Stress, Strain and Deformation of Solids

1. What is stress?

The internal resistance offered by a body per unit area against deformation is known as
stress. The unit of stress is N/mm2 or N/m2. When an external force acts on a body, the
body tends to undergo deformation. Due to cohesion between molecules the body resist
the force. This resistance offered by the body is known as strength of material.
2. What is tensile stress?
Tensile stress: The resistance offered by a body per unit area when it is subjected to a
force which acts away from its point of application is called tensile stress.

P
3. What is compressive stress?
Compressive stress: The resistance offered by a body per unit area when it is subjected to
a force which acts towards its point of application is called compressive stress.
P P
4. What is shear stress?
Shear Stress: The resistance offered by a body per unit area when the applied load on the
body consists of two equal and opposite forces not in the same line is called shear stress.
5. What is strain?
when a body is subjected to some external force, there is some deformation of the body.
The ratio of change of dimension of the body to the original dimension is known as
strain. It has no unit.

6. What is Tensile strain?

The length of the bar increases by an amount under the action of external force P.

7. What is compressive strain?

The length of the bar decreases by an amount under the action of external force P.

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 8. What is Shear strain?
The distortion produced by shear stress on an element or rectangular block is known as
shear strain. It can also be defined as the change in the right angle.
9. What is volumetric strain?
The ratio between the change in volume and the original volume is known as volumetric
stain.

10. Define True stress

The true stress is defined as the ratio of the load to the cross-section area at any instant.
11. Define Hooke‟s law?
Within the elastic limit, when a body is loaded, then stress induced is proportional to the
strain. This is called as Hook’s law.
12. What is linear strain?
The ratio of increase or decrease in length to the original length is called as linear strain.
13. What is lateral strain?
The ratio of increase or decrease in lateral dimensions to the original lateral dimensions is
called as lateral strain.
14. What are the types of elastic constants?
a) Modulus of elasticity or Young‟s modulus
b) Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus
c) Bulk modulus
15. What is poison‟s ratio?
When a member is stressed with in elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to its
corresponding linear strain remains constant throughout the loading. This constant is
called as poison’s ratio. It is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal or linear strain.
16. Define bulk modulus?
When a body is stressed the ratio of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is
constant with in elastic limit. This constant is called as bulk modulus. Bulk modulus is
the ratio of direct stress to volumetric strain.
17. Define modulus of elasticity?
Modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress to strain.

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 18. Define factor of safety?
Factor of safety is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress to the working stress (permissible
stress).
19. What is elasticity?
The deformation produced due to the application of external load disappears completely
with the removal of the load. This property of the material is called as elasticity.
20. What is elastic limit?
Elastic limit is the limiting value of the load up to which the material returns back to its
original position. Beyond this load, the material will not return back to its original
position.
21. What are thermal stresses and strain?
Whenever there is increase or decrease in the temperature of the body, the body tends to
expand or contract. If this deformation is prevented, some stresses are induced in the
body, these stresses are called as thermal stresses or temperature stresses. The
corresponding strains are thermal strain or temperature strains. Thermal stress is σt =α TE
where α is co-efficient of linear expansion, T is rise in temperature E is young‟s modulus.
22. If the values of E and v for an alloy body is 150 GPa and 0.25 respectively, find out the
value of bulk modulus for the alloy?
23. Differentiate between Ultimate stress and working stress?
Ultimate stress is the maximum value of stress up to which the material withstand its
failure. Working stress is the maximum stress allowed to setup in a material in actual
practice.
24. What is a compound or composite bar?
A bar made of two or more different materials, joined together is called a compound or
composite bar.
25. Write the Compatibility equation for solving compound bar problems
Hint: The extension or contraction in each bar is equal. Hence deformation per unit
length i.e. strain in each bar is equal. The total external load on the composite bar is equal
to the sum of the loads carried by each different material.
26. What is principle of super position?
When a body is subjected to number of forces acting on different sections along the
length of body, then the resulting deformation of the body is equal to the algebraic sum of
the deformations of the individual sections. This is called principle of super position.

