2nd October, 2024

Course Content

1. Concept of animals behavior

2. Approaches to the study of behavior

3. Classification and description of behavior

4. Behavior and evolution with emphasis on Evolutional functions of behavior pattern

5. The physiology of behavior

6. The genetic of behavior

7. Learning and ontogeny of behavior

8. Behavioral endocrinology

9. Biological rhythms

10. Habitat selection, territoriality, migration, foraging behavior, communication and social behavior,
sexual selection, mating systems and parental care.

Instructional material: Laptop

Concept of animals behavior

Behavior is the way an organism response to stimulus or stimuli in it's environment or It is anything an
animal does in response to stimuli.

Collectively, Behavior is the sum of an animal responses to external or internal stimuli.

It is an important property in animal life and it placed a role in biological adaptation.

Living organisms must be able to adapt to changes in their environment and to respond appropriately.
Each organisms have specific type of sensitive that improve its chances of survival.The behavior of an
organism changes over the life time and these changes are affected by the genes, the experiences and
the environment. Behavior may be simple or complex depending on the organism it's environment and
it's need.

Animal respond rapidly and adaptively to their environment through behavior.

A simple behavior is a type of directional movement to the source of food,sugar,water as shown in ant.
Also, the control of the pupil(Eye) when it enter a bright light is a simple reaction,odour of food to man.

As simple as behavior are, it helps animal to respond in ways that enhances their survival.

However, with complex behavior a lot of stimuli and different responses are utilized i.e In the building of
a nest in birds, preparation for marriages in humans.

Usually with complex behavior the nervous system perceived and processes concerning environmental
stimuli and triggers adaptive motor responses which can be seen as pattern of behavior.

Animal behavior can be studied by knowing 'How' it occur it is under proximate causation

I.e how it all works and in such cases nervous network as well as hormonal stimulus provide physiology
bases on how behavior occurs.

The 'Why' represent the ultimate causation of behavior what is the adaptive value, and it helps to
determine the influences of the behavior in the survival of the animals or the reproductive success.

The How and Why give the basic approach to the study of behavior in animals.

A stimulus initiate a particular response, it may be an external stimulus or an internal one.

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Approaches

An action or a group of actions perform by an animal in response in a stimuli or some stimulus. Behavior
can be defined as an expressed course of action produced in organism in response to stimulus from a
given situation.

It could simply be considered as what the animals does. The fundamental explanation of behavioral
activity must begin with a stimulus and end with a response.

Stimulus: Any change in the biotic and abiotic environment capable of eliciting or causing some sort of
reaction or response in a living organisms. For example temperature, pressure, radiation, gravity or
activity of other organisms within the immediate environment.

Stimulus is an agent, action, condition causing a response i.e sound ,smell, color, other plant and animal
created to the internal state e.g hunger, cold,etc

Approaches to Behavioral study

1. Vitalistic approach: Behavioral activity are explained in term of what animal are seem to do in relation
to changes in the environment. It involves total rejection of any study of the animal outside it's natural
environment.
The technique is non scientific since all the observation relate to past event which cannot be tested
experimentally

2. mechanistic approach: it is an experimental approach and that involve the study of particular aspect
of behavior under control condition of the laboratory.

It was pioneered by Pavlov and use extensively in psychological study. It may be criticize on the basic of
the artificiality of the experimental condition and the way in which results are interpreted.

3. Enthological approach: it focus on observation in natural setting. Enthology is the scientific study of
animals behavior. It explain responses observed in the field in terms of stimuli eliciting the behavior.
These was pioneered by Lorenz, Von Frisch and Tinbergen.

Enthologist have so far tried to answer questions about animal behavior from four major areas.

Focus was on how key stimuli trigger specific behavior pattern.

Modern enthologist have areas of enquiry, causation, development, evolution and function of behavior.

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Function of Behavior

1. Behavior is an adaptation for regulating animal population at levels that would prevent
overpopulation, Environmental population and extinction of the species (some species maximize their
own reproduction, some have greater genetic success e.g Apusapus lay 72 or more eggs in a season.

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Classification of animals Behavior

There are two major categories namely

Innate behaviors and learned behaviors. However animal Behavior can be subdivided into simple or
complex Behavior.

