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PERSPECTIVES ON FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR
PERSPECTIVES ON
FUNCTIONAL
GRAMMAR

Editors:

Teun Hoekstra
Department of Dutch
State University Leyden

Harry van der Hülst

INL, Dutch Lexicological Institute Leyden

Michael
INL, Moortgat
Dutch Lexicological Institute Leyden

¥
1981
FORIS PUBLICATIONS
Dordrecht - Holland/Cinnaminson - U.S.A.
This volume also appeared as no. 3(1980)3/4 o/GLOT
(Leiden Linguistic Journal)

© 1980 by the authors.

No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, or any
other means, without written permission from the authors.

ISBN 90 70176 27 0

Printed in the Netherlands by Intercontinental Graphics.

Table of Contents

Introduction

Teun Hoekstra An Outline of Functional Grammar 3

Studies in Functional Grammar

Simon Dik & GvozdanoviC Jadranka Subject and Object in Functional

Grammar 21
Simon Dik et al. On the Typology of Focus Phenomena 41
Casper de Groot On Theme in Functional Grammar. An Application
to Some Constructions in Spoken Hungarian 75
Jan de Jong On the Treatment of Focus Phenomena in Functional
Grammar 89
Judith Junger Copula Constructions in Modern Hebrew 117
Sita Kishna The Recipient State Construction in Sarnami 135
Josien Lalleman The Functional Grammar View on Dutch Word Order:
Data from Spoken Dutch of Foreign Workers 157
Kwee Tjoe Liong In Search of an Appropriate Relative Clause 175
Jack Prentice "Beneficiary" and Other Semantic Functions in
Murut 191
Workgroup on Functional Grammar On the Functional Grammar of
Teaching Verbs 203

Comparison with other theories

William D. Davies Choctaw Subjects and Multiple Levels of

Syntax 235
Theo M.V. Janssen Montague Grammar and Functional Grammar 273
J. Lachlan Mackenzie Functions and Cases 299
David M. Perlmutter Functional Grammar and Relational Grammar:
Points of Convergence and Divergence 319
Preface and
Acknowledgements

The goal of this volume is to inform the reader about a linguistic

theory developed in Dik (1978):Fnnetional Grammar. To achieve this
goal we invited not only a number of linguists working within the
context of this theory, but also proponants of other theoretical
frameworks to discuss FG against the background of their own views.

The appearance of the collection owes much to the encouraging reactions

of Simon Dik.

We thank all contributors for their cooperation ( some of them

especially for typing out their own manuscript).
Thanks for various kind of help go to Mans de Nijs and Marcel Thelen.
Introduction
An Outline of Functional Grammar

Teun Hoekstra

State University Leyden

1. Preliminaries 1

Functional Grammar (FG) is one of the various theories of language

that have been developed as alternatives to transformational grammar
during the last decade. The theory was presented by Dik in Functional
Grammar (Dik (1978a)), although many of the basic ideas behind it can be
traced back to earlier work of Dik (e.g. Dik (1968), (1975), (1977)).
Since its presentation in 1978, FG has met with many positive reactions
as will be clear from the numerous references in the literature as well as
from the increasing number of linguists working within this framework.
Especially in the Netherlands, Dik has succeeded in inspiring many linguists
(see e.g. the proceedings of the annual meeting of the Dutch Linguistic
Society (Zonneveld & Weerman (1980)). Therefore, the journal GLOT decided
to devote a theme-issue to FG. It collects a number of studies within the
framework of FG and it provides a platform for critical discussion by
representatives of other frameworks.
FG is an eclectic model. With Relational Grammar it shares the conviction
that generalizations within and accross languages can be captured only in
terms of primitive relations like subjefct and object, whereas these are
taken as derivative in generative grammar. In another fundamental respect,
it is related to Fillmore's case theory, in that it is assumed that seman-
tic functions are needed as independent notions in order to describe the
syntactic structure and the ultimate expressions. Within FG, then, syntax
is not regarded as an autonomous system, but as a system based on semantics.
This view of grammar contrasts with the autonomy thesis defended within
generative grammar. Other features of FG can be traced back to the Prague
School of linguistics and the pragmatic theory of the Oxford School in
4 HOEKSTRA

Philosophy (Austin and Searle etc.). We won't discuss these commonalities

with other frameworks in any detail. The present introduction is meant to
provide the necessary background for the papers in this volume.
Section 2 gives the basic outline of the theory. The papers collected
here can be divided into two groups. First, there is a number of papers
written within the framework of FG. They deal with some theoretical issue
2
or tackle some descriptive problem . A second group of papers compares
FG with other related frameworks. Within this category, Perlmutter's and Da-
vies' papers represent Relational Grammar and MacKenzie1s paper discusses
the justification of the semantic functions recognized by FG in relation
to the cases, i.e. semantic roles, in case grammar.

