2025

BPSC Mains Mentorship Programme

Module 7 - Federalism
By Nihit Kishore
Previous Year Questions

Q1. "Indian federalism is fundamentally rooted in two simultaneous pursuits of

nationhood : an embrace of state based cultural diversities and a commitment to a
larger indian political community." Examine critically the nature of Indian model of
federalism in the light of above statement. (69th)
Q2. Discuss the problem of Centre-State relations in India and its prospects in
future, with special reference to Bihar. Examine as to how the problem can be
constructively handled in tune with cooperate federalism. (67th)
Q3. Indian federal structure is constitutionally oriented towards the Central
Government. Explain. (66th)
Q4. Centrally Sponsored Schemes have always been a point of contention between
the Centre and States. Discuss by citing relevant examples. (63rd)
Q5. Analyse tension areas between Centre and States in the Indian federal system.
Describe the current state of relations between Union Government and Bihar State
(60th-62nd)
Q6. Discuss Indian Federal System and Centre-State Administrative Relation with
special reference to National Counter-Terrorism Centre (NCTC). (56th - 59th)
Q7. Explain the recent trends in Indian federalism. Do the States need more
autonomy? (48th - 52nd)
Q8. Why is the constitution of India called quasi federal? Discuss the status and
powers of the Governor of an Indian State.(39th)

Quotes / Introductory Statement

“The Drafting Committee wanted to make it clear that though India was to be a federation,
the federation was not the result of an agreement by the states to join in a federation and
that the federation not being the result of an agreement no state has the right to secede from
it. The federation is a union because it is indestructible.” — B.R. Ambedkar

Federalism is like a rainbow, where each colour is separate, yet together they make a
harmonious pattern. Federalism has to continuously maintain a difficult balance between the
centre and the States

Federalism is an intrinsic part of our Constitutional set-up — Naveen Patnaik

 Federalism is no longer the fault line of Centre-State relations but the definition of a new
partnership of Team India. Citizens now have the ease of trust, not the burden of proof and
process. Businesses find an environment that is open and easy to work in. — Narendra
Modi

Our federal Constitution embodies the idea of modern India: it defines not only India but also
modernity. — Pranab Mukherjee

Strengthening the system and spirit of cooperative federalism, my government is taking the
states along to achieve national goals — Ram Nath Kovind

The Indian Constitution is “quasi-federal”. “Indian Union is a unitary state with subsidiary
federal features rather than a federal state with subsidiary unitary features.” — K.C. Wheare

India has practically functioned as a unitary state though the Union and the states have tried
to function formally and legally as a federation.” — K. Santhanam

“Extremely Federal” — Paul Appleby

“Bargaining Federalism” — Morris Jones

“Federation with a strong centralising tendency”. “The Indian Constitution is mainly federal
with unique safeguards for enforcing national unity and growth” — Ivor Jennings

“India is a case sui generis (i.e., unique in character) — Alexandrowicz

Indian federalism is “cooperative federalism”. Though the Constitution of India has created a
strong Central government, it has not made the state governments weak and has not
reduced them to the level of administrative agencies for the execution of policies of the
Central government. The Indian federation is “a new kind of federation to meet India’s
peculiar needs”. —- Granville Austin

Model Answer 1

Q. The Indian Constitution is “quasi-federal”. It is a unitary state with subsidiary

federal features rather than a federal state with subsidiary unitary features.”
Examine

Link up with PYQ - Ques has been asked on the nature of Indian Federation.
66th - Indian federal structure is constitutionally oriented towards the Central Government.
Explain. (66th)

Keyword is Examine - Here this statement needs to be examined with respect to the true
nature of the Indian Federation.

Introduction
The Indian Constitution is “quasi-federal”. “Indian Union is a unitary state with subsidiary
federal features rather than a federal state with subsidiary unitary features.” — K.C. Wheare

Federalism is a system of government where powers are shared with its stakeholders
between Centre and States. The Indian Constitution establishes a federal system with a
unitary bias which is based on the Canadian Model. The states of India, unlike the states of
the United States, do not have the power to write their constitutions. The term unitary bias
comes from the fact that the central government has more vested powers than the state.