1. INNATE/INHERENT/INSTINCTIVE/STEREOTYPES: Animals that show innate behavior are born with this
as a result it is inborn, specific, genetically controlled, predictable, independent of past experience and a
sequence of activities that usually follow a fixed action pattern (FAP).

Characteristics of innate and types of innate behaviors

1. Unlearned in nature
2. Past experience is never required since it is an inborn response to stimuli

3. Transfer or passed from parents to offspring therefore it is heritable or inherited in nature.

4. Occurs even when animal is isolated from their species

5. Highly adaptable and has a higher survival value occurs in all species of the same kind

Various types of innate

They are taxis, kinesis, reflex action, instinct, irritability and motivation.

1. Taxis: This is the simplest type of innate behaviors. It is an orientation of an animal directed either
towards or away in response to the source of stimulus. An orientation towards the stimulus is refers to
as the positive taxis if otherwise negative taxis.

Taxes named after the stimuli include phototaxis(light), moth at night show positive phototaxis.

Chemotaxis(Chemical): Earthworm to soap is a negative chemotaxis.

Thermotaxis: Temperature. Frog and snails shows negative thermotaxis to sun. They moves away from
the sun and other animals on a sunny day looks for shady environment .

Geotaxis: It is towards gravity.

Kineses

It is a locomotory Behavior where animal respond to variation in the intensity of the stimulus and not
the source of direction of the stimulus.

Sense organs are sensitive to variation in stimulus, intensity this must be present and utilized.

Orthokineses and klinokineses.

The Orthokinesesis is a response that involve changes in the speed of movement of the whole body.

The klinokineses: The speed of locomotion remain constant but the rate at which the animals changes
direction depends on the intensity of the stimulus.

Reflexes actions

It involves the nervous system and the sense organs. Reflexes are simple quick movement or involuntary
response to stimulus or stimuli. They are inherited and unlearned. An immediate response of a heart of
the body to an external or internal stimulus which has a great adaptive and survival value. It is found in
all members of the animals species Examples web spinning in spiders, Flight in birds, knee jerk in man,
removal of hand from hit surface or source of pinched.

Diagram of spinal cord

For reflex action to occur the following parts are simulated

1. Receptors (Ear,skin,eye,tongue, nostrils)

2. Sensory nerve or afferent neurons:

3. spinal cord or the brain

4. intermediate nerve or Relay neurons

5. motor or efferent nerve

6. A motor organ or an effector.

Stimulus is received by the receptors. The sense organs which set up a sensory impulses is transmitted
to the central nervous system through the intermediate nerve on neurons. A motors impulse is
transmitted through the motor nerve to the effector or motor organ or muscle gland which either
contract or secrete substances in response to stimulus.

Advantages of reflexes

1. Immediate response to stimulus therefore has great survival value and adaptive value

Controls mostly by spinal cord therefore relief the brain from too much work.

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4.Instinctive is the most complex type genetically controlled and species specific. It is in response to a
sign or a releaser stimulus examples building of nest in bird, singing in birds, migration in animals,
parental care, territoriality, web making by spiders, crouching of newly hatched gul chicks when they
hear alarm call.

A sexually matured stickle back fish male has a red coloured belly (a sign stimulus) that attract the
female. The mature fish migrate to warm shallow water. This migration is an instinctive Behavior that is
trigger by increase in gonadotropic hormones which is in turn control by environmental factors like
photoperiod and the temperature.

On reaching shallow water, the fish build a nest which is open at both ends with the help of plants and
weeds. The nest building Behavior is trigger by the presence of green vegetation in the water and this
fish acquired a small territory. It exhibit territoriality or defense the area around the nest from other
male fishes that are also in search of a suitable nesting ground.
The fish become aggressive and exhibit threat posture by facing Downward. The sign stimulus for
territorial and aggression Behavior is the red belly of other male fishes. The presence of a male triggers
the courtship Behavior in the male because of the swollen belly that is full of eggs. The male perform a
zigzag dance which attract the female, during the dance the male always exposes the red belly to the
female, the male lead the female into the nest to release the oval that are immediately fertilize by the
female after this the female moves out and the male may lure other female to the nest. The male
protect the nest from being taken over by another fish or the egg being eaten or debris being deposited
around the nest so that the eggs are properly taken care of and they reach maturity.