2. The structure of Functional Grammar

2.1. Predications
Within the formation of linguistic expressions according to FG, two steps
can be distinguished. First, a predication is formed, which is then mapped
onto its actual form by means of expression rules. Before the application
of expression rules, two levels of function assignment are relevant: the
assignment of syntactic functions and the assignment of pragmatic functions.

syntactic function pragmatic function expression

predications
assignment assignment rules

The basic element of a predication is a predicate. Predicates are repre-

sented in the lexicon in the form of predicate frames which contain in a
sense the mini-grammar of the sentences in which they occur. Predicate
frames are specified for the number of arguments a predicate takes. The
argument positions are labeled for semantic functions like Agent, Goal,
Recipient etc. Furthermore, selectional restrictions with respect to terms
that fill the argument positions, are given in the lexical representation
of predicate frames as well. (1) illustrates the way in which the predicate
give is represented in the lexicon:

(1) give (x.:animate(x,)) :animate(x_) )

V I 1 Ag 2 Go J j Ree

(1) provides the information that give is a predicate of the category V(erb)
which takes three arguments, an Agent, a Goal and a Recipient, the first and
last of which are specified with a selectional predicate animate.
OUTLINE OF FG 5

From predicate frames, predications are formed by inserting appropriate

terms into the argument positions. Objects thus constructed are referred
to as nuclear predications. Nuclear predications are divided into four types
according to the parameters 'control' and 'dynamism' in the following way:

dynamism control
(2) Actions + +
(3) Processes + -

(4) States - -

(5) Positions - +

The following examples illustrate these four types of states of affairs:

(2') John hit the ball (Action)

(3') The ball went over the fence (Process)
(4') The ball lies in the middle of the field (State)
(5') John stood in the middle of the field (Position)

Dynamic states of affairs are characterized as involving some kind of change,

whereas controlled states of affairs involve some participant controlling the
state of affairs. In Dik (1978a) the number of semantic functions available
in FG is left open. We shall not dwell on the subject here, but it is impor-
tant to note that the semantic functions are thought to correlate with these
basic states of affairs. E.g. all and only action predications have Agents;
Goal function is assigned to those entities which are affected (or effected)
by the operation of some controller (Agent or Positioner) or Force; Force is
the function assigned to entities presented as non-controlling instigators
of processes, e.g. the wind in 'The wind opened the door'; etc.
The kind of state of affairs that is expressed by a nuclear predication
is relevant for the formation of full predications from nuclear predications.
Full predications are constructed from nuclear predication by extending the
latter with satellites. What satellites a predication can be extended with
is predictable on the basis of the type of state of affairs: Action predica-
tions can always be extended with a manner satellite, whereas State predica-
tions never can, etc. Functions like Instrument, Beneficiary, Temporals and
Locatives are normally expressed by satellites^. An example of a full predi-
cation in which appropriate terms have been inserted is:

(y
(6) (dancev O V ' ^ W Action l : b e a u t i f u l ( y l " Manner
6 HOEKSTRA

2.2. The structure and function of terms

Full predications are arrived at through the operation of term insertion
inserting terms into the argument and satellite slots. The inherent features
of the terms must match the selectional restrictions specified for the argu-
ment positions. If not, some special interpretive strategy is called for.
Terms are expressions used to refer to entities in some world. Reference
itself is regarded as a pragmatic notion: in order to make sure that the ad-
dressee will pick out the intended referent of the term, the speaker narrows
the set of potential referents of the term down by using Restrictive predicates
(which are of the same formal type as the ordinary predicates discussed in
the previous section), such that he can be confident that the amount of
descriptive information will suffice.
A small set of terms is taken to be basic. They are stored as such in the
lexicon. Examples of these basic terms are proper names and pronouns. Most
terms, however, are constructed by means of productive term formation rules
according to the following schema:

(7) ( <dx : 'J'jtxj : * (xj)

n i

where x^ is a variable ranging over entities and ... . stand for

restrictive predicates over this variable. They specify the properties an
entity must possess in order to qualify as a potential referent of the term.
Restrictors are not given in conjunction, but rather they are stacked onto
each other: the first restrictor, which will become the head of the term,
specifies the domain within which the other predicates further restrict the
class of potential referents. This way, a distinction can be made between
e.g. Buddhist Japanese and Japanese Buddhists.
w stands for one or more term operators, including the definite operator d,
the numeral quantifiers, the question operator Q etc. The main criterion
for the distinction between restrictors and operators is that the former
specify properties of each potential referent individually, whereas the
latter specify properties of the set as a whole. Just as reference itself,
the operators are given a pragmatic interpretation: with the definite ope-
rator for example, the speaker expresses his assumption that the hearer will
be capable of selecting a unique referent on the basis of the information
provided by the restrictors.
The following examples illustrate the way in which terms are represented
in FG:
OUTLINE OF FG 7

(8) a. the fifteen old men

b. (d 15 x.:man(x.) :old (x.))
1 1 l
(9) a. What (are you eating?)
b. (Q x.: food (x.))
i i
(10) a. the two girls sitting on the bench
b. (d 2 x. : girl (x.) : sit (x.) (d 1 x.: bench (x.)) )
1 1 i Po j j Loc

(Po is the label for the semantic function Positioner).

Predicates are labeled for syntactic category. The first restrictor is to
become the head of the term, but there is no strict requirement according to
Dik (1978a:59) to select a nominal predicate as the first restrictor of a
term. The primary use of nominal predicates is to function as the head of
terms, however, just as verbal predicates primarily function as heads of
predications and adjectival predicates as noun modifiers.

