Injibara University

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Information Systems

System and Network Administration (InSy3083)

Chapter Two: Fundamental Concepts

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 Contents
▪ Protocols and protocol layering (TCP/ IP)
▪ Frame, IP Packet, TCP and UDP segment
▪ Network devices
▪ IP addressing (subnetting and super netting)
▪ VLAN
▪ Routing
▪ Routing protocols
▪ Address resolution protocol (ARP)
▪ ICMP

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 Protocols and protocol layering (TCP/ IP)
❑ Network Protocols:
▪ A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications.
▪ A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated.
▪ To request any service or exchange any information between 2 devices there must be an
agreed set of commands and data formats.
▪ For instance, for one computer to send a message to another computer, the first computer
must perform the following general steps:
✓ Break the data into small sections called packets.
✓ Add addressing information to the packets identifying the source and destination
computers.
✓ Deliver the data to the network interface card for transmission over the network.

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 Cont ….
▪ The receiving computer must perform the same steps, but in reverse order.

✓ Accept the data from the NIC.

✓ Remove transmitting information that was added by the transmitting computer.

✓ Reassemble the packets of data into the original message

▪ The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

✓ Syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data.

✓ Semantics: refers to the meaning of each section of bits.

✓ Timing: refers to when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent

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 Protocol layering
▪ Protocol layering is a common technique to simplify networking designs by dividing them

into functional layers, and assigning protocols to perform each layer's task.

▪ For example, it is common to separate the functions of data delivery and connection

management into separate layers.

▪ Thus, one protocol is designed to perform data delivery, and another protocol layered

above the first performs connection management.

▪ The data delivery protocol is fairly simple and knows nothing of connection management.

▪ The connection management protocol is also fairly simple, since it doesn't need to
concern itself with data delivery.

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 Cont …
▪ The most important layered protocol designs are:

✓ The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model

✓ The TCP/IP Reference Model

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 OSI and TCP/IP Layers Correspondence

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 Cont …

Sending system Receiving system

7 Application 7 Application
6 Presentation 6 Presentation

5 Session 5 Session
4 Transport 4 Transport
3 Network 3 Network
2 Data Link 2 Data Link
1 Physical 1 Physical

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 OSI Model Analogy Application Layer - Source Host

After riding your new bicycle a few times in New York, you decide that you
want to give it to a friend who lives in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

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 Presentation Layer - Source Host

Make sure you have the proper directions to disassemble and

reassemble the bicycle.

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 Session Layer - Source Host

Call your friend and make sure you have his correct address.

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 Transport Layer - Source Host

Disassemble the bicycle and put different pieces in different boxes.

The boxes are labeled.
“1 of 3”, “2 of 3”, and “3 of 3”.

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 Network Layer - Source Host

❑ Put your friend's complete mailing address (and yours) on each box.
❑ Since the packages are too big for your you determine that you need to
go to the post office.

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 Data Link Layer – Source Host

NewYork post office takes possession of the boxes.

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 Physical Layer - Media

The boxes are flown from USA to ETHIOPIA.

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 Data Link Layer - Destination
Ethiopia

Addis Ababa post office receives your boxes.

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 Network Layer - Destination

Upon examining the destination address, Adis Ababa post office determines
that your boxes should be delivered to your written home address.

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 Transport Layer - Destination

Your friend calls you and tells you he got all 3 boxes and he is
having another friend named BOB reassemble the bicycle.

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 Session Layer - Destination

Your friend hangs up because he is done talking to you.

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 Presentation Layer - Destination

BOB is finished and “presents” the bicycle to your friend.

Another way to say it is that your friend is finally getting him “present”.

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 Application Layer - Destination

Your friend enjoys riding his new bicycle in Addis Ababa.

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 Layer 7: The Application Layer
▪ The application layer running on the sending system (COMPUTER) is responsible

for the actual request to be made.

▪ This could be any type of networking request a web request using a web
browser (HTTP), an e-mail delivery request using SMTP, or a file system request using
FTP protocols.
▪ It represents the interface between the end-user and the network.
▪ Concerned with providing network service to applications like
✓ Email - SMTP
✓ File transfer - FTP
✓ Web services - HTTP
▪ Application layer protocols are:- HTTP, FTP, SMTP, SNMP, NFS

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 Cont …
Layer 6: The Presentation Layer
Performs three major functionalities:-
✓ Translation
✓ Data compression
✓ Encryption
Layer 5: session layer
So it performs:
✓ Session management
✓ Authentication and
✓ Authorization
On layers 5-7 the data package is in the form of data stream.

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 Cont …
Layer 4: The Transport Layer
▪ The transport layer is responsible for
✓ Segmentation
✓ Flow control
✓ Error correction
▪ Protocols:
✓ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – Connection Oriented
✓ User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – Connectionless.
Layer 3: The Network Layer
▪ The network layer is responsible for working with
✓ Logical addressing
✓ Path determination
✓ Routing 24
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 Cont …
Layer 2: The Data Link Layer
▪ The data link layer is responsible for physical addressing.
▪ MAC addressing of the sender and receiver for each packet to form a frame.
▪ Data unit used at data link layer is called a frame.
Layer 1: The Physical Layer
▪ The bottom layer of the OSI hierarchy is concerned only with moving bits of data on
the network medium.
▪ Responsible for converting the data frame to a pattern of signals (on and off) that will
be used to send the data across the communication medium.
▪ On the receiving system, the signals will be converted to frame by the data link layer
and then passed up to the network layer for further processing.
▪ Cable, connectors, repeaters, transmitters, receivers, are associated with physical layer.