The presence of the eggs in the nest triggers parental care in the male and begin to fans the eggs with its
fins and the young ones are taken care by the male.

5. Irritability : it is an excessive response or generally response to stimulus or stimuli. For instance the
protoplasm in protozoa received stimuli and the organism will react in other animals and humans
they're sensory cells that perceive stimuli in the environment or inside our bodies which will react to.

Animal can distinguish between poisonous and non poisonous, edible and non edible things in the
environment.

Tropisms is a directional growth or turning movement shown in organisms usually in plants in response
to environmental stimulus. Tropisms can be in form of taxes or kineses the formal is directional.
Response is dependent on the direction of the stimulus and thus named after the involved stimulus e.g
anemotropism is in response to wind in plant.

6. Motivation : Motivation is a drive that arouses an animal into an action towards a desired goal and
elicit control as well as sustain the goals. Motivation may be routed in basic to minimize physical pain
and maximize pleasure. Motivation may include specific need eating, sleeping, resting etc. animal are
active because of the internal motivation changes in responsiveness are the drives and there are
different types of drives e.g mating, migration, courtship, hunger, test etc.

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Physiological of animal Behavior

This is the Biological processes underlying behavioral responses or it is the Biological bases of Behavior.

Physiological of animal Behavior sensory is governed by the functioning of the nervous sensory system
and the endocrine system. The nervous system is a complex network of nerves or cell that carry
messages from the brain and spinal cord to various part of the body. Nervous system send messages
back and forth between the brain and the body. The brain has control on the bodily functions. Nervous
system is divided into central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Peripheral nervous
system transmit sensory information into the central nervous system. Example Movement. There are
various types of movement in animals and it requires total movement from one place to another this is a
behavioral effect that is governed by central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

Sometimes the movement may not be complete.

Partial movement: it is When animal stay at a spot and still show signs of slight change in direction. E.g a
bird on the tree rotate it's neck at the same spot. The sound production by the bird is to alert other birds
species about it's presence or to give am alarm.

Foraging influences habitat used in animals and interaction with the ecosystem all these activities under
movement are govern by the use of nervous system, the hormonal system and the sensory system.

Sensory system involved organ and structure that enable animals to perceive and react to the
environmental stimuli. These include eyes, ears,nose/nostril/nasal opening, skin(wings, feathers),
tongue (antenna of insects or phila etc) as well as (sensory neurons and motor neurons)

All the sensory system or organ direct activities in animals.

Dispersal drives colonisation of new habitat and impact biogeographical processes which eventually
determine the rate of gene flow and influences genetic variation and adaptation to different or new
environment.

A multicellular animals are composed of many cells as a result this complexity makes them to require
complex specific specialize structures that will make them to function effectively and efficiently in the
environment as a result movement in them includes walking, running, jumping, crawling, climbing,
swimming, flying, galloping, sleeping slithering, and so on.

Note : every animal has structure that are unique to their species that enable them to function
effectively e.g fins of diverse type enable fish to move in water, feathers and wings in birds, the fore and
hing limb in mammals modified digits, claws, hoofs, paws aid the survival and they give adaptable values
to specific animals .

The application of the sensory system in movement is a reflection of

a. Virtual: The photo receptors that reflects light in the eyes

b. Auditory : detect sound vibrations

c. Olfactory: chemoreceptors that detect chemical cues or smell, odour etc

d. Tactile : mechanoreceptors that detect touch, pressure etc

e. Gustatory: taste receptors that detect chemical cues.

The endocrine aspect of physiology in animals Behavior

Usually in lower animals (mammals) adrenaline hormones is secreted and leads to fear, flight or fight
reaction or responses in animals

Learning and learning Behavior

It is determined/acquired by prior experience , practice and interaction with the environment. They are
not speed from parental genes.

Learned behaviors changes if condition changes. It is also modified by experience hence learning is the
modification of behavior through practice training and it is a process and not a product that leads to
improvement maturation and adaptation of behaviors no genetic predisposition in learned behaviors
and they are not heritable from parents and they are not control by genes.