Basic Features of Indian Federation:

1.​ Division of Power: The Constitution makes it clear that powers are divided among
the Center and the states in phrases of the Union List, State List, and Concurrent List
which is defined withinside the 7th Schedule.
2.​ Bicameralism: The Constitution provides for a bicameral legislature consisting of an
Upper House (Rajya Sabha) and a Lower House (Lok Sabha). The Rajya Sabha
represents the states of Indian Federation, while the Lok Sabha represents the
people of India as a whole.
3.​ Written Constitution: The Constitution is not only a written document but also the
lengthiest Constitution of the world. All functionaries derive their power from the
constitution itself.
4.​ Separation of Power: The constitution establishes separation of power between the
various organs of the government.
5.​ Supremacy of Constitution: The Constitution is supreme in India and Judiciary is
its watchdog.
6.​ Rigid Constitution: The rigidity of the constitution can be seen when it comes to
amending the constitution itself.
7.​ Independent Judiciary: The Constitution establishes an unbiased judiciary headed
through the Supreme Court for 2 purposes: One, to defend the supremacy of the
constitution, Two, to settle the disputes among the Centre and states or the states.

Features that makes Indian Federal System Unitary

1.​ Destructible States

●​ Unlike other federations, the states of India have no right to territorial
integrity.
●​ Parliament can change the territory, borders, or name of any state with
or without the state’s consent.
2.​ Single Constitution:
●​ The constitution of India includes not only the constitution of the centre
but also that of the states.
●​ Both the centre and the states must act within this unified framework.
3.​ Single Citizenship:
●​ Single citizenship means for one person there is only one citizenship
irrespective of his native.
●​ The Constitution deals with citizenship from Articles 5 to 11 in Part II.
4.​ Central Supremacy:
 ●​ The separation of powers is unequal in favour of the centre and from a
federal perspective.
●​ First, the union list contains more subjects than the state’s list.
●​ Second, the most important subjects have been included in the union
list, and the centre has overall authority over the concurrent list.
●​ All the other residuary powers come directly under the central list.
5.​ Emergency Provisions:
●​ The Centre was granted emergency powers under Part XVIII of the
Indian Constitution, Articles 352 to 360.
●​ There are three types of emergencies: national emergency, state
emergency (presidential rule), and financial emergency.
●​ During the emergency, the centre's control over states increases.
●​ These provisions undermine the autonomy of states.

6.​ Rajya Sabha Seat Sharing:

●​ The states of India are not equally represented in the Rajya Sabha.
●​ The seats are allocated based on the population of the states.
●​ For example, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Goa have 31, 10, and 1
Rajya Sabha seats respectively.
●​ Considering that in a federal country the representation of each state
in the Upper House must be equal.
7.​ Lok Sabha Powerful than Rajya Sabha:
●​ The Lok Sabha is more powerful than the Rajya Sabha. Certain notes,
such as banknotes, can only be brought into the Lok Sabha.
●​ A motion of no confidence in the government can only be tabled in the
Lok Sabha.
●​ However, the Rajya Sabha has been given certain powers not
available to the Lok Sabha, such as the introduction of a new All-India
Service Bill.
●​ The disparity in powers between the two chambers does not
correspond to the characteristics of a federation.
8.​ Governor Office:
●​ The governor of a state is appointed by the President.
●​ States have no role in the appointment of a Governor and even
Governors must not hail from the same state.
●​ Symbolically the governor acts as an agent from the central
government in the state.
9.​ All India Services:
●​ Services such as Indian Administrative Services (IAS), Indian Police
Services (IPS), and Indian Forest Services (IFS) are part of All India
Services.
●​ The centre, through these services, interferes with the power of states
and controls the executive functions of states.
●​ While direct control over these services is in the hands of the state,
the focus is on unrestricted powers.
 ●​ These services ensure efficiency and consistency in administration
across the country.
10.​Veto Over States Bill:
●​ A state's governor has the power to reserve certain types of bills for
presidential consideration.
●​ The President has an absolute veto on these bills.
●​ You can even reject the bill on appeal, that is when the bill is sent out
after a re-examination by the state legislature. Most state parliaments
have only one chamber.
●​ The provision thus empowers the President to control any arbitrary
decision of the State Assembly.
●​ However, this provision deviates from the principles of federalism.