2.3. The fundi lexical representations

Thus far we have stated that two kind of objects are stored in the lexicon,
basic terms and predicate frames. Not all predicates are taken as basic,how-
ever. FG recognizes a set of predicate formation rules, comparable to lexical
rules including word formation rules in generative grammar, with which
predicates are derived from predicates. These rules are restricted to deal
with synchronically productive processes only: their output cannot be listed.
Dik therefore rejects the full entry theory of the lexicon proposed by
Jackendoff (1975): redundancy rules can be used to express all regularities
over existing forms, whereas according to FG a sharp distinction must be made
between regularities and rules. This distinction is psychologically inter-
preted: rules are formulated only for expressions that a language user may
be expected to be able to build unintentionally and interpret correctly,
even when he has never encountered the form before. As for terms, we saw that
the majority is derived by rule; only proper names and pronominal elements
are regarded as basic terms. The following diagram illustrates the internal
structure of the fund. The term lexicon is confined to the storage component
where only basic terms and predicates are found.

lexicon
predicate derived basic basic terms derived term
formation predicate predicate terms formation
rules frames frames rules
predicate frames terms
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 CHAPTER XIII
THE GREAT TARNOV CRYSTAL

I t was late one evening in April, a few weeks after the

unsuccessful attack of Peter upon the tower, that the alchemist,
Kreutz, and the student, Johann Tring, were sitting upon rude
stools in the loft above the alchemist’s lodging, arguing with much
heat some question that had arisen between them. The day had
been sultry for early spring and the sun was setting red over the
distant hills, flooding with its crimson the high mound called the
Krakus Mound over beyond the river on the road to Wieliczka and
the salt mines.
Tring sat where he could see the sunshine through the little
window, but the alchemist sat within the gathering darkness of the
room. Above their heads on the slanting walls vials and glass tubes
of the alchemist’s craft gleamed like precious stones, and every now
and then some substance lying upon the hot coals of the braziers
would hiss up into a little flame and smoke, for all the world like a
serpent suddenly raising its slender head and coils above a quiet
patch of grass.
“I tell you that I have had enough,” the alchemist replied to some
remark of the student’s. “I am ready to forswear this scientific
experiment into which we have so boldly launched and go back to
my old studies which are much better suited to a God-fearing man.”
Tring laughed, low but maliciously. “So that is where your
courage lies,” he answered. “That is the crown of valor that you
boast in exploring the wonders of the unknown world. Come,” he
added after a minute, as if changing his tactics in dealing with this
man who was now thoroughly in his power, or so he thought, “come
and put a better complexion upon things; we are already past the
hardest stretch of the road—if there is to be found the solution to that
problem upon which we both have spent so much time, it will be
found so much the more readily now because of the sacrifices that
we have already made for it. Are the trances tiring you beyond
endurance?”
The alchemist let his head sink into his hands. “I am tired—I am
tired,” was all that he could say.
Tring regarded him with disgust, but held back the angry words
which sprang to his lips and expressed himself more gently.
“Then if there is a fault it must lie with you, Pan Kreutz,” he said.
“It is beyond my understanding that such a man as you should find
exhaustion in these simple experiments that I have performed. Many
another person I have put into trances similar to yours, and for
longer periods of time, too, and there has been no harm, nay, nor
physical exhaustion from it.”
“Alas,” the alchemist moaned as if making a confession, “I have
been in trances other than those of your making, and almost
continually, too.”
“What?” Tring leaped to his feet in astonishment. “What do you
say? You have been in trances induced by others? Other men share
our secrets, then? Who may it be that is also a master of this rare
craft? I had thought that no others, save I, in this town were able to
bring about such trances.” He glared at Kreutz with open hatred and
let his fingers stray as well to the handle of a short knife that he
carried in his belt, for although he was but a young man, he took his
occult powers very seriously. There was as well an element of fear in
his emotions, since the civil authorities of that day dealt usually in
short and severe fashion with persons brought before magistrates on
the charge of indulging in dark or occult practices. Death even was
prescribed as punishment for some, although disfiguring, whipping,
stocks, and banishment were the most common penalties.
Tring’s powers, though mysterious in those days, could be easily
explained in ours. The so-called trances into which certain persons
have the power to send others we call in these times merely hypnotic
sleep. Hypnotism in the days when all men and women were to an
extent superstitious was looked upon as one of the very worst works
of a malignant devil upon earth. Tring possessed to some extent the
ability to summon hypnotic sleep to a willing patient, and the
alchemist had become a too willing patient in his endeavor to
discover the secret that Tring had made appear so desirable.
And as is the case with most practitioners of hypnotism and their
subjects, the hypnotist had gained, little by little, more and more
power over his co-worker, until in a few months the alchemist had
become merely a tool in the hands of Tring, who, knowing his ability
and scholarly accomplishments, did not hesitate to use them for his
own ends. He did this, however, with great caution, and enjoined
ever upon the alchemist the need for the utmost secrecy, for if it had
become known that such tricks were being practiced, the law would
make short shrift of both.
“No man,” answered the wretched alchemist, “no man, but
perhaps—devils!”
“Devils?” Tring stood motionless, thunderstruck. Was the
alchemist losing his mind?
“Yes, devils. I can stand it no longer.” The alchemist rose from his
stool and turned upon Tring. “You who have powers greater than
man, know most of what is passing in my soul. The secrets of my
craft, the sciences of actions and reactions—all these you know. But
I hold from you one secret, one great secret which has bowed my
shoulders with care and blackened my heart with crime. Come,
watch, I will show you something that has powers beyond those of
which you dream. See . . .” His accents became wilder and his voice
trembled. He shuffled about the attic as if making preparations for
some experiment. He set up a tripod in the very middle of the room
and linked the top with chains as if he were to set a bowl upon it; he
unlocked a great chest that stood in one corner under the eaves and
took from it some object wrapped in black cloths, and this object he
placed upon the tripod.
“Now let us have a light,” he said.
 He shook some powder into a brazier full of coals which suddenly
leaped into flame. As the whole room burst into existence with the
illumination there appeared most prominently in it the tripod which
bore the covered mystery. The alchemist whipped the cloth covering
away.
It was as if he had uncovered a diamond of the finest water!
Upon the brass top of the tripod gleamed in that instant a very
miracle of color and light; the object itself was about the size of a
man’s head. Upon this exquisite thing no artificial effort of man had
been expended; it was as nature had fashioned it in the depths of
some subterranean grotto where drops of water falling in steady
succession for thousands and thousands of years had slowly created
it. The outer layers were clear like the water of a mountain spring; as
the eye fell farther and farther within the surface a bluish tint was
perceptible and at the very center there was a coloring of rose. Such
was its absolute beauty that whoever looked into its depths seemed
to be gazing into a sea without limit.

