Gravity 3

Gravity 3
Gravitational Potential and the Geoid

Chuck Connor, Laura Connor

Potential Fields Geophysics: Week 2

Gravity 3
 Objectives for Week 1

Gravity 3

• Gravity as a vector
• Gravitational
Potential
• The Geoid

Gravity 3
 Gravity as a vector

Gravity 3
We can write Newton’s law for gravity in a vector Examples
form to account for the magnitude and direction of
the gravity field: O(x0 , z0 )
GmE x
g=−
~ ~
r
r2
r1
where: Θ
~
g is the gravitational acceleration z
~r
mE is the Earth’s mass.
r is distance from the center of mass (e.g., the Earth). P (x1 , z1 )
~
r is a unit vector pointed away from the center of
mass
G is the gravitational constant (m3 kg−1 s−2 )

In this vector form we can think of gravitational

acceleration in directions other than toward or away
from the mass. Note that ~ r is defined as pointing GmP
away from the center of mass and in the direction of gr = − ~
r
2
r1
increasing r, hence the minus sign which could be
ignored when we were only concerned with the z0 − z1
magnitude of g: ~
r =
r1
GmE GmP z0 − z1
g = |~
g| = gz = −
r2 2
r1 r1
At right the “z” component of gravity is calculated GmP (z1 − z0 )
for point O due to a mass at point P . gz =
3
r1

Gravity 3
 Gravitational potential

The gravitational potential, U , is a 1 10

Gravity 3 U(x)
scalar field 0.8 g(x)

Gravitational acceleration, g (m s-2)

Gravitational Potential, U (J x 108)
0.6
5
0.4
Z R
U = g · d~
~ r 0.2
∞ 0 0
Z R
GM -0.2
= dr
∞ r2 -0.4
-5
GM -0.6
= −
R -0.8

-1 -10
1 Re 2 Re 3 Re 4 Re 5 Re
The signs are tricky. Note ~r · d~
r = −dr, Radial Distance, in Earth Radii (Re)
that is, ~
r and d~r are of opposite sign
Unlike gravitational acceleration, gravitational potential decreases
(point in opposite directions). Prove to
closer to the surface of the Earth. This means negative work is
yourself that the MKS unit of gravitational
done by an object falling toward the surface. Positive work is
potential is Joules/kg. Gravitational
done moving an object away from the surface (it is easier to fall
potential is the potential energy per unit
off a cliff than to climb up one!). Both U and g converge to zero
mass.
at large distances.

Gravity is a potential field

The integral relationship between the vector of gravitational acceleration and the scalar gravitational
potential makes gravity a “potential field”. Gravitational acceleration is the gradient of the potential:

GM ∂ GM ∂
g=−
~ ~
r= =− U = −grad U = −∇U
r2 ∂~
r r ∂~
r

Gravity 3
 The gradient of the potential

Gravity 3 Use the chain rule to relate the partial derivative in the r direction to the
O(x0 , z0 ) derivative in the x and z directions:
x
∂U ∂U ∂r1 Gmp ∂r1
= =− ×
∂z ∂r1 ∂z 2
r1 ∂z
r1
Θ
∂r1 1 h i 1
z 2 2 −2
~r = (z1 − z0 ) + (x1 − x0 ) × 2(z1 − z0 )
∂z 2
P (x1 , z1 ) ∂U GM z1 − z0 GmP (z0 − z1 )
= − =
∂z 2
r1 r1 r13

Comparing this to the answer from two slides back:

Let’s return to the example
using the point mass mP at ∂U
point P . The scalar = −gz
gravitational potential at point ∂z
O is the work required to move ∂U
an object from infinity to O. = −gx
∂x
The potential is related to
gravitational acceleration by the
integral shown on the previous
slide. The next question is: how Gravity can vary on an equipotential surface
does U vary across the area
around P , in this case in the A surface along which U is constant is an equipotential surface. No work is
x − z plane? We can think of done against gravity moving on an equipotential surface, but gravity can
this as the change of U in the x vary along an equipotential surface because ∂U
∂z
, where z is defined as
or z directions, that is, ∂U/∂x vertical, need not be constant.
and ∂U/∂z.
Gravity 3
 Variation in gravity on an equipotential surface

Gravity 3 The variation in an equipotential surface for the Earth

can be thought of in terms of variation of its height.
Since potential energy, U = gh on an equipotential
surface, and U is constant by definition, any change
in gravity corresponds to a change in height, h.