Supreme Court on the nature of Indian Federation:

●​ In S.R. Bommai case 1994, the Supreme Court held that the constitution is federal
and characterised federalism as its " basic principles."
●​ SC said that states have independent constitutional existence.
●​ They are not satellites or agents of the centre. Within the sphere corresponding to
them, states come first.
●​ In the Kuldip Nayar Vs Union of India, the Supreme Court held that federalism was a
basic feature of the Indian constitution and was inherently unique and tailored to the
specific needs of the country.

Conclusion:
In drafting the Constitution, the authors considered that India has a unique form of diversity
that cannot be found anywhere else, especially in any of the federal countries. As a result,
some form of force connecting the individual powers of the units was required, or the
administration would collapse. In 1983 the Sarkaria Commission emphasised cooperative
federalism in India. As per B.R. Ambedkar, “Both the Union and the states are created by the
Constitution, both derive their respective authority from the Constitution. Yet the Constitution
avoids the tight mould of federalism and could be both unitary as well as federal according to
the requirements of time and circumstances”

Classroom Practice Question 1

“The Constitution avoids the tight mold of federalism and could be both unitary as
well as federal according to the requirements of time and circumstances.” Discuss
in the current context.

Link up with PYQ - Ques has been asked about the nature of the Indian Federation.

Indian federal structure is constitutionally oriented towards the Central Government. Explain.
(66th) Why is the constitution of India called quasi federal?

Approach
Demand of the Question: We need to analyse the nature of the Indian federation.
Introduction: Start with a quote (compulsory). Write the definition of federation.
Body:
A.​ Federal Features
B.​ Unitary Features
C.​ Court’s Judgement

Conclusion: Conclude by citing the defence of Ambedkar or other experts on Indian

federation.
Model Answer 2

Q. Explain the recent trends in Indian federalism.

Link up with PYQ - Ques has been asked about the nature of the Indian Federation and the
trends in Indian Federation.

Indian federal structure is constitutionally oriented towards the Central Government. Explain.
(66th)
Why is the constitution of India called quasi federal?
Explain the recent trends in Indian federalism. Do the States need more autonomy? (48th -
52nd)
Approach

Demand of the Question: We need to analyse why the Indian federation is quasi-federal?

Answer

Nations are described as ‘federal’ or ‘unitary’, depending on the way in which governance is
organised. In a unitary set-up, the Centre has plenary powers of administration and
legislation, with its constituent units having little autonomy. In a federal arrangement, the
constituent units are identified on the basis of region or ethnicity, and conferred varying
forms of autonomy or some level of administrative and legislative powers. The term
quasi-federal in literal sense means “not completely federal”

Recent Trends in Indian Federalism

The Indian federation has undergone significant changes since its inception. In
contemporary times the Indian federation has shown cooperative, competitive and
confrontational tendencies which have altered the nature of the Indian federation greatly.

Cooperative Federalism: This refers to a horizontal relationship between the states and the
centre. The states cooperate with each other and the centre to achieve goals of growth,
development of the states and nation. The Indian government’s efforts towards building
cooperative federalism with the states can be witnessed in the recent steps that have been
undertaken.
●​ The recent development on the introduction of the Goods and Service Tax(GST),
which is the biggest tax reform is the result of a tandem between the states, the GST
council also empowers the states to contribute to the national fiscal policy thereby
 working hand in hand with the centre in fulfilling the goal of ‘one country-one tax
system’.
●​ The 14th Finance Commission had also increased the State’s share in the net
proceeds of the Union tax revenues to 42% from the earlier 32%. This was the
largest ever increase in the percentage of devolution between the centre and states.
●​ One of the most important directives of the NITI AAYOG is also to work on the
development of cooperative federalism in India.

Competitive Federalism: In Competitive federalism, the central and the state governments
share a vertical relationship with each other while the state governments have a horizontal
relationship between themselves. The states compete with each other to attract funds and
investments for developmental activities.

