DHAHA: THE OROMO CALENDAR1

Dereje Tadesse Birbirso (PhD)

(Gratitude To My Gadaa Students2)
College of Social Science and Humanities
Haramaya University

Introduction
Oromo calendar is called dha’a/dhawa/dhaha/dhowa/dhaya, literally meaning doing or
calculating astronomy or time-reckoning. It comes from the verb dhaa/dha’a/dhaha/
dhawa/dhaya, to beat, smite, strike, track, follow, trace, calculate, reckon.

Since the dawn of human history, the Oromo Nation made astronomical observations of the moon
in conjunction with particular stars or constellations. Oromo calendar (Dhaha Oromoo) is an
indigenous calendar system based on astronomical observations of the moon in conjunction with
particular stars or constellations. In addition, there are astronomical and archeological evidence
in Megalithic and monolithic stones, stone slabs, stela, pyramids, etc., that estimates Oromos
developed their own calendar in ancient times despite these artifacts were destroyed and looted in
the 18th century, 19th century until the first half of 20th century as Christopher Grant accurately
described, “in their attempts to continue the dispossession of Oromo history spearheaded by
Christian hegemony and political oppression” (Grant 2006).

Time is a very important concept in Gadaa and therefore in Oromo life. Gadaa itself can be
narrowly defined as a given set of time (period) which groups of individuals perform specific
duties in a society. Gadaa could also mean age. The lives of individuals, rituals, ceremonies, and

1
I am so sorry for a typing error I made in my previous post in which I duplicated the list of Gujii Abbootii Gadaas
and listed them wrongly under Boorana Abbootii Gadaas. I unknowingly dragged the mouse of my PC and
pasted it. This mistake offended many of my Gujii brothers and sisters—indeed, they are right. I too
offended myself more. This should not have happened. Thank you my Gujii brothers and sisters for
teaching me. Please, accept my apology. Our Gujii are my blood, flesh, and heart too. I love & have a
deeper respect for you. Horaa buaa!
2
This Teaching Document was compiled based on my classroom and outside-class reflections with my PhD
students. They used various sources including interviews with wisemen and the social media, whose exact names
are not easily available or are often pseudonyms .
political and economic activities are scheduled rather precisely. For this purpose, the Oromo have
a calendar. The calendar is also used for weather forecasting and divination purposes.

The Oromo calendar is based on astronomical observations of the moon in conjunction with seven
or eight particular stars or star groups (Legesse, 1973 and Bassi, 1988) called Urji Dhaha (rrraa-
ji, the guiding stars). According to this calendar system, there are approximately 30 days in a month
and 12 months in a year. The first day of a month is the day the new moon appears. A day (24
hours) starts and ends at sunrise.
The Oromo calendar is believed to have been developed by the Oromos since time immemorial.
Based on the Oromo elders and a book called 'DAANIYAA' counting of Gadaa period and cycles
for centuries, currently we are in 6417 Oromo calendar year." Ancient Egypt and Oromo writes

According to Asmarom Legesse (1973), "The Oromo calendar is a great and unique invention and
has been recorded only in a very few cultures in history of mankind." The only other known
cultures with this type of time-keeping are the Chinese, Mayans and Hindus. Legesse states that
the Oromo are unusual in that they seem to be the only people with a reasonably accurate calendar
that ignore the sun (https://groups.google.com/g/soc.culture.somalia/c/9XapCY14Vjo).

The Experts and Tools

The Oromo time experts are called Ayyaantuu, who know stars and can tell the day, the month, the
year and the Gadaa period by keeping track of time astronomically. Ayyaantuu is the name given
to the timekeepers of the Oromo scientists who watch the phases of the moon and determine the
days and beginning of each month. The term Ayyaantuu comes from the concept Ayyaana. The
term Ayyaana refers to the ontological connection, the divinely spirit of Waaqa Gurraacha, the
power through which Waaqa created the Walaabuu and its constituents. In other words, the concept
Ayyaantuu designates a person who knows the ontological connections among creatures and laws
set by the creative power of Waaqa Gurraacha, or he is the cognate of the ontological
interconnection between man, nature or natural laws and Waaqa. It is a person whom Waaqa
enlightened and blessed with the pristine substance (i.e., Ayyaana). Moreover, the enlightened
Ayyaantuu is empowered to influence events, observes the position of stars and shapes/stages of
the moon, deciphers the meaning that unfold with them, how they possibly impact upon the
Bishaan Godaa (the primordial water of genesis) through his unique skill of caqasa heera ‘deep
observation of the natural laws’ (caqasa, ‘to see and listen in tandem, witness and view for oneself,
be present at and deeply understand, listen and wit or observe and/or analyze something
critically’). The Laws set by Waaqa (heera) are first revealed to Ayyaantuu who in turn explicates
or reveals them to other human beings.
The pillars found a few years ago in north-western Kenya by Lynch and Robbins (1978) has been
suggested to represent a site used to develop the Oromo calendar system. According to these
researchers, it is the first archaeo-astronomical evidence in sub-Saharan Africa. Doyle (1986) has
suggested 300 B.C. as the approximate date of its invention.