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 27. How will you calculate the total elongation of a compound bar which is connected in
series?
28. What do you mean by a bar of uniform strength:
A bar having uniform stress when it is subjected to its own weight is known as a bar of
uniform strength.
29. What is meant by free body diagram?
A free body diagram is a complete diagram or a simplified sketch that shows all the
external forces with the direction and the point of application of external load. This
includes all the reactive forces by the supports and the weight of the body due to its mass.
30. Define elastic strain energy?
If the material is loaded within the elastic limit and then unloaded to zero stress, the strain
also becomes zero and the strain energy stored in the body in straining the material is
recoverable. However, when the material is loaded beyond the elastic limit and then
unloaded, some permanent deformations will be setup in the body even after unloading.
Therefore, only the partial strain energy will be recoverable and is called elastic strain
energy.
31. What do you mean by strain energy density?
Strain energy density is defined as the strain energy per unit volume of the material. It is
actually the area under the stress-strain curve.
32. Define Proof load.
The maximum load which can be applied to a body without permanent deformation is
called proof load.
33. Define resilience.
Resilience is defined as the capacity of a material to absorb energy upon loading.
34. Define toughness of a material.
Toughness is defined as the maximum strain energy that can be absorbed per unit volume
till rupture. The modulus of toughness is a measure of the resistance of the structure to
impact loading and is dependent on the ductility of the material.
35. What are the major types of deformation?
Elastic deformation (deformation due to loads) and thermal deformation (deformation
due to temperature variation)
36. What is meant by residual stresses?

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 In reality, when materials are being manufactured, they are often rolled, extruded, forged,
welded and hammered. In castings, materials may cool unevenly. These processes can
setup high internal stresses called residual stresses.
Note: This process causes the development of larger normal stresses near the outer
surface than in the middle. These residual stresses are self-equilibrating. i.e. they are in
equilibrium without any externally applied forces. In real world problems, such residual
stresses may be large and should be carefully investigated and then added to the
calculated stresses for the initially stress-free material.
37. How will you calculate major principal stress on member subjected to like principal
stresses and shear stress?
Major normal principal stresses

38. How will you calculate minor principal stress on member subjected to like principal
stresses and shear stress?
Minor normal principal stresses

39. What is the use of Mohr‟s circle?

This is a graphical method which is frequently used to find out the normal, tangential,
resultant stresses, and principal planes for the given stresses on oblique plane.
40. What do you mean by limit of proportionality or elastic limit?
Limit of proportionality or elastic limit is a point in the stress-strain curve at which the
linear relation between them ceases. (i.e. the point at which the straight line changes to a
curve). Thereafter the stress is not directly proportional to strain and therefore Hooke‟s
law is not valid after the elastic limit. Also, this is the point at which material undergoes
rearrangement of molecular structure, in which atoms are being shifted to some other
stable configuration.
41. What do you mean by the term “necking”?
When a material is being loaded to its yield point, the specimen begins to “neck” (i.e. the
cross sectional area of the material start decreasing) due to plastic flow. Therefore,
Necking can be defined as the mode of ductile flow of material in tension. Necking
usually occurs where the surface imperfections are predominant.

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 Transverse Loading on Beams and Stresses in Beam

1. What is a beam?
A beam is a structure member supported along its length and subjected to various types of
loadings acting vertically downwards (perpendicular to the centre of the beam).
2. Classify beams based upon its supports?
a) Cantilever beam
b) Simply supported beam
c) Overhanging beam
d) Fixed beam
e) Continuous beam
3. What is cantilever beam?
A beam which is fixed at one end and free at another end is called a cantilever beam.
4. What is simply supported beam?
A beam which is resting freely on the supports at both the ends is called a simply
supported beam.
5. What are the various types of loading?
a. Point or concentrated load
b. Uniformly distributed load (UDL)
c. Uniformly Varying load (UVL)
6. What is fixed beam?
A beam which is fixed at both the ends or built up in halls is called as a fixed beam.
7. What is overhanging beam?
A beam in which one or both the ends are extended beyond the supports is called as an
overhanging beam.
8. What is continuous beam?
A beam which is supported by more than two supports is called continuous beam.
9. What is point load?
A load which is applied at particular point is called as point or concentrated load.
10. What is mean by uniformly distributed load?
Uniformly distributed load is a load which is uniformly spread over the given span or
length of the beam, at the rate of loading w in N/m.
11. What is mean by uniformly varying load?

