Formulae

Chemical symbol: a letter or group of letters representing an element in a chemical formula.

All chemical symbols are either a single capital letter , such as hydrogen (H), oxgen(O), or made
up of two letters such as aluminium(Al) ,Argon(Ar).

For some elements the symbols taken from the latin name of the element such as
silver(argentum Ag), gold(aurum Au), copper(cuprum Cu), sodium(natrium Na).

Compound ion: an ion made up of several different atoms covalently bonded together and with
an overall charge (can also called molecular ions).

Molecular formula of a compound is the number and type of different atoms in one molecule

Empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole number ratio of the different atoms or ions in a
compound

Relative atomic mass, Ar is the average mass of the isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the
mass of an atom of 12C

Relative molecular mass, Mr is the sum of the relative atomic masses

Naming Compounds
Compounds take their names from the elements they are made up from. The rules for naming
compounds are:

• The metal, or positive ion, goes first and the non-metal goes second.
• If a compound does not have a metal, then the non-metal that is most to the left on the Periodic
Table goes first.
• The (second) non-metal's name changes its ending.

Non-Metal Element Changed Name in a Compound

Fluorine Fluoride

Chlorine Chloride
Bromine Bromide

Iodine Iodide

Oxygen Oxide

Sulphur Sulphide

Nitrogen Nitride

Phosphorous Phosphide

Carbon Carbide

Hydrogen Hydride

So a compound containing calcium and oxygen would be called calcium oxide and a compound
containing lithium and hydrogen would be called lithium hydride and a compound containing
phosphorus and chlorine would be called phosphorus chloride.

When naming transition metal compounds it is important to include the valency of the transition metal
cation. This is because transition metals have variable valencies.

Copper sulphate is actually called copper(II) sulphate because the copper has a valency of 2+.

Formulae of Compounds

To work out the formula of a compound you must know the valency of the elements in the compound.
Most elements' valency can be found from the Periodic Table.

The exceptions to this are transition metals, other elements with variable valencies and polyatomic ions.

Cations Anions

Name Formula Valency Name Formula Valency

Hydrogen H⁺ 1+ hydride H¯ 1-

silver(I) Ag⁺ 1+ nitrate(V) NO₃¯ 1-

mercury(I) Hg⁺ 1+ nitrate (III) NO₂¯ 1-

copper(I) Cu⁺ 1+ hydroxide OH¯ 1-

gold Au⁺ 1+ hydrogen carbonate HCO₃⁻ 1-

ammonium NH₄ ⁺ 1+ manganate(VII) MnO₄⁻ 1-

ethanoate CH₃COO⁻ 1-

Name Formula Valency Name Formula Valency

zinc Zn²⁺ 2+ carbonate CO₃²⁻ 2-

mercury(II) Hg²⁺ 2+
copper(II) Cu²⁺ 2+ sulphate(VI) SO₄²⁻ 2-
iron(II) Fe²⁺ 2+ sulphate(IV) SO₃²⁻ 2-
lead(II) Pb²⁺ 2+ sulphide S²⁻ 2-

tin(II) Sn²⁺ 2+ thiosulphate S₂O₃²¯ 2-

manganese(II) Mn²⁺ 2+ silicate(IV) SiO₃²¯ 2-

chromate(VI) Cr₂O₇²¯ 2-

Name Formula Valency

nitride N³¯ 3-

Name Formula Valency phosphate(V) PO₄³⁻ 3-

iron(III Fe³⁺ 3+ arsenate(V) AsO₄³⁻ 3-

chromium(III) Cr³⁺ 3+
Name Formula Valency

lead(IV ) Pb⁴⁺ 4+

tin(IV) Sn⁴⁺ 4+

Symbols and Formula

All elements have symbols as a quick way of writing their names
Some elements are diatomic and two atoms are found in each molecule:

Element Formula of diatomic molecule

Hydrogen H₂
Nitrogen N₂
Oxygen O₂
Fluorine F₂
Chlorine Cl₂
Bromine Br₂
Iodine I₂
Astatine At₂

Compounds have a formula that tells you the number and type of atoms in the molecule. The
formula is always in a fixed ratio.
For example, water is H₂O which means that water contains hydrogen and oxygen bonded
together. It also means that the H:O ratio is always 2:1.