Behavior varies among individuals and they are under the control of innate behaviors.

Learned behaviors may or may not increase the chances of survival and reproduction. It is process of
gaining knowledge or skills as well as it helps to modified the existing knowledge of skills.

Behavioral output is not easily perceive or seen therefore learning is sometimes difficult to measure.

Conditioning or associative learning

It is process of learning through association responses becomes more frequent and predictable In a
given environment as a result or reinforcement.

Conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that we learn to respond to through conditioning. It is a previously

A neutral stimulus that has been repeatedly

associated with a meaningful stimulus will eventually have meaning e.g a recess bell.

Ringing of bell(neutral stimulus) has been associated with certain activity at specific times to show
different responses. True stimuli has be to presented close together in time. If the time between the
condition stimulus (the bell) and the unconditioned stimulus (the food) is too wide learning will not
occur.

NS(bell) + unconditioned stimulus (food)= simultaneous (learning occur).

Bell 8am + Food 2pm= No learning.

Classical conditioning involved placing neutral stimulus before a naturally occurring reflex.
Pavlov's classical conditioning needs basic learning that is simplest way that dogs and animals learn.

a. In the presence of food sight or the odour salivation occurs automatically.

b. Sounding a whistle or a bell every time the animals are to be feed

c. Animal will be condition or will associate food and whistle/bell

d. Removal of food and presentation of whistle blowing or bell ringing will equally make the animals to
salivate.

Note : The whistle alone causes physiological effects that was previously and automatic response.

Ontogeny

Ontogeny is the study of the development and growth of an individual organisms from embryonic stage
to maturity.

It is the origination and development of an organism both physical and psychologically usually from the
time of fertilization of the eggs to adults group. The development of organisms happen through
fertilization, cleavage, blastulation, gastrulation, organogenesis and metamorphosis into an adult .

Stages of ontogeny

1. Embryonic stage

2. Foetal stage: development after embryonic stage

3. Juvenile stage: it includes post natal or o

Post hatching stage

4. Adult stage: maturity and reproductive processes occur at this stage.

Factors influencing ontogeny

1. Genetics: genetic make up or epigenetics regulations

2. Environmental factors: E.g good nutrition, right temperature, in man good housing, in plant light and
other factors.

3. Hormonal regulation: Produce through by endocrine system

4. Cellular interaction or signals and communication among cells.

Importance of ontogeny

1. It helps to understand evolutionary developmental Biology

3. Regenerative Biology and tissue engineering.

4. It helps in understanding of developmental diseases and disorders.

They may feed on other smaller animal like hares, birds, egg of ostrich hunting success rate is low in lion.

Majority need water in daily basis but they may go four to five days without water.

A typical pride of lion consist of about six related females their dependant offspring and the coalition of
two to three residence male that join the pride from elsewhere. When a new make coalition takes over
a pride the cubs represent a major impediment to it's reproduction. Mothers with cubs will not mate
until their offspring are at least 18 month of age. However such will mate within days if the cubs are lost
thus the new male kill all the young cubs in their new pride. infanticide account for a quarter of all cubs
death.

Defense in lion

Both male and female defend the pride against intruders However certain individual lion consistently
lead the defense while other lack behind.

Typically adults male will not tolerate outsiders while adult female will not tolerate outsiders the males
within a pride are usually brothers however males are expel from the pride or they live on their own
when they reach maturity.

Territoriality in Lion

Lion are highly territorial and occupied the same area for generation female actively defend their
territory while resident make protect pride from rivals.

Territory size depends on prey abundance as well as access to water and other resources. Lion roar from
dusk to dawn and they stay in touch with member. roaring helps to advertise their location, strength,
identity as well as sending information to other prides. They are sensitive to number able to discriminate
the roars of large pride from smaller group or pride also members of a particular pride can identify their
own pride with the sound produced.

Scent production from urine or from scent plants in and around their paws as well as their faces are
used to mark their territory this is known as scent marking.

They mark tree and bushes scrap the ground with their hind feet while urinating.