“In the name of Heaven,” shrieked Tring, “what is this?”

 The alchemist spoke in a low voice as one might speak in a
church: “The Great Tarnov Crystal.”
“The Great Tarnov Crystal!” repeated Tring. “The Great Tarnov
Crystal! . . . Why, that is the stone for which alchemists and workers
of magic have been searching these hundreds of years. The Great
Tarnov Crystal!” He shouted it almost in high excitement. “Why, man,
we have here the greatest scientific treasure of all ages.” He began
to skip about in transports as the possibilities of the treasure’s
possession leaped into his mind. “And now I understand,” he
continued. “Indeed you have been under the hand of a devil if you
have been gazing into that thing. Why, do you know that this stone
can send a man into a trance in which all manner of truths will be
divulged? Do you know that we can learn now for a certainty the very
secret that we have been seeking?” And going close to the stone, he
gazed into its depths as a thirsty man might gaze into a well of water.
There was this curious property of the Great Tarnov Crystal, and
perhaps of all great crystals in the world’s history, that it never
presented the same vista twice to the man who looked within its
depths. Now this may have been due to many things, to the fact that
the lights surrounding it were never twice the same, and also
perhaps to this, that the crystal had the strange property of reflecting
back to the observer the very thoughts that were tucked away deeply
in his head. What drew men to the Tarnov Crystal in the beginning
was, of course, its beauty, its color, its light, its constantly changing
vistas, and besides these, there was that indefinable fascination that
all such stones have. Diamonds, as well, possess this fascinating
power to a high degree though the diamond is, of course, a small
stone, and not large enough to hold the concentrated focus of two
eyes for a very long time; the crystal by reason of its size possesses
this quality according to its fineness.
The Tarnov Crystal was the finest crystal known to the magicians
of the Middle Ages. And although magic was frowned upon by
scholars and men of science such as astronomers and alchemists,
still there was no distinct line between science and magic, with the
result that many of these men found themselves practicing magic
when they had intended only to make scientific investigations. It was
even so with Pan Kreutz, who ordinarily had but little use for magic
or the Black Arts in any form—until now he had come entirely under
the domination of the student Tring whose enthusiasm had carried
him away.
“I tell you that I have had enough,” the alchemist repeated now. “I
have perjured my soul to obtain this stone and I am ready to return it
to its rightful owners. This stone is a thing of wickedness and blood
and it has a woeful history, as old perhaps as the world itself.”
“Return it!” shouted Tring. “Return it! Why, Pan Kreutz, listen to
my reasoning. I know not how you have come by this thing—I do not
ask at present—but you would be scarce the man I took you for did
you not use it for the purpose that we need it. After that we may
return it—if indeed it has been stolen—or if it sticks within your
conscience to retain it now, then perhaps I——”
“Nay, nay, Johann Tring,” exclaimed the alchemist emphatically,
“to its rightful owners it shall go. Here I have kept the secret to
myself knowing that the knowledge would tempt you—and indeed
you would not have known now unless the secret had burned so
heavily in my brain.”
“As you will,” said Tring, humoring the alchemist with his
concession, though the purpose in his eyes was of different intent,
“but first let us learn from it at once how to transmute baser metals
into gold; this I am sure we shall do, then we can be independent of
these smirking dogs who rule the universities.”
“Then let our experiments be brief,” said the alchemist. “I have
looked too long upon this glittering thing.”
“You should have told me before.” Tring again adopted the
attitude of a kindly adviser.
“But, in truth,” went on the alchemist, “I doubt if we can wring that
secret from the crystal. I have now an opinion, though perhaps a
wrong one, that the crystal only gives us back our own thoughts. We
may not call upon it as upon some friendly spirit to tell us what we do
not know—we may not wish and have our wishes fulfilled. I begin to
doubt it all.” Here he rose to his feet and began to stride about the
floor. “It is already having a bad influence upon me. I cannot see
straightly in the world of men as once I did. When I have looked into
it for minutes and minutes my thoughts come back to me crookedly,
and while I have taken much interest in such contemplation, I find
that there is too deadly a fascination in gazing into those crystal
depths. I have, as I said, found much of interest, and were I alone in
the world, I might even pursue these studies to the very limits of
human thought, but I sometimes feel as if my very soul were getting
caught in the rays of that bright thing.”
“Might I ask,” inquired Tring, unable to restrain his curiosity
longer, “how the crystal came into your possession?”
“It was like this”—the alchemist willingly relieved his mind of the
secret that he had been bearing alone. “That night when the thieves
came here some time ago I entertained them for a bit with some
Greek fire and niter.”
“Yes?”
“It seems that the crystal was at that time in the possession of the
family in the rooms below ours.”