(From: Daniel Stiles)

For example, we learn about the Ayyaantuu, Oromian scientists and philosophers who developed
a complex system of numerology and astronomy to predict everything from weather patterns for
agricultural planning, to moments of societal upheaval.

In their antiquity, they built a series of astral observatories all along the length of the eastern Rift
Valley, through which they mapped the visible universe, named stars and planets, and developed a
calendar system that recycles itself every 365 years. Among the tools they used was a forked
sighting staff, still carried by Oromo herdsman today.

Perhaps the last of these observatories has been finally located at Namoratunga in northern Kenya,
with most of the star-aligned stone pillars still intact
(http://www.sololo.it/Oromo/Oromo%20Calendar.htm). Using their calculations, the Ayyaantuu
had observed the movements of a comet, and predicted that it was set to return every 75 years. In
1682, the astronomer Edmond Halley (1656-1742), using Newtonian laws of motion to compute
its overall trajectory even after it has departed, came to the same conclusion. The comet is now
named after him, except in Oromo, where it is called Gaalessa. Gadaa members used to count
according to Gadaa periods sequentially in multiples of eight—8,16,32,40– and their duties were
associated with their ages (https://www.theelephant.info/analysis/2019/09/06/recovering-the-
oromo-story-in-ethiopias-fractured-past/)

In addition, Oromo calendar did base itself on the volume of river beds as well as position of
specific stars, moon, sun which associated with the ritual of Irreecha, a Bi-Annual Holiday Carnival
conducted to welcome New Cosmic Year around the two equinoxes and involves procession to hot spring
lakes (hora) holding green grasses and singing formulaic jeekkarsa praise songs whose themes are
glorifying Waaqa, immortalizing spirits of ancestors, praising nature and the renovation of the cosmic
lights, and so forth. Etymologically, Irreecha comes from the root Raa3, the starry universe in constant,
cyclical motion. Irreecha Malkaa, the Irreecha of the Full River Bed or of the Spring Season, is conducted
during the Equinox of September (Birraa), while Irreecha Tulluu, the Irreecha of the Mountain (of the
Moon or Sun) is conducted during the Equinox of the March (Abraasa) when the sunny months is near to
pass and be ready for the mild rainy months to come. Like Irreecha Birraa, the Irreecha Abraasa are
conducted to thank Waaqa for the safe transition. The latter, however, is for transition from Bona, the sunny
and dry season, to Ganna, the rainy season, with the expectation of optimal rainfall for living things, of
prevention of barraada, torrential thunderstorms, that can hamstring germination of plants and recuperation
of animals from the harsh Bona.

For Oromo, the calendarial time-reckoning is indispensable as they track the interdependence of the
society’s vital sociogenetic or epochal cross-generational processes: phylogenesis, the spatiotemporal frame
of historical changes or evolution in the society and ontogenesis, the spatiotemporal frame of development
in the family or individuals. Also, the major political and socio-religious practices such as law-making
and proclamation, 8-by-8-year Butta Military Ceremony, etc., cannot be practiced without record-
keeping times.