●​ The SDG India Index formulated by the NITI Aayog is the primary tool to monitor the
progress of SDGs in the country and also foster competition among the states and
the Union Territories.
●​ Ease of Doing Business Ranking also encourages a sense of competition among the
states for funds from the central government.
●​ The NITI Aayog has also launched the ranking of 115 districts for the Aspirational
District Programme (ADP) thereby enhancing competition among the states for funds
and fulfilling the larger goal of developing India’s most underdeveloped districts.
●​ The Swachh Bharat Ranking, “Vibrant Gujarat”, “Resurgent Rajasthan” are some of
the other schemes launched by the Government of India to encourage competitive
federalism.

Confrontation Federalism: This is the result of the central government infringing upon the
powers of the state government.
●​ The unilateral revocation of the special status conferred on Jammu and Kashmir
(J&K) under Article 370 of the Constitution has been criticised by many experts as
against the spirit of federalism.
●​ Besides, there was the Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA) and the National
Investigation Agency (NIA) Act where the respective states moved the Supreme
Court under Article 131 raising the question: Could the centre-state dispute be
premised on political differences
●​ The protest over the three Farm Bills which were ultimately withdrawn were also the
instance of Confrontation Federalism in India.
●​ With the recent amendment of IAS Cadre rules, the Union government plans to
acquire powers to depute IAS/IPS and IFoS officers to the Central Government and
Ministries without necessarily taking the State government’s nod.

In 2017, NITI Aayog emphasised competitive, cooperative federalism; they believed that this
would redefine the relationship between the centre and the state. While cooperative and
competitive federalism continue to empower the Indian states and inculcate developmental
tendencies in them, Confrontational federalism on the other hand infringes the autonomy of
the states thereby maintaining a check against their arbitration. All the three together
balance the working of the federation and help the Indian federation to adapt better to the
changing socio-economic and political environment.
 Classroom Practice Question 2

Q. Describe the current state of relations between the Union Government and Bihar
State. How far do you think cooperation, competition and confrontation have
shaped the nature of federation in India? Cite some recent examples to validate
your answer.

Approach
Link up with PYQ: A replica of the question has been asked in different years.

Describe the current state of relations between Union Government and Bihar State
(60th-62nd)
Explain the recent trends in Indian federalism. Do the States need more autonomy? (48th -
52nd)

Demand of the Question: In the first part, we need to throw light on the current relation of
Bihar and Central Govt. In the 2nd part, we need to discuss the emerging trends of
Federalism in India.

Introduction: Start with a quote or start by defining federation

Body:
1. Relation between Centre and Bihar
A.​ Caste Census
B.​ Special Status
C.​ Harmony

2. Trend of Indian Federalism (with examples)

A.​ Cooperative Federalism
B.​ Competition Federalism
C.​ Confrontation Federalism

Conclusion: Conclude on the note of the recent federal trend and how judiciary and other
institutions have helped in strengthening federalism.

Model Answer 3

Q. Discuss the issues between Centre and states in the Indian federal system with
special reference to Bihar. Explain how the Centrally Sponsored Schemes have
always been a point of contention between the Centre and States.

Link up with PYQ - Question has been asked previously on the nature of Indian Federation.
 Approach

Demand of the Question: In the 1st part, we need to discuss the issues between Centre
and states in general and Centre and Bihar in particular. In the 2nd part

Introduction:
The nature of Indian Constitution is federal as its powers are divided between the centre and
the states. Although the centre and the state are prominent in their respective areas,
maximum participation and cooperation between them is necessary to ensure the effective
implementation of the federal system.

Both the centre and the states derive their powers from the constitution and both of them are
independent in their respective fields. Although, still some tensions brew up during the use of
powers, which need to be resolved properly to ensure that the centre and state relations
continue to function smoothly according to the constitution.

Reasons for Tension:

1. Constitutional Reason:
The division of powers in the Indian Constitution is more in favour of the Centre. In the Union
List and Concurrent list, so much powers have been given to the Centre with respect to the
Executive and the Legislature functions that it curbs the autonomy of the states.