“What! The trumpeter and the boy who bear the name Kovalski?”
“Yes, though that is not their name. They are Charnetskis and
lived formerly in the Ukraine.”
“I see—and the thieves? Tartars and Cossacks who followed
them perhaps from the Dnieper country?”
“Yes, the crystal was actually in the hands of the leader when I
surprised him with an explosive powder. In the surprise and pain
occasioned by my attack he dropped the crystal—the powder blazed
about his face and burned his hair—the crystal rolled upon the floor
and I pounced upon it.”
“But how had it come into the possession of the Charnetski
family?” asked Tring eagerly.
“It was in this fashion. When the Tartars devastated the Polish
country in the thirteenth century the village that stood where now is
Tarnov was inhabited by the Charnetskis, among others, of course. It
was Andrew Charnetski of that day who performed heroic feats in
the defense of the city against the Tartars, and to him was presented
for safe-keeping the great crystal which has come to be known as
the Great Tarnov Crystal. It was the chief ornament of the old town,
and even kings had come there to see it. For besides its qualities as
a thing of rare value and beauty, it had those reputed properties you
have mentioned: that a man who looked into it might there read the
secrets of the past and the future; that he might find out the intimate
thoughts of other men and women; that he might learn to overcome
the elements, to fly through the air like a bird, to walk invisibly, to
transmute base metals into gold. In those times no man was allowed
to look more than three minutes upon it, for even in three minutes a
man might find his head swimming and curious thoughts coming into
his brain.”
“But how did the Charnetskis save it from the Tartars?”
“They fled with it to the Carpathian Mountains and remained
there until Batu the Tartar was forced to return to the land of the
Golden Horde. Then as it passed from eldest son to eldest son, it
went to an ancestor of this Andrew Charnetski who settled in the
Ukraine after the country had been put under Polish dominion in the
days of Vladislas Jagiello. Of course the name Andrew Charnetski is
by no means an uncommon one throughout Poland, so little did I
think when this man came into the humble lodgings below that he
belonged to the Charnetski family which had possession of the
Tarnov Crystal.”
“Did he tell you his story?”
“Yes. On the day after the crystal disappeared, he made a
confidant of me as one already acquainted with his name and a part
of his history.”
“But you had heard of the crystal before?”
“What alchemist has not?” he answered. “I knew that it was
brought in early days to Egypt from somewhere in the East, and
there it stood in a temple for many centuries. When the Romans
conquered Egypt, the crystal was taken to Rome. During the years
when the Romans were colonizing the lands around the Black Sea a
certain Roman officer fell in love with a woman of Transylvania, and
being sent there with a legion, stole for her this crystal from a temple
in Rome. When his crime was discovered the Emperor sent a
detachment of soldiers to bring him back, but he fled to the district
which is now Halicz, but which went then under the Roman name
Galicia. There he lived with his wife under an assumed name, in a
remote village later known as Tarnov, and there the crystal remained
up to the time that it passed into the hands of the Charnetskis.
Around it grew up a sect of sorcerers, magicians, practicers of the
Black Art, astrologers, and alchemists—some sincere, others mere
charlatans.”
“Surely there have been many attempts to steal the crystal from
the Charnetskis?”
“Only one. It seems that men, even alchemists and astrologers,
lost for a time the thread of its history, and it was only when a
runaway servant of Andrew Charnetski spread the news in the East
that it was in his possession that an attempt was made to find it. That
attempt, as you know, cost Pan Andrew his house and property in
the Ukraine. Who it is that is inciting these robbers I know not, but I
have no doubt that the leader of the band was in the pay of some
person in high authority.”
“Would the robbers taken prisoners say nothing?”
“No, they did not know all, I believe. And like most Tartars they
would rather die than betray a secret. Torture could not wring it out of
them.”
“Does Pan Andrew suspect that you have the crystal?”
“Pan Andrew considers me his friend. And at heart I am ashamed
and sick that I have not restored it before now.”
“But think. If it had not been for you, the Cossack would have
escaped with the crystal and it would have been lost forever.”
“I know it. Yet that is no justification for me. I stole it if a thief ever
stole anything. When I first saw it that night on the floor of Pan
Andrew’s lodging I would have exchanged my chance of heaven for
its possession. When I had obtained it, and the attention of the
crowd in the court below was turned to the robbers and to the man
escaping over the roofs, I brought it here to the loft, under my coat.”
“You did well,” said Tring, the wildest impulses of excitement
leaping within him. “Look—look at the crystal. It glows and dances
and quivers like a thing alive, ready to tell its secrets. Quick, draw
your chair near to it as you used to draw your chair to me when I was
the master of your trances. Gaze deeply into it”—he fixed the
hesitating alchemist with his eyes as a serpent might fix a helpless
bird—“and now let us try the greatest experiment of all.”