How Oromo Calendar Operates

In the Oromo calendar each day of the month and each month of the year has a name. Instead of
the expected 29 or 30 names for days of a month, there are only 27 names. These 27 days of the
month are permutated through the twelve months, in such a way that the beginning of each month
moves forward by 2 or 3 days. The loss per month is then the difference between the 27-day month

3
-cha or -ssa is a suffix marking ‘that which, the one who’.
and the 30-day month, (Legesse, 1973). One interesting observation is that, as illustrated in the
computing of time like in the Oromo calendar, Oromos visualization of events is cyclical just as
many events in nature are cyclical.
Since each day (called ayyaana) of a month has a name, the Oromo traditionally had no use for
names of the days of a week. Perhaps it is because of this that today in different parts of Oromia
different names are in use for the days of a week. Each of the 27 days (ayyaana) of the month have
special meaning and connotation to the Oromo time-keeping experts, called ayyaantu. Ayyaantu
can tell the day, the month, the year and the Gadaa period by keeping track of time astronomically.
They are experts, in astronomy and supplement their memory of things by examining the relative
position of eight stars or star groups, (Bassi, 1988) and the moon to determine the day (ayyaana)
and the month. On the basis of astronomical observations, they make an adjustment in the day
name every two or three months. This calendar consists of 12 months and 354 days in a year. There
are no weeks according to this calendar (https://advocacy4oromia.org/2014/02/10/the-oromo-
year-is-twelve-lunar-synodic-months-of-354-days/).

The names of the 12 lunar months are:

Abraasaa (December),
Amajjii (January),
Guraandhala (February),
Bitooteessa (March),
Caamsaa (April),
Buufaa (May),
Waxabajjii (June),
Oboraa Guddaa (July),
Oboraa Xiqqaa (August),
Birraa (September),
Ciqqaa (October) and
Sadaasa (November).

Among these 12 months, each of four months have 31 days and each of eight months have 30
days. The other aspect of the Oromo calendar is the days of the month. Astoundingly there are
different names for the 27 days of one month (
https://www.facebook.com/Oromology/posts/oromo.)
Day 1. Bitaa Qaraa
Day 2. Bitaa Lama
Day 3. Gardaaduma
Day 4. Soonsa
Day 5. Soorsa
Day 6. Rurruma
Day 7. Algajima
Day 8. Lumaasa
Day 9. Arba
Day 10. Gidaada
Day 11. Walla
Day 12. Ruuda
Day 13. Baasa Duraa
Day 14. Baasa Balloo
Day 15. Areerii Duraa
Day 16. Areerii Balloo
Day 17. Carra
Day 18. Adula Duraa
Day 19. Adula Balloo
Day 20. Maganatti Jaarraa
Day 21. Maganatti Biriitii
Day 22. Garba Duraa
Day 23. Garba Ballaa
Day 24. Garba Dullacha
Day 25. Salbaana Duraa
Day 26. Salbaana Ballaa
Day 27. Salbaana Dullacha
(https://www.facebook.com/Oromology/posts/774561494699497)
The first three or four names of the days of the month can be repeated for months having more
than 27 days. In the month of Abraasaa (December) on the 15th day, Waaqa (God) created Days,
Months, and Earth respectively. Oromo believes in one true God called Waaqa, saying «Gurraacha
garaa garbaa, tokkicha maqaa dhibbaa.» (The only black with hundreds of names).
(ju.edu.et/institute-of-oromo-studies/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2018/04/GADAA-JOURNAL-
BARRUULEE-GADAA.pdf)
The month of Caamsaa (April) is when Waaqa created horses and, and when Waaqa fixed pillars
to the earth for the earth shaken due to human sins. In Oromo calendar, the 7th month is Waxabajii
(June). It was the month when humans approached Waaqa and asked for his mercy and get
blessings. Culture was also started during this month. Enacting of Gadaa laws is carried out during
this month by the Oromos. The month of Birraa (September) was when Waaqa was saddened to
the sins humans made in the months of Oboraa Guddaa (July) and Oboraa Xiqqaa (August). Due
this Waaqa created harmful creatures like snake and other plants in the month of Birraa
(September).
According to this Oromo calendar, the 12th or last month of the year Sadaasa (November) is the
month during which Waaqa (God of Oromos) created Sheep and Coffee. It was the month when
Waaqa distanced himself from humans after offering laws and orders.