2. Political Reason:
●​ Appointment and role of the Governor: The provision of appointment of the
Governor by the Centre has been a complete anarchy. In recent years, it has been
found that the governors work in a partisan spirit. Abuse of his discretionary power
after the election has also been criticised.
●​ Misuse of Articles 356 and 355: Articles of the Constitution have been misused by
the Centre time and again to dissolve the State Legislative Assembly.
●​ Interference by the Centre on the State List: The Central Government has been
infiltrated in the State List through Centrally Sponsored Schemes.
●​ All India Services: The All India Services are in the exclusive jurisdiction of the
Centre which is often used against the state.
3. Financial issues:
●​ Revenue federalism has always been extremely problematic in India.
●​ Vertical Imbalance: The fundamental imbalance in the Indian Constitution in the
context of Union-State relations stems from the fact that major responsibilities in the
areas of development expenditure (irrigation, roads, energy, education, health and
administrative expenditure (law and order, general administration) have been
assigned to the states, The most important power of revenue collection lies with the
Centre.
●​ Inadequate revenue distribution
●​ Residuary powers of taxation with the Centre
Relations of Bihar State with the Centre:
The relation of Bihar State with the Centre has grown as permanent and gradual as that of
other states.
Current Issues between Centre and Bihar
●​ Successive finance commissions had pointed out the imbalance between the powers
of state governments to collect revenues and their spending responsibilities; they had
also pointed out the imbalance between the intergovernmental division of
competences in the constitution and the realities on the ground. However, the 14th
and 15th Finance Commissions were not able to fulfil the request of the Special
Status by the Bihar Government for a long time.
●​ There has been a shortage in centre fundings, specially during floods across the
states.
●​ The heartbreaking images of poor and homeless migrants desperately walking
barefoot with their families together from Delhi/NCR back to Bihar, reflects the
emptiness of our resources to tackle a catastrophic disease and its percussions
including that of the subsequent lockdown to stop the spread of the COVID19.
●​ The recent demand for caste based census by the Bihar government has also been
an area of conflict.

Areas of Cooperation
●​ Apart from these issues, the relations with the Central Government and the State
Government are soft and the Central Government has also started many projects in
Bihar. Example: - Recently the Central Government has started 7 projects in Bihar at
a cost of 541 crores.
●​ Apart from this, the state is also getting an economic package from the Centre.
●​ Thus we see that the relations between Bihar and the Centre have been mostly
normal in recent times.

Every nation requires some plans and policies to achieve its goals and objectives and to
ensure the development of its citizens. Keeping this fact in mind, the policy makers arranged
two types of development plans between the union and the state in the federal system of
India.
●​ Central Sector Scheme: The funding for such schemes is borne by the central
government completely and its implementation is also done by the central system
itself. These types of schemes are made entirely on the subjects of the Union List.
Eg. Namami Gange - National Ganga Plan, Crop Insurance Scheme, etc.
●​ Centrally Sponsored Scheme: Under such schemes, the funding of the schemes is
done collectively by both the centre and the states. The percentage of the amount
given by the state in such schemes varies with the states. Example: - 50:50, 60:40,
70:30 and 75:25. It is also 90:10 for some special states like Northeast and Hill
states. The schemes covered under this are mainly related to the subjects coming
under the state list and concurrent list. Eg. MGNREGA, Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak
Yojana, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana, Swachh Bharat Mission, National Health
Mission etc.