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 Cont …
Application Allows access to network resources.

Presentation Translates, encrypts and compresses data.

Session Establishes, manages and terminates sessions.

Transport Provides end-to-end message delivery & error recovery.

Network Moves packets from source to destination; Provides

internetworking.
Data Link Organizes bits into frames; Provides node-to-node delivery.

Physical Transmits bits; Provides mechanical and electrical specifications.

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 Protocols
TCP/IP layering
Application
HTTP …
FTP DNS …

SMTP SNMP

Transport
TCP UDP

Network
ICMP IP IGMP

Link
hardware
ARP RARP
interface

Media
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 Cont …
Application
Message

Presentation Applications

Session
Segment
Transport TCP UDP

Network Datagram
IP

Frame
Data Link Protocols defined by
the underlying networks Bits
Physical
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 TCP/IP and Addressing
Application Processes
layer

Transport
Port
TCP UDP
layer address

IP and other IP
Network
protocols
layer address

Data link
Underlying
layer Physical
physical
networks (MAC)
Physical address
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Networking and Internetworking Devices
▪ Network devices are components used to connect computers or other electronic
devices together so that they can share files or resources like printers or fax
machines.
▪ Devices used to setup a Local AreaNetwork (LAN) are the most common types of
network devices used by the public.
▪ An internetwork is a collection of individual networks, connected by intermediate
networking devices, that functions as a single large network.
▪ An internet is an interconnection of individual networks.
▪ To create an internet, we need internetworking devices called routers and
gateways.
▪ Each of these device interact with protocols at different layers of the OSI model

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Cont…

Connecting Devices

Internetworking
Networking Devices
Devices

Repeaters Bridges Routers Gateways

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Connecting Devices and layers of OSI Model

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Repeaters

▪ As signals travel along a cable, they degrade and become distorted in a process called
"attenuation."

➢ Repeaters take a weak signal from one segment, regenerates it, and passes it to the
next segment.

➢A repeater works at the physical layer of the OSI Reference Model to regenerate the
network's signals and resend them out on other segments.

➢It connects two segments of the same network ,overcoming the distance limitations of
the transmission media.

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Repeater and OSI model
▪ A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering capability
▪ A repeater is a generator , not an amplifier.
▪ Repeaters can connect segments that have the same access method.(CSMA/CD ,
Token Passing, Polling , etc.).

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Cont …

Use a repeater to:

✓Connect two segments of similar or dissimilar media.

✓Regenerate the signal to increase the distance transmitted.

✓Pass all traffic in both directions.

✓Connect two segments in the most cost-effective manner.

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Function of repeater

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Bridges

▪ Operates in both the physical and the data link layer.

▪ As a PHYSICAL layer device , it regenerates the signal it receives.

▪ As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the PHYSICAL / MAC addresses
(source and destination) contained in the frame.

▪ A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions.

▪ It can check the destination address of a frame and decide if the frame should be
forwarded or dropped.

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Cont …

▪ If the frame is to be forwarded, the decision must specify the port.

▪ A bridge has a table that maps address to ports.

▪ Listens to all traffic.

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Cont …

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How Bridges Work

❑ Bridges Can make decisions using MAC

▪ If the destination device is on the same segment as the frame, the bridge blocks
the frame from going on to other segments.

✓filtering.

▪ If the destination device is on a different segment, the bridge forwards the frame
to the appropriate segment.

▪ If the destination address is unknown to the bridge, the bridge forwards the
frame to all segments except the one on which it was received.

✓flooding.
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Cont …

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Function of Bridges

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Characteristics of Bridges s
❑ Routing Tables
▪ Is used to determine the network of destination station of a received
packet.
❑ Filtering
▪ Is used by bridge to allow only those packets destined to the remote
network.
▪ Packets are filtered with respect to their destination and multicast
addresses.
❑ Forwarding
▪ The process of passing a packet from one network to another.
❑ Learning Algorithm
▪ The process by which the bridge learns how to reach stations on the
internetwork.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Bridges
❑ Advantages of using a bridge
✓ Extend physical network.
✓ Reduce network traffic with minor segmentation.
✓ Creates separate collision domains.
✓ Reduce collisions.
✓ Connect different architecture.
Disadvantages of using bridges
✓ Slower than repeaters due to filtering.
✓ Do not filter broadcasts.
✓ More expensive than repeaters.

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 Hub
▪ A hub is used as a central point of connection among media segments.

▪ Cables from network devices plug in to the ports on the hub.

▪ Types of HUBS :

1. Active Hubs

✓ Most hubs are active; that is, they regenerate and retransmit signals in the
same way as a repeater does.

✓ They are sometimes called multiport repeaters.

✓ Active hubs require electrical power to run.

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Cont …

2 . Passive Hubs

✓ They act as connection points and do not amplify or regenerate the signal; the
signal passes through the hub.

✓ Passive hubs do not require electrical power to run.

3. Intelligent

✓Sometimes called smart hubs.

✓Include a microprocessor chip and diagnostic capabilities

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Cont…
✓ The receptacles on the front of the hub are called ports.

✓ There are usually from 4 to 32 ports on a hub, depending on the size of the network.

✓ Some hubs have an additional interface port that connects to another hub, thus increasing
the size of the network.

✓ Hubs operate at the physical layer of the OSI model.

✓ Hubs propagate signals through the network

✓ They cannot filter network traffic

✓ They cannot determine best path

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