Professor Asmarom Legesse did an extensive study of the Gadaa System (an Oromo philosophic
paradigm) over the past 50 years and wrote a book. His second edition of the book will be coming
out soon. He gave an interview back in April 2019 saying "..Gadaa is whole way of life, a
philosophy of life, it's an organization built on the human life course from childhood until old age,
you have a place in Gadaa. You progress from one 8-year period to the next, methodically and each
stage you have certain responsibilities associated with that stage. You become a herder at one stage,
then you have your first initiation around adolescence. The first initiation is very important, it lasts
for 4 years. They're inducted into office, elected their leaders, they elect their leaders who are going
to come to power 21 years later in advance while they're in that position, they're heads of thier own
generation so they learn to govern but they're being vetted, they're being checked out during that
period to see if they're WORTHY OF THE OFFICE. If you qualify after 21 years, then you manage
to become Abba Gadaa and head of the institution for a period of 8 years." ((ju.edu.et/institute-of-
oromo-studies/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2018/04/GADAA-JOURNAL-BARRUULEE-GADAA.pdf)

This goes to show Oromo people were civilized way before Ethiopia existed and we have our own
way of managing our home, neighborhood, education, Healthcare, governing, etc.

The Calendar of Gadaa Philosophy and History

It is by using this calendarial paradigm that the Ayyaantuu reckons, traces, stores and teaches the
population and that is why and how the Boorana and Gujii preserve these Gadaa Political Regimes
back centuries. The great Boorana and the great Gujii
(https://www.scribd.com/document/634092384/ Dhaha Oromoo Gujii - Waaqumaa Waamiitiin )
indeed other Oromos like Afran Qalloo-Ituu (see, Metaferia, 1978) began to follow their separate
Calenderial systems because the Oromo-Kush Empire began to disintegrate with the turn of the
first millennia CE.
Reckoning Gujii Oromo Political Regimes Back in History:
1.Jaajee Gobbaa (1424-1431).
2.Jiloo Wolaagoo (1432-1439).
3.Jirruu Utaa (1440-1447).
4.Guluu Gaararroo (1448-1455).
5.Heebanuu Jaldoo (1456-1463).
6.Biilaa Mannakkoo (1464-1471)
7.Bariisoo Gumii (1472-1479).
8.Adoolaa Aanolee (1480-1487).
9.Gobbuu Shaaroo (1488-1495).
10.Goluu Subbaa (1496-1503).
11.Cirrii Galoo (1504-1511).
12.Buurcisaa Shaabuu (1512-1519).
13.Aagaa Kallachaa (1520-1527).
14.Jiloo Bidoo (1528-1535).
15.Gannaalee Roobee (1536-1543).
16.Duuba Adii (1544-1551).
17.Aboo Rasoo (1552-1559).
18.Halakee Lulee (1560-1567).
19.Gobbuu Daayyee (1568-1575).
20.Gannaalee Lolee (1576-1583).
21.Qandhashoo Aanolee (1584-1591)
22.Jaboo Sibuu (1592-1599)
23.Qalqalcha Tukashoo (1600-1607)
24.Gololcha Sharuu (1608-1615).
25.Abbaa Doolaa (1616-1623).
26.Aagaa Saqoo (1624-1631).
27.Jiloo Bansaa (1632-1639).
28.Haroo Shotee (1640-1647).
29.Jaarsoo Dhugoo (1648-1655).
30.Ushoo Waaree (1656-1663).
31.Gannaalee Dambalaa (1664-1672)
32.Godaanaa Aagaa (1672-1679).
33.Godoree Bokkoo (1680-1687).
34.Jaarsoo Soree (1688-1695).
35.Aagaa Buudee (1696-1703).
36.Tukee Shifaa (1704-1711).
37.Jiloo Badhaa (1712-1719).
38.Aagaa Waaree (1720-1727).
39.Birraa Lukee (1728-1735).
40.Jiloo Xuulloo (1736-1743).
41.Balakkoo Jiloo (1744-1751)
42.Budhushoo Halakee (1752-1759)
43.Soraa Bulultaa (1760-1767)
44.Ijuu Gallabee (1768-1775)
45.Surroo Cekoo (1776-1783)
46.Jiloo Waaree (1784-1791)
47.Galchuu Kemaa (1792-1799)
48.Miidhee Niitii (1800-1807)
49.Daadaa Kuraa (1808-1815)
50.Xiloo Soolee (1816-1823)
51.Bunoo Dhaa'ee (1824-1831)
52.Dasee Halakee (1832-1839)
53.Bunee Boruu (1840-1847)
54.Aagaa Kallachaa (1848-1855)
55.Adulaa Karaa (1856-1863)
56.Waaqoo Gaararroo (1864-1871)
57.Birraa Cuqqee (1872-1879)
58.Aanolee Badhaa (1880-1887)
59.Roobaa Boruu. (1888-1895)
60.Jiloo Kendhoo (1896-1903)
61.Galchuu Curruuqoo (1904-1911)
62.Jiloo Bokkoo (1912-1919)
63.Jiloo Sayee (1920-1927)
64.Aagaa Adii (1928-1935)
65.Ushoo Jiloo (1936-1943)
66.Tukee Guyyee (1944-1951)
67.Jiloo Mixoo (1952-1959)