The alchemist pulled his chair close to the crystal as he was bid,
and fixed his eyes upon it. Tring watched him closely from a
distance. One minute—two minutes—three—the alchemist still
looked at the crystal and Tring regarded him as a cat might regard a
mouse that it was playing with. Four minutes—five. The alchemist
still sat motionless, but his posture in the chair was changing slightly.
His arms and neck seemed to be stiffening, his face was taking on
the look of an entirely different person; his breath came regularly but
in longer and deeper draughts than was his wont. His eyes became
wide open and staring.
“Listen,” Tring’s tone was sharp, commanding.
“I am listening,” the reply came instantly.
Tring trembled with excitement. Not only had the alchemist gone
into this trance more quickly than he, Tring, had ever been able to
send him, but he was still responsive to the student who had feared
lest the agency of the crystal might render Kreutz unresponsive to
him. But Tring had sent him into trances so many times that now his
mind seemed to answer the student’s bidding automatically.
“Tell me what you see.”
“I can see a huge hall like an alchemist’s room, filled with braziers
and glass instruments. In these instruments fluids of fire are rushing
to and fro and near them are great copper kettles out of which are
coming puffs of steam.”
 “It is the devil’s workshop that you are in,” said Tring sharply. “Do
you see any men at work?”
There was silence a moment as the alchemist’s consciousness
went roaming through the vast room.
“There is no one here,” he said at length.
“Are there any manuscripts there?” demanded Tring.
Silence again. Then—“Yes, on the wall hangs a parchment.”
“Take it down.”
“It burns my hands.”
“Pay no heed to that. Your reward will be greater than your
pains.”
“It is in my hands.”
Tring glanced involuntarily at the hands of the man in the trance.
Curiously enough they seemed to be turning red as if exposed to a
great heat. “Now read what the parchment says.”
The alchemist replied slowly as if reading, and he spoke in the
Latin tongue, “Here May One Find Things Which Be Neither
Good Nor Evil But Which Are Sought of All Men.”
“Good! Now unroll the parchment.”
There was another silence. At length the alchemist said, “I have
found somewhat.”
“Read!”
“Nay, I may not. It is in symbols.”
“Then write.” Tring deftly slipped a piece of board across his
knees and put into his fingers a kind of pen made of wood and a
feather; this he had dipped into a pot of ink as thick as paint, and he
guided it in the alchemist’s hand until it rested upon a piece of fresh
white parchment that he laid upon the board.
The alchemist wrote as follows:
 “What else?”
The alchemist wrote:
“Quod primum incredibile, non continuo falsum est; crebro
siquidem faciem mendacii veritas retinet.”
“No. That’s nothing. Do you find other formulæ?”
The alchemist looked closely and recited as if reading:
“Thus saith Olimpiodorus of Thebes, Osthanes the Egyptian,
Psellos of Byzantium, and Giabr of Arabia: heat the fires upon thy
brazier and place thereon a vessel full of yellow sulphur; this thou
shalt melt until it gives forth a spirit; when the spirit is departed pour
slowly upon the sulphur that quicksilver which has its birth in the
planet Mercury. In but the twinkling of an eye this will be reduced
from its natural state unto a state that is of the earth, black, without
life, dead. Then take this lifeless substance and put it in a closed
vessel; heat it and it will suddenly take on life again and become a
brilliant red.”
“Write it, write it,” exclaimed Tring. The alchemist wrote. “And is
there more?”
“Much. It saith here that this is the secret of the Seven Golden
Chapters, of the Emerald Table, and the Pimander. Natura naturam
superat; deinde vero natura naturae congaudet; tandem natura
naturam continet.”
“No more of that. That is vile philosophy,” shouted Tring. “Find
and write the completion of the Philosopher’s Stone, by which we
may convert brass into gold.”
The alchemist continued:
“Zosimus the Theban directs that this is the true method of
turning brass into gold: To the above heated solution of sulphur and
mercury add that pure niter which men find in the heart of India. Into
this cast brass and it will in a moment change to gold.”
“Quick, to work. Light the braziers and bring out sulphur,
quicksilver, and brass,” commanded Tring. “Have you any of this
Indian niter?”
“I have—a small packet on the third shelf of the closet,” answered
the alchemist. Tring rushed to get it and set all the materials ready
for the experiment. Truly and sincerely did he believe that the
alchemist had hit upon the solution of the much desired process of
changing base metals into gold, and his own lack of knowledge in
the realm of the science of alchemy was responsible for the
ignorance with which he ordered the alchemist to compound one of
the most dangerous chemicals known to man. The alchemist, on his
part, was but acting under the hypnotic suggestion of Tring, and had
no opportunity to interpose his normal-self sense between the
student’s intention and its execution. Indeed the information he had
during the trance came from his own fund of learning, although the
suggestion of adding niter to the heated compound was but a fancy
of a mind grown either tired or weak.
As the student hurried about arranging materials for the
experiment Kreutz sang a Latin hymn which extols the practice of
alchemy and the alchemist:
Inexhaustium fert thesaurum
Qui de virgis fecit aurum
Gemmas de lapidibus.