Lion have specialized bomeronasal organ for detecting scent and they exhibit a facial expressions for
flehmen characterized by an open mouth, a wrinkle nose and an uplifted chin so as to detect the smell.
When investigating scent mark or reproductive state of the female.

Communication in animals
It involves the transfer of information from one animal to another or to a group of animals usually of the
same species. It could be change of image or thought between animals whereby there is transfer of
information which has an effect on the current of future Behavior of animals. Zoo semiotics is the study
of animals communication. There are diverse means of communication among animals which includes
the verbal, non verbal forms. The verbal form involved in sound production of different kinds e.g barking
in dogs, bleating in goat, roaring in lion etc.

Non verbal forms involved a wider categories of signs and signal ranging from body gestures

Body language: Animal show different type of language through their body and it is a major kind of
communication in the animal. it involves the kind of body movement used by the animals. Animal can
increase in body size, display of color,wing and feathers etc.

Note: The major forms of communication are A. visual; color pattern,body posture and other visual
displays

B. Auditory: sounds, whistles a d other vocalizations

C. Chemicals: pheromones and other odours or scents

D. Tactile: touch bases cues and electrical discharges.

F. Sometimes animal used what is known as bioluminence production of light in certain species

Reason for communication in animals

1. To find mates

2. To establish dominance

3. To defend territory

4. To care for the young

5. To coordinate group Behavior

6. To earn other of threat

7. Share emotions

8. Mark territory

The method of communication in animals used depends on

1. The type of information

2. The species ability

3. The environment or the habitat.

Chemicals communication deals with the production of chemical substances that have odour or scents
which can be perceived by the other animals of the same species or another group of animals for
instance, urine is used as a chemical substances to mark boundaries of territory in animals. Likewise
certain male squirrels sprinkle their mate with urine to warn other males to keep their distances.

In some species, odours or scents are produced. Pheromones are secreted by animals however ,not all
odours have pheromones. The world is derived from two Greek words 'pherein' which means carry and
'horman' which means excite. Pheromones are chemical substances secreted and used to pass messages
between animals of the same species e.g a rabbit may leave a pheromones to convey message to
another rabbit. The pheromones are usually produce on the glands of the face, head ,chest, arms rums,
between toes.

Each odour has a specific message and may travel as liquid vapour or gas in water or air or on the
ground. Pheromones Carry information about identity, territory, scent, food, assembly, avoidance of
danger.

Bioluminescence is the ability of living organisms to produce and emit light. The word comes from the
Latin word 'lumen' which means light. It is a chemical reaction that occur inside the body of some
animals the reaction involves two molecules luciferin a substrate and luciferase (an enzymes)

Bioluminescence is mostly commonly found in marine organisms and can also be seen in some
terrestrial species e.g firefly.

For instance watergelly the luminescence protein is called aequoirin and it has been used in medical
research. Some mollusc used bioluminescence to distract predator when threaten. The angler fish uses
it's luminous lure to attract prey in the ocean depth.

*Tactile touch in animals involved touches in animals including grooming, licking these increases the
bonding between animals and especially between mother and children. Tactile can involved the play
shown in animals.

Dominance in animals

It is an aspect of social Behavior arising from a group of individuals living together temporarily or
permanently and showing social hierarchies or pecking others.

Social animal compete with one another for common resources that are essential for life. This resources
may or may not be limited in quantity therefore resources are worth fighting for as a result through
aggressive Behavior socal animals resolved competition over resources. During such interaction a
ranking system is created where the higher ranking animal easily have access to resources, usually
powerful, highly respected and not always inhibited by other group members.
Social dominance is the potent biological force that bind together the social Behavior, well being and
evolutionary success. Therefore social dominance helps to maintain stability and efficacy of the group.
Social dominance refers to situation in which an individual or a group controls or dictate the Behavior of
others especially in competitive situation. It helps to defends mate, space , offspring and food. The age ,
size , strength, intelligence, loudness of communication techniques, motivation, weapons, Hormones,
skills of the animals are useful in socal dominance status of animals.

the animals social structure may be linear or nonlinear in nature.

The less ranking animals are surbodinate and often show submissive Behavior.

Note : Socal dominance does not last throughout life span.