Points of Contention:
●​ Almost all Centrally Sponsored Schemes represent the agenda and priorities of the
Centre while many a times they are of no relevance to the States.
 ●​ Such plans lack flexibility for the states.
●​ The requirements of the states vary and so a universal centrally sponsored scheme
may not be practical in all cases.
●​ Many centrally sponsored schemes in which the amount received from the centre is
very less, can be a burden for the states.
●​ The states are not included in the preparation of these plans.
●​ These highly focused and rigidly designed schemes often become inconsistent with
the specific needs of the states.
●​ Through these schemes, conditions are imposed, which limit the autonomy of the
states.
●​ In the Third National Development Council, the then Chief Minister of Karnataka had
said that - “Sometimes the lack of resources to meet their contribution in centrally
sponsored schemes is a major challenge before the states.”
●​ Controversy also arises regarding the scope of the plans, as the plans are prepared
by the Centre. It pays less attention to the requirements of the state.
Recent Development
●​ Centrally sponsored schemes have now been included under central assistance. As
after the recommendations of the 14th Finance Commission, the states have got
higher revenue.
●​ Due to the introduction of GST, the states have increased their dependence on the
centre for revenue and their voluntary revenues have come down and due to
non-payment of GST on time, there has been scarcity of finance with the states,
which has affected these schemes.
●​ The Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, citing cooperative federalism, said that there
should be direct transfer of funds to the states and all centrally sponsored schemes
should be abolished.
Keeping these in mind, a sub-group of Chief Ministers was constituted in 2015, whose
suggestions are mentioned below:
●​ The number of centrally sponsored schemes should not exceed 30.
●​ All Centrally Sponsored Schemes should be divided mainly into 3 parts.

Conclusion:
The Indian federal structure is inclined towards the centre. Under this, centrally sponsored
schemes are operated by the central government along with central sector schemes for the
overall development of the states. However, it has been seen that these schemes did not
yield desirable results to the states, as the states' side is not given enough importance in the
determination of these plans. Hence, instead of a “one size fit all” approach, including the
concerns of the states in these plans, emphasis should be laid on the implementation of
different schemes for different states so that inclusive development of the country can be
achieved.
Classroom Practice Question 3

Q. Highlight the issues between Centre and states in the Indian federal system with
special reference to Bihar. Explain how the Indian Judiciary has helped strengthen
the spirit of federalism in India.
Demand of the Question: In the 1st part, we need to write a short note on the issues of the
federal system in India by referring to the Bihar - Centre issues. In the 2nd part, we need to
highlight the role of the judiciary in strengthening federalism.
Introduction:
Start with defining federalism or a quote on federation.
Body:
1.​ Issues in Federal System
2.​ Bihar-State Relations
3.​ Role of Judiciary
A.​ Doctrine of Pith and Substance
B.​ Doctrine of Harmonious Construction
C.​ Doctrine of Reading Down
D.​ Doctrine of Colourable Legislation
E.​ S.R. Bommai Case
F.​ I.T.C. Limited vs. The Agricultural Produce Market Committee and Ors:
“The fact that under the scheme of our Constitution, greater power is
conferred upon the centre vis-a-vis the States does not mean that States are
mere appendages of the centre. Within the sphere allotted to them, States are
supreme. The centre cannot tamper with their powers.
Conclusion:
Supreme Court observed in Government of NCT of Delhi vs. Union of India (UOI) that “It
is useful to state that pragmatic federalism has the inbuilt ability to constantly evolve to
changing needs and situations. It is this dynamic nature of pragmatic federalism which
makes it apt for a body polity like ours to adopt. The foremost object of the said concept is to
come up with innovative solutions to problems that emerge in a federal setup of any kind,”

Homework Questions
Q1. Indian federalism is undergoing structural as well as functional changes. In the light of
the statement analyse the need for re-examining the federalism in India. Also suggest
some measures for deepening federalism in India.
Q2. The concept of federalism has continued to change its contours in Indian Polity.
Analyse. NITI Aayog has been constituted to implement the goal of cooperative
federalism. Discuss.
Q3. Does the functioning of federalism in India tend to make it appear as a unitary state in
practice? The Indian federation has moved from cooperative federation to competitive
federation. Analyse.
Q4. Discuss asymmetrical federalism in India. Implementation of GST and NEET is a
major challenge to Indian federalism. Analyse.
Q5. With the help of illustrations, discuss and differentiate, co-operative federalism and
competitive federalism.
Q6. Discuss the doctrine of 'Pith and Substance relating to the distribution of legislative
powers between the Centre and the States with the help of the landmark judicial
decisions.
Q7. "India that is Bharat. shall be a Union of States." Explain. Do you think that the Indian
Constitution is a Federal Constitution ? Discuss with the help of decided cases.
Q8. What do you understand by the terms cooperative federalism and competitive
federalism? Do you agree with the view that the Indian Constitution is based on the
concept of competitive federalism and not on the concept of cooperative federalism?