“Compound the Philosopher’s Stone,” commanded Tring.

The alchemist, still in the trance, arose, and leaned over the
brazier. Something flaky and white and inflammable was tucked
close to the bottom to act as kindling, and a coal brought from a
farther brazier and laid upon this. It turned all black for a minute, then
sizzled into an intense heat and ignited the brazier’s contents. The
flame was at first yellow and creeping, then it changed to blue and
leaping. Kreutz put a vessel filled with sulphur into the flames, and
sure enough in a moment the spirit of the sulphur arose in fumes that
filled the room.
Both leaned over the brazier eagerly as the alchemist shook
mercury over the melted sulphur. As the parchment had decreed, so
the reaction followed; in a short time the glittering mercury had
mingled with the melted sulphur and became an ugly black
substance. Tring handed to Kreutz another vessel which was closed
at the top. Kreutz shook the hot material from the first vessel into the
second and put the latter back on the brazier. In all his motions he
acted mechanically as if he were but working out the will of another.
He opened this second vessel after a few seconds and, sure
enough, the black substance was becoming a lively red.
“The niter; the niter,” exclaimed Tring eagerly at his elbow.
The alchemist took the package from his hands and tossed it into
the substance now seething with heat. As he did so, as if obeying
some unconscious instinct of self-preservation, he leaped back into
the middle of the room and drew Tring with him. The exclamation of
anger on Tring’s lips was cut in half, for at that instant the loft of the
house rocked in a terrific explosion!
“Quick, seize the crystal and descend!” screamed Tring, who was
already speeding through the doorway, frantically wiping sparks of
fire from his clothing.
The exploding substances had sent their flames into the dry roof
and walls of the house, and fire was leaping through them merrily.
Everything in the room was beginning to blaze, and in two minutes
more it would have been impossible to leave. The alchemist, still in a
daze, took the crystal as he had been commanded, and made for the
stairway. The stone gleamed in his hands like a million diamonds,
rubies, and emeralds where the flames fell upon it, and he clutched it
with all the strength of his right hand as he clung to the stair rail with
his left, now swaying out over the court like a drunken man, now
regaining his hold and descending another stair. But the student had
been more nimble, and by the time that the alchemist had
descended to the third floor of the house, Johann was down the
stairs and through the gate, calling with all his might for the watch to
notify the water master that the house above him was in flames. No
watch was in sight and so he sought one at full speed, and while he
was searching, Pan Kreutz had reached the open door and
disappeared in the night, the Great Tarnov Crystal hidden under the
folds of his black gown.
But behind him the flames had eaten through the roof of his
house and had leaped to the adjoining house. In a few minutes they
had bounded clear across an open court near by, and had laid hold
of one of the pensions of the university. The wind then veering swept
the flames in a seething mass in the direction of the great Rynek,
and in less than fifteen minutes after the flight of the two men from
the loft of the building, the university section of Krakow was in the
grip of a terrible conflagration that threatened to devour the whole
city.
 CHAPTER XIV
A GREAT FIRE RAGES