Parental care

It is the way in which the mature adult take charge, responsibility and care for young ones.

Usually in socal animals parent care for their young ones by creating special bonds between themselves
and their offspring,they protect them from other predator and defend them, they find food and
resources for their children above all they teach them how to survive in the habitat.

Foraging is the process of searching of food in animals. It helps to preserve a

the life of animals because food gives energy in particular species for instance lion the female lion does
the foraging. However majority of socal animals moves together to searched for food in insects if a
particular insects find a food sauce the insects leaves trail pheromones and this communicate to where
the food sauce is. The food pheromones are usually used in a process of foraging.

Mating system

Animal that lives in group usually have male and female Adult males and females sometimes form pairs
in other cases pair Bonding is not establish where animals are free to mate indiscriminately.

Courtship precede mating in animals.

Courtship

Courtship is a retrialize Behavior among mature male and mature female where one of this pair uses
certain signs to communicate intention to others. It might be sound in birds or body posture in
peacock,urine production in wild dogs or musth in lion to attract the opposite sex. Eventually the female
become submissive and releases herself for the male to mount and mating which is the inspection of the
make organ into the female body occurs. It is the process of copulation among animals and it may lead
to fertilizer where new offspring maybe be produced.

There are other mating systems in animals e.g one male one female(monogamy), one male many
females(polygyny), one female many males(polyandry).
Mating enable animals to procreate or reproduce which lead to continuity of life.

Sexual selection

Sexual selection is the process where mature adult of opposite sex display certain signals that are used
by their species in preparation for mating. usually female are more colorful and may use this coloration
to attract the opposite sex this is not always the case in all animals species.

Habitat selection

Habitat selection refers to the process by which animals choose and occupied specific environment or
habitat that meet their survival and reproductive needs.

Habitat selection is crucial for an animal fitness, growth and overall wellbeing.

Certain factors influence habitat selection;

1. Environmental factors as Topography of the soil, vegetation, water quality, climate and other
conditions.

2. Predation pressure: The present and abundant of predation.

3. Competition: ensuring that there's presence and abundance of resources for itself and other animals

4. Reproductive needs: This ensure the availability of mates, nesting site and suitable breeding
condition.

5. Genetics disposition: Inherited preference for specific habitat.

Important of Habitat selection

1. Survival and reproductive: It directly affect animals survival and reproductive success

2. Ecosystem functions: Habitat selection affect Ecosystem such as nutrients cycling and energy flow.

3. Population dynamics: Habitat selection influences population growth rate and distribution. Population
dynamics refers to the study of changes in the size, structure and distribution of population overtime.

Factors that affect habitat selection

1. Food

2. Climatic factor

3. Predation

4. Availability of water.
5. Availability of shelter

Migration

Majority of animals move from one habitat to another. However migration in animals refers to the
seasonal or the permanent movement of an individual or groups from one region to another in search of
food , shelter, breeding ground or better living conditions. It is shown in mammals, reptiles, Insects,
birds, fishes etc.

Mammals

1. Elephant Loxodonta africana In searched of food and water in Africa savannah.

2. Wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus migrate in large herds across African Serengeti.

Reptiles

1. Humpback Whales Megaptera novaean migrate to breeding ground in water.

2. Crocodile Crocodylus porosus migrate between fresh water and salt water habitat

5. Box turtles Terrapene species migrate between summer and winter habitat.

6. Crotalus species migrate between summer and winter habitat.

Birds

1. Snow geese

2. Canada geese

3. Sand pippler

4. Warblers

5. Hummingbird

Reason for MIGRATION

1. To find food and other resources

2. Escape harsh weather: Factors included hunting and pollution

3. For breeding and nesting

Rhythm

A rhythm is a strong regular repeated pattern of movement, sound, events or a process. Biological
rhythm refers to any reoccurring molecular, physiological or Biological event or process that is
characteristics of all living organisms.

A Biological system is a complex network of Biological components that can be found at different scales
which work together and to maintain perform physiological function.

Biological rhythm are natural cycle of change in the body functions and chemical and are controlled by
Biological clause.

It cab be observed in a time scales.