68.Adoolaa Jiloo (1960-1967)
69.Girjaa Jiloo (1968-1975)
70.Adoolaa Aagaa (1976-1983)
71.Godaanaa Kattaa (1984-1991)
72.Aagaa Xeenxanoo (1992-1999)
73.Waaqoo Duubee (2000-2007)
74.Jiloo Maandhoo (2008-2015)
75. Jaarsoo Dhugoo(2016-2023)
(https://www.facebook.com/oromiabc/posts/maqaa-abbootii-gadaa-oromoo-gujii-bara-1424-
20151jaajee-gobbaa-1424-14312jiloo-w/1684235581874634/;
https://oromedia.wordpress.com/maqaa-abbootii-gadaa-gujii-bara-1424-2015/ )
What is more advanced philosophic and sophisticated knowledge than this unmistakable
calendar of these Great Gujii and Booran? Amazing social calculus!
Reckoning Boorana Oromo Political Regimes Back In History
Gadayo Galgalo Dambitu W/Gu Fulasa 1458-1465
Yaya Fulele Yaya Galantu Beritu Mardida 1466-1473
Jarso Babo Ganno Galantu Luku Darara 1474-1481
Dawa Borbor Dawa Dambitu W/Gu Libasa 1482-1489
Dida Namadurri Anna Digalu Eemaji Sabaqa1490-1497
Arero Boru Bakacha Dambitu Obitu Mogasa 1498-1505
Titile Dulacha Sirayu Kola Makula 1506-1513
Luku Jarso Babo Galantu Luku Fulasa 1514-1521
Dada Ido Dambitu W/Gu Mardida 1522-1529
Kura Ala Digalu Eemaji Darara 1530-1537
Dagale Yaya Dambituobitu Libasa 1538-1545
Ososa Titile Sirayu Kola Sabaqa 1546-1553
Boro Luku Jarso Galantu Luku Mogasa 1554-1561
Abayi Oro Dulacha Digalu Luku Mogasa 1562-1569
Bisu Dhoqe Raso Karayu Wa/Ku Fulasa1570-1577
Oro Dulacha Yaya Dambitu Obitu Mardida 1578-1585
Yaya Ole Bonaya Digalu Titi Darara 1586-1593
Doyo Roro Luku Galantu Luku Libasa 1594-1601
Bacho Nadi Digalu Dado Sabaqa 1602-1609
Urgumesa Igu Digalu Eemaji Mogasa 1610-1617
Babo Oro Dulacha Dambitu Obitu Makula 1618-1625
Babo Sibu Bere Galantu Beritu Fulasa 1626-1633
Hindhale Doyo Boro Galantu Luku Mardida 1634-1641
Hachu Abiyu Bachitu Saquta Darara 1642-1649
Abalaku Morma Qarchabdu Buy Libasa 1650-1657
Abay Babo Oro Dulacha Dambitu Obitu Sabaqa 1658-1665
Ale Kura Rete Digalu Titi Mogasa 1666-1673
Yaya Hiru Malele Matari Meta Makula 1674-1681
Moroy Abay Galantu Beritu Fulasa 1682-1689
Goba Ala Nura Digalu Titi Mardida 1690-1697
Dawe Gobo Yaya Qarchabdu Buy Darara 1698-1705
Jarso Ido Yaya Sirayu Kola Libasa 1706-1713
Wale Wachu Roqa Digalu Udumtu Sabaqa 1714-1721
Sora Dhadacha Ilu Warjida Anna Mogasa 1722-1729
Dhadacha Ora Morowa Digalu Eemaji Makula 1730-1737
Halake Doyo Harele Galantu Luku Fulasa 1738-1745
Guyo Gedo Wale Sirayu Kola Mardida 1746-1753
Madha Boru Dada Nonitu Amoye Darara 1754-1761
Sora Dido Qarsa Galantu Luku Libasa 1762-1769
Bule Dabasa Bule Digalu Eemaji Sabaqa 1770-1777
Liban Wata Nafur Digalu Walaji Mogasa 1778-1785
Wayu Rale Chana Dambitu Obitu Makula 1786-1793
Boru Madha Boru Dado Nonitu Amoye Fulasa 1794-1801
Ungule Halake Sade Galantu Beritu Mardida 1802-1809
Saqo Dadacha Gamadu Machitu Jawitu Darara 1810-1817
Jillo Nyencho Sora Digallu Titi Libasa 1818-1825
Sokore Anna Borbor Matari Meta Sabaqa 1826-1833
Madha Boru Madha Nonitu Amoye Mogasa 1834-1841
Liban Jillo Hadhawa Dambitu Wa/Gu Makula 1842-1849
Jaldesa Guyo Dabasa Qarchabdu Buy Fulasa 1850-1857
Doyo Jillo Nyencho Digalu Titi Mardida 1858-1865
Haro Adi Liban Galantu Beritu Darara 1866-1873
Dida Bitata Mamo Nonitu Amoye Libasa 1874-1881
Guyo Boru Ungule Galantu Beritu Sabaqa 1882-1889
Liban Jaldesa Guyo Dabasa Qarchabdu Buy Mogasa 1980-1897
Adi Doyo Jillo Digalu Titi Makula 1898-1905
Boru Galma Doyo Galantu Beritu Fulasa 1906-1913
Liban Kule Liban Digalu Dado Mardida 1914-1921
Arero Gedo Liban Dambitu Wa/Gu Darara 1922-1929
Bule Dabasa Bule Digalu Titi Sabaqa 1930-1937
Aga Adi Doyo Digalu Titi Sabaqa 1938-1945
Guyo Boru Galma Galantu Beritu Mogasa 1946-1953
Madha Galma Tore Nonitu Amoye Makula 1954-1961
Jaldesa Liban Guyo Galantu Beritu Fulasa 1962-1969
Gobe Bule Dabasa Bule Digalu Eemaji Mardida 1970-1977
Jillo Aga Adi Digalu Titi Darara 1978-1985
Boru Guyo Boru Galantu Beritu Libasa 1986-1993
Boru Madha Galma Nonitu Amoye Sabaqa 1994-2001
Liban Jaldesa Liban Galantu Beritu Mogasa 2002-2009
Guyo Goba Bule Digalu Eemaji Fulasa 2010-2017
Kura Jarso Digalu Titi Fulasa 2018-2025
(https://boranaglobalmedia.com/oro/culture/abbootii-gadaa-oromoo-booranaa-1458-2025/)