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 Uniformly varying load which is spread over a beam in such a manner that the rate of
loading uniformly increases from zero to N/m through the span or length at a constant
rate.
12. What is shear force?
Shear force at a cross section is defined as the algebraic sum of all the forces acting either
side of beam.
13. What is Bending moment?
Bending moment at a cross section is defined as the algebraic sum of moments of all the
forces which are placed either side from the point.
14. What is meant by Sagging moment?
A bending moment in which the force in left side of beam is clockwise and right side of
the beam is counter clockwise is called Sagging or positive moment.
15. What is meant by Hogging moment?
A bending moment in which the force in left side of beam is counter clockwise and right
side of the beam is clockwise is called Hogging or negative moment.
16. What are shear force diagram (SFD) and Bending moment diagram (BMD)?
Shear force diagram (SFD) is a diagram which shows the variation of shear force along
its length of beam. Bending moment diagram (BMD is a diagram which shows the
variation of bending moment along its length of beam.
17. What is meant by point of contraflexure?
Point of contraflexure is a point on a loaded beam at which the bending moment changes
its sign or is zero.
18. Give the relationship between shear force and bending moment?
The rate of change of bending moment equals to the shear force at the section.
19. State any two assumptions made in theory of bending?
• The material is perfectly homogeneous and isentropic.
• The Young‟s modulus is same in tension as well as compression.
20. Write bending equation and explain the terms?
The bending equation is given as

Where, M = Bending moment in N.mm

I = Moment of inertia in mm4
σb= Bending stress in N/mm2
y = Distance from neutral axis in mm
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 E = Young‟s modulus in N/mm2
R = Radius of curvature in mm.
21. What is section modulus?
Section modulus is the ratio of moment of inertia of the section to the distance from the
neutral axis.
22. What is composite beam?
A beam which is constructed by two different materials and behave as a single unit during
loading is called a composite beam.
23. What is simple or pure bending?
If a beam is bent only due to application of constant bending moment and not due to
shear then it is called simple or pure bending.
24. What do you mean by beam of uniform strength?
A beam in which bending stress developed is constant and is equal to the allowable stress
at every section is called beam of uniform strength.
25. When will bending moment be maximum?
Bending Moment will be maximum when shear force is zero.
26. What is maximum bending moment in a simply supported beam of span „L‟
subjected to UDL of „w‟ over entire span?
27. In a simply supported beam how will you locate point of maximum bending
moment?
The bending moment is max. When Shear Force is zero. Write SF equation at that point
and equate to zero, the distance „x‟ from one end can be found. Substituting the value of x
in moment equation the maximum moment can be found
28. What is shear force and bending moment diagram?
The diagram which shows the variation of the shear force and bending moment along the
length of the beam.
29. Write the assumption in the theory of simple bending?
a) The material of the beam is homogeneous and isotropic.
b) The beam material is stressed within the elastic limit and thus obeys Hook‟s law.
c) The transverse section which was plane before bending remains plains after
bending also.
d) Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract independently about the layer,
above or below.
e) The value of E is the same in both compression and tension.
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 Torsion of Circular Shaft

1. What do you mean by Torsion?

Torsion refers to the loading of a circular or non-circular member that tends to cause it to
rotate or twist. Such a load is called torque, torsional moment, rotational moment,
twisting moment or simply couple.
2. What are the assumptions made in Torsion equation
a) The material of the shaft is homogeneous, perfectly elastic and obeys Hooke‟s law.
b) Twist is uniform along the length of the shaft
c) The stress does not exceed the limit of proportionality
d) The shaft circular in section remains circular after loading
e) Strain and deformations are small.
3. Write the governing equation for torsion of circular shaft?
4. What is the type of stress induced in a structural member subjected to torsional
loading?
Shear Stress. The variation of shear stress is linear and it vary from zero at the neutral
axis and reaches the maximum value at the extreme fiber of the shaft.
5. Define polar moment of inertia and establish the equations for a solid and hollow
circular shaft.
6. Why the shear stress is maximum at the outer surface of the shaft than the inner
core?
When the circular shaft is subjected to torsional loading, the shear stress is maximum at
the extreme fiber of the shaft. This is due to the reason that, the extreme fibers are much
strained than the inner surface near centroidal axis of the member. This is the reason why
the shear stress is maximum at the extreme fiber of the shaft. Also, the materials inside
the shaft are not that much utilized at the time of torsional loading. Also, it this is the
reason why hollow circular shafts are preferred rather than the solid one for practical use.
7. Why hollow circular shafts are preferred when compared to solid circular shafts?
 The torque transmitted by the hollow shaft is greater than the solid shaft.
 For same material, length and given torque, the weight of the hollow shaft will be
less compared to solid shaft