Importance of Biological rhythm

1. Biological rhythm regulate and coordinate bodily functions and processes ; in regulating the bodily
process, it plays a major role in the control of blood sugar and cholesterol control, immune system, DNA
repairs etc.

Insulin does four functions

1. Excess glucose change to glycogen

2. It changes to fatty acid

3. It changes to protein

4. It reduce metabolic rate.

Coordination: The internal master clock coordinate other clocks in the body.

2. Biological rhythm Synchronise with the environment: Rhythmicity synchronizes Biological system with
the external environment e.g Hibernation allows animals to conserve energy during period of low
resources,a state of greatly reduce metabolic activity lower body temperature slow breathing and
reduction in heart rate.

This is commonly seen in mammals like bears, bat, rodents etc.

Types of Biological rhythm

1. Circadian Rhythm - 24 hours

2. Ovarian cycle - 1 day - 1 year

3. Lunar Rhythm - 29.5 days

5. Ultradian rhythm - within 24 hours

6. Infradian - seasonal changes longer than 24 hours, shorter than 1 year e.g menstrual cycles, Mood,
behavioral change in human.

Note: Plant also exhibit Biological rhythm

Factors that can affect Biological rhythm

1. Environmental factors like light (day and night duration), season, lifecycle, ageing, hormonal
influences.

Behavioral endocrinology

Endocrinology deals with the roles of hormones and other biochemical mediators regulating bodily
functions with the treatment of imbalances of these hormones.

Behavioral endocrinology is the scientific study of how hormones and Behavior interact .

It is a branch of Neuro science that examine the physiology basic of complex Behavior.

Hormones are chemical messengers that affect the nervous system which in term regular physiology and
Behavior.

This interaction is bi-directional meaning that Behavior can influence hormones concentration.

One of the first recognize experiment in Behavioral endocrinology was conducted in 1849 by a German
physiologist Arnold Adolph Berthold.

He transplanted roosters testes into capon (castrated rooster) to show that hormones of the testes
(testosterone) are responsible for secondary sex characteristics.

Hormones and Behavioral interaction

1. Activational effect :This depends On the current hormonal level in the body and determine immediate
responses.

2. Organizational effect set during brain development these effect determine how an individual will
respond to stimuli in the future.

3. Hormonal imbalances: when hormones and imbalances.

It can lead to irritability, anxiety, depression and brain fog. e.g estrogen can increase anxiety while
progesterone can inhibit anxiety.
4. Environmental chemical: certain chemical in the environment can mimic natural hormones and have
significance effect on Behavior.

5. Evolution: over time hormones that regulate physiological processes have evolved to influence
Behavior linked to those processes for instance estrogen are associated with female sexual Behavior.

Note: Hormones has different effect on organisms sets developmental stage and other factors.

For instance sexual selection is a mechanism of evolution that describe how organisms compete for
mate and reproduce and how organisms are able to successfully choose a mate these allows certain
members of the population to reproduce more than others therefore passing on their trait more than
the others.

Intersexual selection where members of the same sets compete with each other to gain access to mate
these can involved direct encounter, such as fighting off rivals.

Trait that evolve from this type of selection includes large body size, horns, antlers,loud should
production, beautiful coloration and agility or strength etc.

Parental care is very common amongst socal animals.

Parental care is costly and it affect the future and survival as Well as reproductive success of the parent
itself or themselves. Also the parents ensure that their investment is well spent. Parental care evolved
when it is adaptive.

Types of Parental care

1. Maternal Parental care: often provided by the female

2. Paternal Parental care: it is solely done by the male

3. Bi parental care: Both parents are jointly involved in taking care of the offspring

4. Allo - Parenting: This is done by other parent that are not Biological that is the care provided by
individual other than the parents.

Hypothesis

Mating effort hypothesis

Suggest that males may provide care for offspring in an attempt to increase their own mating
opportunity and thus enhances their future reproductive success.

The maternal relief hypothesis proposed that make provides care to reduced burden associated with
reproduction for the female which ultimately generate shorter inter-birth interval and produces more
successful offspring.
Functions of Behavior

1. Behavior assist animals to function perfectly by responding to any changes.

2. It helps to assist the activities of human Behavior