Working Out Formula

To work out the formula of a compound you must know the valency of the elements in the
compound. Most elements' valency can be found from the group number in the Periodic Table.

The exceptions to this are transition metals, other elements with variable valencies and
polyatomic ions.

For elements in Groups I-IV, valency = group number

For elements in Groups V-VII, valency =8- the group number
For elements in GroupVIII , valency =0

Steps :
Step 1 - Write down the symbols of each element
Step 2 - Write down the valency of each element (number only, not the +/- sign)
Step 3 - Swap the valencies over
Step 4 - Simplify the numbers if possible (the number 1 is never written)

Example 1: sodium chloride

Step 1 Symbol Na Cl
Step 2 Valenc 1 1

Step 3 Swap Na₁Cl₁

Step 4 Simplify NaCl
Example 2: magnesium bromide

Step 1 Mg Br
Step 2 2 1
Step 3 Mg₁Br₂
Step 4 MgBr₂

Example 3: potassium oxide

Step 1 K O
Step 2 1 2
Step 3 K₂O₁
Step 4 K₂O

Example 4: calcium sulphide

Step 1 Ca S
Step 2 2 2
Step 3 Ca₂S₂
Step 4 CaS

Example 5: germanium oxide

Step 1 Ge O
Step 2 4 2
Step 3 Ge₂O₄
Step 4 GeO₂
 Polyatomic Ions
Polyatomic ions made of more than one element, for example SO₄²¯ , or CO₃²¯ . These ions need
(brackets) if they have a number.

Example 6: calcium hydroxide

Step 1 Ca OH
Step 2 2 1
Step 3 Ca₁(OH)₂
Step 4 Ca(OH)₂

Example 7: magnesium carbonate

Step 1 Mg CO₃
Step 2 2 2
Step 3 Mg₂(CO₃)₂
Step 4 MgCO₃

Brackets are not needed as there is no other number following CO₃ after being simplified.

Working Out the Number of Elements Present in Compounds from the Formula

If we have the formula of a compound we can work out the number of different elements
present in the compound by counting the number of different symbols in the formula
 H₂SO₄
subscript after each element tells us the number of atoms of that type

If no subscript is present then it is taken to be one

So sulphuric acid, H₂SO⁴ has 2 hydrogen atoms, 1 sulphur atom and 4 oxygen atoms all bonded
together in one molecule.

Example :
Formula Number of Different Elements Total Number of Atoms in Molecule

HCl 2 2
HNO₃ 3 5
H₂SO₄ 3 7
CuSO₄. 5H₂O 4 21

Types of Formula

1. Displayed formula shows all the atoms and bonds in a molecule.

2. Molecular formula of a compound is the number and type of different atoms in one
molecule.
3. Empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole number ratio of the different
atoms or ions in a compound.

Name of Compound Displayed Formula Molecular Formula Empirical Formula

Hydrogen peroxide H₂O₂ HO

Ethane

Ethane C₂H₆ CH₃

Propene C₃H₆ CH₂

 Symbol Equations
During chemical reaction , the atoms of one element are not changed into those of another
element . Nor disappear or appear from nowhere, reaction involves breaking of some bonds
between atoms, and then making new bonds to give new products . So, some of the atoms
change partners and are separated from those they were joined to and become bonded to
atoms from the other reactants.
Mg + 2 HCl MgCl₂ + H₂

A chemical equation is balanced when there are equal number of atoms and charges on both
sides of the equation.(in reactants an products).

law of conservation of mass : the total mass of al the products of a chemical reaction is always
equal to the total mass of all the reactants

magnesium +oxygen magnesium oxide

(reactants) (product)

Steps of balancing an equation:

Step 1 - Write symbols, or formula for each chemical

Step 2 - Count the number of atoms of each element on the left and on the right

Step 3 - Balance each element by adding either more reagent, or more product.

Example :
magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Step 1 : Mg + HCl MgCl₂ + H₂
Step 2 : 1 magnesium 1 magnesium
1 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
1 chlorine 2 chlorine

Step 3: Mg + 2 HCl MgCl₂ + H₂

By adding an extra hydrochloric acid, all of the atoms now balance.