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 Deflection of Beams

1. Define deflection.
The displacement of a particular point located in the longitudinal axis of the beam
in the vertical direction is called deflection. Deflection may be either upward or
downward depending upon the direction of the load which is acting on the beam.
2. What is the use of moment area method?
Moment area method is very much useful to find the deflection and slope of a beam
at any particular point on the beam. This method can be applied all types of loads or
beams of variable cross section.
3. Where does the maximum deflection occur on cantilever beam?
For cantilever beam having any load or any cross section along the length of the
beam, the maximum deflection occurs only at the free end of the beam.
4. Where does the maximum deflection occur for the simply supported beam
loaded symmetrically about mid-point and having same cross – section through
their length?
The maximum deflection occurs at the center.
5. Write the flexural equation?
The flexural equation for the beam is
6. Write the maximum slope and deflection when simply supported beam of
length of l has only one central load W?

7. What is flexural rigidity?

The product of modulus of elasticity and moment of inertia is called as flexural
rigidity.
8. Why deflection of beams is needed for mechanical engineering applications?
The spindle of a lathe or drill press and the arbor of a milling machine carry cutting
tools for machining metals. Therefore, the deflection of the spindle would have an
adverse effect on the accuracy of the machine output. The manner of loading and
support of these machine elements behave like that of a real beam. This is the

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 reason why deflection of beams is necessary for mechanical engineering
applications.
9. Describe the boundary conditions that can be used for finding out the values of
the constants of integration in case of common type of beams.

Support Deflection Slope Moment

Fixed end Zero Zero Yes
Free end Yes Yes Zero
Roller (i.e. pinned or Zero Zero Zero
hinged)

10. Write down the moment – curvature relationship?

11. List out the relationship exists between slope, deflection, bending moment and
the load.
𝑑𝑦
Slope = 𝑑𝑥

Bending Moment =

Shear Force =

Load = -

12. Write down the two Moment – Area theorems?

The angle between the tangents at two points A and B of a deflection curve is equal
to the area of the M/EI diagram between A and B.
The displacement of B from the tangent at A is equal to the moment of the M/EI
diagram between A and B about the point B.

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 Thin Cylinders and Thick Cylinders
1. Define thin cylinder?
Cylindrical vessels are used to store liquids and gases under pressure. The diameter to
thickness ratio is greater than 20 is called as thin cylinder.
2. What is mean by thick cylinder?
The diameter to thickness ratio is less than 20 called as thick cylinder. Here
circumference stress varies from inner to outer wall thickness.
3. What are the stresses induced in thin cylindrical shell subjected to internal
pressure?

1. Circumferential stress or Hoop stress

2. Longitudinal stress

4. What is Hoop stress (or) Circumferential stress?

The stress is acting along the circumference of the cylinder is called as Hoop stress (or)
Circumferential stress. It is denoted by σc.

5. What is longitudinal stress?

The stress is acting along the axis of the cylinder is called as longitudinal stress. It is
denoted by σl.

6. What do you mean a pressure vessel?

Pressure vessel is usually a spherical or cylindrical container intended for the storage of
liquids and gases under high internal pressure.
7. What are the types of stresses induced in a pressure vessel due to its internal
pressure?
 Longitudinal stress i.e. stress acting in the direction of longitudinal axis of the
pressure vessel
 Hoop stress (Circumferential stress or tangential stress) i.e. the stress developed in
the circumferential or radial direction
8. What are major classifications of a pressure vessel?
Pressure vessels are classified into
 Thin-walled pressure vessels

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  Thick-walled pressure vessels
If the mean radius (average of outer and inner radius) to the thickness of the pressure
vessel is greater than or equal to 10, it is called thin-walled pressure vessels otherwise it
is called thick-walled pressure vessels.
9. Explain the variation of stress over the thickness of wall of a thin-walled pressure
vessel.
In case of thin-walled pressure vessel, the thickness of the wall is very small compared to
the radius of the vessel. Also, there is no variation of stress and it is only a constant.

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