This change in height of the equipotential surface has

to be referenced to something. For Earth, the
reference ellipsoid is the best-fit ellipsoid to the figure
of the Earth at mean sea-level. The geoid is the
equipotential surface that varies around this reference
ellipsoid. The height of the geoid is the difference in
height, or geoid undulation, from the reference
We have already seen that for a “point” mass, or ellipsoid at any given location. The height of the
outside a homogeneous sphere, the potential varies geoid, and the value of gravity on the geoid, varies
with radial distance only: because the distribution of mass inside the Earth is
not uniform. Vertical is defined as normal to the
geoid, so the orientation of vertical also varies with
GM respect to the reference ellipsoid.
U =− .
R
At sea, the surface of the ocean corresponds to the
geoid. Changes in mass distribution within the Earth
So, ∂U
∂z
= constant on such an equipotential surface cause changes in the height of the geoid, so there are
(gravity is constant at a given value of R). The actual literally changes in the height of the sea from
Earth is not homogeneous. Earth has mass anomalies, place-to-place, with respect to the reference ellipsoid.
U is not constant at a given R, and ∂U ∂z
6= constant, Most satellites orbit on a equipotential surface, so
so gravity varies along an equipotential surface for the their height (say distance from the surface of the
Earth. reference ellipsoid) also undulates on an equipotential
surface mimicking the shape of the geoid.

Gravity 3
 The geoid

Gravity 3

The Earth’s geoid as mapped from GRACE data and shown in terms of height above or below the reference
ellipsoid. As time goes on, the geoid has been mapped with greater and greater definition.

Gravity 3
 What sort of mass distribution causes a change in
the Earth’s geoid?
Gravity 3
Examples

Consider a geoid anomaly of +50 m on the order of 2000 km in width. What sort of excess mass might
cause this geoid anomaly? Let’s simplify the problem by considering the excess mass to be in the mantle and
of spherical shape. To raise the geoid h = 50 m, the gravitational potential on an “undisturbed Earth” at
the surface must equal the potential at +50 m once the excess mass is added:

GME GME GMexcess

− =− −
RE RE + h rexcess + h

where ME is the mass of the Earth, RE is the radius of the Earth, Mexcess is the excess mass associated
with the geoid anomaly, rexcess is the depth to the center of the excess mass, and h is the height of the
geoid anomaly. There is one equation and two unknowns (the excess mass and the depth to the center of the
excess mass). If we assume the depth to the center of excess mass is 1000 km, prove to yourself that the
excess mass creating the geoid height anomaly is about Mexcess = 7 × 1018 kg. If the excess mass is
spherical, then:
4 3
Mexcess = πa ρexcess
3
where a is the radius of the spherical excess mass and ρexcess is its excess density (or density contrast with
the surrounding mantle). If a = 5 × 105 m then ρexcess = 14 kg m−3 . The mantle density on average
at 1000 km depth is on order of 4000 kg m−3 . Geoid anomalies of ten’s of meters height and thousands of
kilometers width seem to be related to very small perturbations in this density, possibly associated with
changes in water content of the mantle, or other geochemical differences, and temperature.

Gravity 3
 EOMA

Gravity 3 Answer the following questions O(x0 , z0 )

using the diagram at right. As x
before, a point mass, mP is
r1
located at P and we are Θ
z
concerned with the gravity and ~r

gravitational potential at point O P (x1 , z1 )

due to the mass at point P .

1 Rewrite the equation for gravitational acceleration in the z direction (gz ) due to the mass at point
P , only in terms of the constants G and mP and the variables x and z (that is, eliminate the
variable r1 from the equation).
2 Using the equation you derived in question 1, graph the change in gz with x along a profile across
the point P . Assume values for the mass at the point and its depth.
2
3 Now consider the same problem in three dimensions, that is r1 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 . Assume that
U = 1/r1 , since −GM is constant. Show that:

2 ∂2U ∂2U ∂2U

∇ U = + + =0
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

This is Laplace’s equation. It means that outside the mass, the gravity field is conserved, so the field
varies in a systematic way. This fact is highly useful for calculating expected anomalies and for
filtering gravity maps.

Gravity 3