Thanks to:
Marco Bassi. 2017). Oromo Calendar. In S. Uhlig, D. Appleyard, A. Bausi, W. Hahn, S. Kaplan (a
cura di), Ethiopia. History, Culture and Challenges (pp. 192-193). Berlin : LIT Verlag.
Doyle, Laurance R. (2010) The Borana Calendar Reinterpreted. Current Anthropology. Physics
and Astronomy Department, University of California, Santa Cruz, at NASA Ames
Research Center, Space Sciences Division.
Stiles, Daniel.1984. The Azanian Civilisation and Megalithic Cushites Revisited. Msafiri.
Wainwright, G. A. 1949. The Founders of the Zimbabwe Civilization. Man 49: 62-66.
Grant, Christopher. 2006. ‘Stones, Slabs, and Stelae: The Origins and Symbolism of Contemporary
Oromo Burial Practice and Grave Art’. ISP Collection Paper 263
http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/263
Legesse, A. 1973. Gadaa: Three Approaches to the Study of African Society. New York: Free
Press.
Legesse, A. 2019. Gadaa: Democratic Institution of Boorana-Oromo, 46th Anniversary Edition.
New York: Regent.
Metaferia, S. 1978. The Eastern Oromo of Ethiopia and their Time-Reckoning System. Africa.
Rivista Trimestrale di Studi e Documentazionedell’IstitutoItaliano per l’Africael’Oriente,
3(4): 475-508.
Megerssa, Gemechu and Kassam, Aneesa. 2019. Sacred Knowledge Traditions of the Oromo of
the Horn of Africa. Fifth World Publications, Printed by Rehobot Printers.