S ince earliest times Krakow was divided into four sections

—the Castle Quarter, the Potters’ Quarter, the Butchers’
Quarter, and the Slavkov. At the head of each of these
districts was a quartermaster who was responsible for everything
that went on in his district, the fighting of fires being one of his chief
concerns. Therefore the watchman from one of the streets that lay in
the districts threatened by the fire went pounding at the gate of the
quartermaster’s house, shouting “Fire” at the top of his lungs in order
to send the servants flying to the master. In a short time the
quartermaster was up and dressed, and had sent summons to the
water master who had charge of the town reservoir and aqueducts.
The bell meanwhile began to sound clamorously from the tower
of the Church of Our Lady Mary, for the watchman there had caught
sight of the flames. Cries of “fire” were now being echoed from all
sections of the city, and in the red glare which was beginning to
illumine all the grim Gothic buildings and churches, a very tumult of
confusion was arising. The water master had already set his
machinery in motion and drummers were pounding away at their
drums in all the city streets in order to awaken the merchants and
their apprentices upon whom fell the burden of fighting the flames.
All the town guilds were assembling, companies of servants from the
palaces were filling buckets of water and taking positions on the
roofs of their own houses, and all citizens were busily getting down
from the wall, hooks and axes and pails such as the law required
them to keep for such emergencies.
A fire of any size in Krakow was a serious thing in those days, for
there were hundreds upon hundreds of wooden and part-wooden
houses clustered together in the thickly populated streets. In the
section about the old university the majority of dwellings were very
ancient, dry, and cobwebbed everywhere, and a single spark upon
their roofs was enough to turn them in exceedingly rapid fashion into
belching furnaces of flame and smoke. As the fire raced through
these streets, the inhabitants poured out in panic-stricken confusion;
each building was literally teeming with life, and the whole scene,
viewed from above, would have resembled a huge ant hill suddenly
destroyed or burned out by a careful gardener.
Women and children came out rushing and shrieking. Black-
robed students dashed through the streets with manuscripts and
parchments in their hands; others came carrying glass tubes or
astrolabes or metal dividers; frantic domestics ran here and there
with no definite refuge in view save only to escape the heat and
terror of the ever-spreading flames. The streets were rapidly filling
with furniture, clothing, beds, and personal possessions of every
variety, hurled out of casements by desperate owners—and some of
this material in the streets had already caught fire from the sparks
which were descending like rain in a spring thunderstorm, making
the lot of the fugitives even more unendurable. Inside some of the
courts those who had preserved presence of mind were combating
the fire with much vigor; tubs of water and pails were being pressed
into action, and burning walls were already being hauled down.
The water master had marshaled a line of water carts which
extended from the burning buildings to the aqueduct; these water
carts were usually drawn by horses, and some of them were on this
night, but there had been difficulty in getting enough horses quickly,
and men and boys were harnessed into the shafts. At the aqueduct
men were busy filling the carts with water; as each cart was filled it
moved on some little distance to the fire, and there being emptied,
swung about into another street and returned to the aqueduct for
another filling. The nearest section of the aqueduct was about an
eighth of a mile from the point where the fire started.
Forces of men armed with hooks and axes were sent out by the
water master to surround the district where the flames were
reaching, for the rapid spread of the fire had made it apparent at an
early stage that very little could be saved in the university area.
These men were under orders to demolish any building that seemed
to offer a chance for a further spread of the blaze, whether the fire
had already reached it or not. One detachment formed a line in front
of the Church of the Franciscans, another on St. Ann’s Street, and
another on Bracka. All these detachments were forced to retreat,
however, as the fire ate its way out of the district where it had
started. The Rynek was the scene of a turbulent mob which had
struggled from the burning section in the Street of the Pigeons, and
every open space was quickly filled with rescued goods. Two
families had even taken possession of the platform where the town
pillory stood and children were being put to sleep there by mothers
thankful to find a place of rest.
Amid all this uproar, an elderly woman, a boy, a girl, and a dog
were fighting their way through the Street of the Pigeons amidst the
débris of furniture and personal belongings that had been thrown
from windows. They had all been sleeping when the fire broke out,
and not having been roused until the flames were all about them,
had been able to rescue nothing but themselves and the clothes
which they wore. The boy was Joseph, the girl, Elzbietka, and the
woman the wife of Pan Andrew. Wolf, cut loose by Joseph, was the
most terror-stricken of the group, but he followed after them,
submissive and obedient, not knowing exactly what he was expected
to do.
Each of them was busy with separate thoughts as they fought
their way through the disorder. Joseph was ever figuring the quickest
route out of the burning district, and this was no easy task, since the
fire was playing so many tricks. It was not marching ahead in a
straight wall of flame but was whirling about, leaping here and there,
skipping this house and fastening upon that, advancing, retreating,
spreading to the flanks, all with terrific speed and unexpected
vivacity. Sometimes the two roofs just above the heads of the
fugitives would shoot up in flames—passing these with great peril,
they would find that the fire was now behind them and rejoice at the
breath of air that fell upon them; then suddenly without warning the
roof of a building just ahead would belch forth smoke and flame as if
the fire demon were working invisibly, and this new peril must be
passed.
At length they reached the place where the Street of the Pigeons
is cut by a cross lane, known to-day as Wislna Street, but this lane
was already full of smoking beams and fallen timbers; escape that
way was impossible. There was nothing to do but to push on through
the Street of the Pigeons where it curves to meet Bracka.
Elzbietka was wondering most of all about her uncle; there had
been no answer to their hurried calls when they left the doomed
house, and, besides, the loft was glowing in red and purple flames of
such intensity that no person alive could have been there at that
time. Joseph’s mother was thinking of the father, wondering if he had
left his post at the church to come to his family’s aid, and wondering,
too, if they could reach him at the tower before he began to suffer
too much from anxiety concerning them.
The houses were a little higher in this portion of the street and
there was therefore more cool air, in the lower reaches. The fire was
still whirling along here but was not taking hold quite so fast as it had
done down below, and consequently the fugitives made better
progress. The only difficulty was the ever-increasing crowd that now
swept in from three directions, making it hard for the three to keep
together. Finally they locked arms and literally fought their way
through the crowd. All about them the scenes were heart-rending,
men and women fleeing with but few possessions from the only
homes they had ever known, children lost in the mad scramble who
set up shrill cries and tried to keep their feet as the crowd pushed
ahead. Sick persons were brought into that raging torrent of
humanity, carried on the shoulders of their relatives or perhaps
stretched upon cots. Here was one old man who sat astride a young
fellow’s neck like Anchises on the back of Æneas fleeing from the
burning city of Ilium.
At length they stood where the fire had not reached, much more
fortunate in that than many other people that night. Joseph waited
only until they caught their breath, though he, too, felt like throwing
himself down upon the ground and resting, and then started forward
again through Bracka in the direction of the Rynek. In his heart he
hoped that when he had settled Elzbietka and his mother in the
tower where his father was on duty, he might come back with the
apprentices and help fight the fire, for there is that in a youth which
draws him into such fighting. As they went along Bracka he heard
the sound of horses’ hoofs from the direction of the Wawel.
“Wait,” he said, drawing the women back on a footpath, “here
come soldiers from the castle to preserve order.”
He spoke truly, for the next moment a great troop of cavalry
wearing mail armor and carrying spears rode into Bracka Street from
below and began to deploy in lines that marked the district
immediately threatened by fire. A few minutes later foot soldiers and
artisans began to appear and, joining with the watch, pulled down
buildings at the edge of the fire. Siege machinery was also drawn up
into Bracka and the buildings just outside the reach of the fire began
to crumble under its pounding.
“This will prevent the spread of the flames,” thought Joseph.
They went ahead again toward the church, but while they were
still in the Rynek they saw a company of soldiers dragging forward a
prisoner whom they had taken in the burning district.
“A thief,” said the boy.
“Bless us,” exclaimed the mother. “It is not possible that men
could be so cruel as to steal from poor folk driven mad with terror.”
As the company came near and the torches fell upon the face of
the prisoner, Joseph let out a cry of amazement.
“Why, mother, that is Peter of the Button Face, the leader of the
men that attacked our house. That is the man who met us on the first
day we were in Krakow. He it was who tried to make us prisoners in
the church tower. . . . See how he struggles—but they are holding
him tight for all that. And mother, it is not the city watch that has
taken him. It is the King’s own guard. Do you not see the royal crown
on their helmets, do you not notice the richness of their clothing? I
wonder what it can be about.”
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