1 magnesium 1 magnesium
2 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
2 chlorine 2 chlorine

In step 3 we always use numbers before the symbol, or formula to show how many molecules
there are of that chemical

. Example : methane burning in oxygen to make carbon dioxide and water.

Step 1 CH₄ + O₂ CO₂ + H₂O

Step 2 1 carbon 1 carbon

4 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
2 oxygen 3 oxygen

Step 3 CH₄ + 2O₂ CO₂ + 2H₂O

By adding an extra oxygen and an extra water, all of the atoms now balance.
1 carbon 1 carbon
4 hydrogen 4 hydrogen
 4 oxygen 4 oxygen

Example: K+H₂O KOH+H₂

2K+2H₂O 2KOH+H₂

Use of Fractions in Equations

Example : ethane burning in oxygen to make carbon dioxide and water.
Step 1 C₂H₆ + O₂ CO₂ + H₂O
Step 2 2 carbon 1 carbon
6 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
2 oxygen 3 oxygen

Step 3 2 C₂H₆ + 7 O₂ 4 CO₂ + 6 H₂O

We can also write the equation like this

C₂H₆ + 7/2 O₂ 2 CO₂+ 3 H₂O

State Symbols
When writing equations, it is sometimes required to write state symbols after each compound,
or element:
(s) solid
(l) liquid
(g) gas
(aq) aqueous, which means dissolved in water
 Ionic Equations
These are equations where the soluble ionic compounds are written with their ions separated.
Example: Write an ionic equation for the displacement / redox / exothermic reaction between
aluminium powder and copper(II) sulphate
solution
Step 1 Write a symbol equation
2Al(s) + 3CuSO₄(aq) Al₂(SO4)₃(aq) + 3Cu(s)

Step 2 Write the equation with all aqueous solutions ionised, or dissociated. To do this
split each aqueous compound into its ions:
2Al(s) + 3Cu²⁺(aq) + 3SO₄²⁻ (aq) 2Al³⁺(aq) + 3SO₄²⁻ + 3Cu(s)
Step 3 Cancel out any species on both sides of the equation which have not changed
their valency, or state of matter. These are called spectator ions.

2Al(s) + 3Cu²⁺(aq) + 3SO₄²⁻ (aq) 2Al³⁺(aq) + 3SO₄²⁻(aq) + 3Cu(s)

Step 4 Write out what is left

2Al(s) + 3Cu²⁺(aq) 2Al³⁺(aq) + 3Cu(s)

Balancing Redox Equations

Example : Balance the redox equation
Al + Cu²⁺ Al³⁺ + Cu
Step 1 Split the equation into two ionic half-equations - one for oxidation and one for
reduction.

Al Al³⁺+ 3e⁻
Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻ Cu
Step 2 Balance each half-equation so there are the same number of electrons in each
equation.
2Al 2Al³⁺ + 6e⁻
3Cu²⁺ + 6e⁻ 3Cu

Step 3 Cancel out the electrons

2Al 2Al³⁺ + 6e⁻

3Cu²⁺ + 6e⁻ 3Cu

Step 4 Add the two ionic half-equations together

2Al + 3Cu²⁺ 2Al³⁺ + 3Cu

You will notice that the total charges are equal on each side of the equation.
Relative Masses of Atoms and Molecules
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)

This is the relative mass of an atom compared to a standard (carbon-12).

Ar = mass of one atom of an element
1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12

Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)

It is the sum of all the relative atomic masses of the atoms present in a molecule.
To do this multiply each Ar by the number of that type of atom present and then add all the
masses together.
Example : water
Atoms present Number of each type of atom Ar Total Mass
Molecule Formula H 2 1 2
water H₂O O 1 16 16
TOTAL 18

Mr of water is 18

Example : calcium carbonate

Molecule Formula Atoms present Number of each atom Ar Total mass

calcium carbonate CaCO₃ Ca 1 40 40

C 1 12 12
O 3 16 48
TOTAL 100

Mr of calcium carbonate is 100

Example : calcium hydroxide

Molecule Atoms present Number of each type of atom Ar Total Mass

calcium hydroxide Ca 1 40 40
Ca(OH)₂ O 2 16 32
H 2 1 2
TOTAL 74

Mr of calcium hydroxide is 74