity: Conformity is the act of adjusting one’s behavior to

align with social norms or the expectations of others. It’s closely tied
to the concept of social desirability, and our freedom is often
structured by these norms. In some cases, we internalize these
norms, and in others, we might resist them. Conformity helps
maintain social order but can also limit personal expression.

 Obedience: Obedience occurs when individuals follow commands

from an authority figure without questioning or critically thinking.
This can be seen in hierarchical structures, such as with leaders or
police, where the power dynamics often determine compliance.
Obedience is generally seen as positive when it contributes to
societal order.

 Minority Influence: Minorities can influence majorities by

presenting a consistent and principled stance. People in a majority
group may align with a minority position when it challenges their
existing norms. Minority influence can be either positive (aligning
with norms) or negative (rejecting the norms).

 Reference Group: A reference group influences individuals'

behavior even if they are not members of the group. For example,
 ASBU students could be a reference group, and people may conform
to their behaviors whether or not they are formally part of the group.

Persuasion Techniques:

 Reciprocity Norm: This is the tendency to feel obliged to return

favors. People may comply with requests because they feel
indebted, which can increase the likelihood of compliance.

 Multiple Requests: When people are asked for multiple things,

they may be more likely to comply with requests, especially if the
requests seem related or are framed in a way that makes
compliance easier.

 Foot-in-the-Door Technique: A small request is made first, and

once accepted, a larger request is made. This works due to the
consistency motivation (people like to appear consistent in their
actions).

 Door-in-the-Face Technique: Initially, a large request is made,

which is expected to be refused. Following this, a smaller, more
reasonable request is made, which is more likely to be accepted.
This can work by creating a sense of guilt or obligation.

 Lowballing: After agreeing to a request, an additional request or

condition is added. This works because of the commitment created
in the initial agreement, making it harder for individuals to back out.

Social Norm Formation and Conformity:

 Norm Formation: Norms are uniform behaviors or actions that

define how one should act in different situations. People use group
concepts as their frame of reference and adapt to group norms,
especially when they are new to a group or unsure about their
behavior.

 Pluralistic Ignorance: This occurs when individuals believe that

others understand or behave in a certain way, even when they don't.
For instance, in a class, if you don’t understand the material but
think others do, you may pretend to understand. This can reinforce
the norm, even when no one actually understands the topic.

 Frame of Reference: This is the lens through which individuals

interpret social situations. People who are unsure about their
behavior tend to align more easily with group norms to fit in.

Other Related Concepts:

 Subjective Norms: These are beliefs about what others think one
should do, which influence behavior. It connects to attitudes and
behavioral control.

 Attribution Theory: This explains how we attribute causes to our

behavior or others’ behavior. Errors in attribution can influence our
understanding of social norms and behaviors.