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Inductive Powering
 ANALOG CIRCUITS AND SIGNAL PROCESSING SERIES
Consulting Editor: Mohammed Ismail. Ohio State University

For other titles published in this series, go to

www.springer.com/series/7381
Koenraad Van Schuylenbergh • Robert Puers

Inductive Powering

Basic Theory and Application

to Biomedical Systems
Koenraad Van Schuylenbergh Robert Puers
3WIN nv Department of Electrical Engineering
Ko Pa Electronics Consulting (ESAT-MICAS)
[email protected] Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
Kasteelpark Arenberg 10
3001 Leuven
Belgium
[email protected]

ISBN: 978-90-481-2411-4 e-ISBN: 978-90-481-2412-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2009926322

© Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2009

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without
written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for
the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser
of the work.

Printed on acid-free paper

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
springer.com
This book is based on research carried out at the Katholieke Universiteit
Leuven, Belgium, on transferring data and power over poorly coupled
inductive links with near theoretical energy efficiency. This largely
mathematical study grew out of the frustration that the link circuits de-
signed with methods available in literature did not perform as calculated.
This is attributed to the poor coil coupling typically encountered in our
applications. This triggered our eagerness to dive into the theory and find
out why things went astray.
Inductive powering has been a reliable and simple method for years to
wirelessly transfer power and data over short distances. This engineering
discipline originated in biotelemetry with cochlear implants as the com-
mercially most common application, and is now also widely applied in
radio-frequency identification (RFID), with high-volume applications
like wireless ID tags for asset tracking, key cards for building access con-
trol, electronic passports, implanted ID tags for husbandry control etc…
The field of inductive powering splits up along two orthogonal axis: the
amount of transferred power and the coil coupling which directly relates
to transfer range. Biotelemetry applications typically transfer a few mil-
liwatts over a few centimetres. The RFID applications are characterised
by transfer ranges up to half a metre, but run at microwatt power levels

v
vi - PREFACE

where energetic link efficiency is of little importance. The present study

aims at transferring several milliwatts over longer ranges with near the
theoretical efficiency limit by a careful optimisation of the driven induc-
tive link (chapter 5) and by servo control of the driver output to the actual
needs (chapter 6). Although this textbook emphasises applications with
weak coil coupling, the described methods and formulae are universal to
the complete range of coil coupling factors.

Six chapters make up this book:

• Chapter 1 is a general introduction on telemetry to situate inductive
coupling amongst its competitors.
• Chapter 2 outlines the basics of inductive powering. It starts off with a
summary of magnetic induction theory and then delves into the existing
methods to design inductive links. This allows pin pointing the prob-
lems that crop up with poor coil coupling. It shows that the approxi-
mate formulae that are commonly used to optimise coil sets become in-
valid at low coupling and also that the design of the coil driver ampli-
fier must be included in the optimisation process.
This observation dictates the structure of the following chapters.
• A set of exact design formulae that describe the coil link is first derived
in chapter 3.
• Chapter 4 then studies the design of primary coil drivers.
• Chapter 5 finally develops a step-by-step design procedure for driven
inductive links that operate as close as possible to their theoretical effi-
ciency limit.
• Basic inductive links may be finicky to handle in many real-world
situations. Chapter 6 therefore expands the optimised driven link with
servo loops that automatically adjust the link circuit to changing cou-
pling and load conditions.
• This book also provides three appendices. There is a short overview of
vector mathematics. A second appendix rounds up some tips and tricks
on coil models and measurements. The third appendix is a mathemati-
cal exposé on saturating-class-C amplifiers.

Koenraad Van Schuylenbergh

Robert Puers
January 2009.
Symbol Description Unit
= is equal to
≡ is defined as
≈ is approximately equal to
∝ is linearly proportional to
Complex numbers
Re{X} The real part of the complex number X
Im{X} The imaginary part of the complex number X
|X| The magnitude of the complex number X
∠X The phase angle of the complex number X
Electromagnetic fields
A surface m
G
E electric field strength V/m
G G G G G
D electric displacement: D = ε E = ε 0 E + P C/m2
G
PG medium polarisation C/m2
J electric current density A/m2
ρ electric charge density C/m3
ΦB magnetic flux Wb =T.m2
G G G G G N
B (
magnetic flux density: B = μ H = μ0 H + M ) T = A.m
G
H magnetic field strength A/m
G
M medium magnetisation A/m
1
σ medium conductivity S/m =
Ω.m
ε medium dielectric constant F/m
μ medium permeability H/m
μr relative medium permeability ≡ µ/µ0 -
Rm reluctance or magnetic resistance A/Wb

vii
viii - SYMBOLS AND UNITS

Symbol Description Unit

Waves
t time s
λ wavelength m
T period s
f frequency= 1/T Hz = s-1
ω angular or radian frequency rad/s
Voltages
v(t) a voltage signal V

an ideal sinusoidal voltage source

V̂ peak amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage signal: V
{ } {
v (t ) = V̂.cos (ω t + ϕ ) = Re V̂.e j (ω t + ϕ ) = Re V̂.e jωt }
V̂ complex peak amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage signal: V
V̂ = V̂.e jϕ
V RMS amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage signal: V
V = V̂ 2
V complex RMS amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage signal: V
V = V̂ 2 = V.e jϕ
ϕ phase of a sinusoidal voltage signal rad
Currents
i(t) a current signal A

an ideal sinusoidal current source

peak amplitude of a sinusoidal current signal:
Iˆ i (t ) = I.cos
ˆ {
(ω t + ψ ) = Re I.e } { }
ˆ j (ωt +ψ ) = Re I.e
ˆ jω t A

complex peak amplitude of a sinusoidal current signal:

Iˆ ˆ jψ A
Iˆ = I.e
RMS amplitude of a sinusoidal current signal:
I A
I = Iˆ 2
complex RMS amplitude of a sinusoidal current signal:
I A
I = Iˆ 2 = I.e jψ
ψ phase of a sinusoidal current signal rad
The primary coil
primary coil current (through the ideal coil of the series
i1(t) A
R-L-C model)
primary coil voltage (across the ideal coil of the series R-L-C
v1(t) V
model)
n1 number of primary coil windings -
r1 primary coil radius m
V.s
L1 primary coil inductance (R-L coil model) H = A
RL1 parasitic primary coil resistance (R-L coil model) Ω = V/A
unloaded primary coil quality factor (R-L coil model)
QL1 ω L1
QL1 = -
RL1
Ls1 primary coil inductance (series R-L-C coil model) H
Rs1 Parasitic primary coil resistance (series R-L-C coil model) Ω
Cs1 Parasitic primary coil capacitor (series R-L-C coil model) F
QLS1 unloaded primary coil quality factor (series R-L-C coil -
model)
ω LS1
QLS1 =
RS1
 SYMBOLS AND UNITS - ix

Symbol Description Unit

The secondary coil
i2(t) secondary coil current (through the ideal coil of the series A
R-L-C model)
v2(t) secondary coil voltage (across the ideal coil of the series V
R-L-C model)
n2 number of secondary coil windings -
r2 secondary coil radius m
L2 secondary coil inductance (R-L coil model) H
RL2 parasitic secondary coil resistance (R-L coil model) Ω
QL2 secondary coil quality factor (R-L coil model) -
ω L2
QL2 =
RL2
L s2 secondary coil inductance (series R-L-C coil model) H
Rs2 parasitic secondary coil resistance (series R-L-C coil model) Ω
C s2 parasitic secondary coil capacitor (series R-L-C coil model) F
QLS2 secondary coil quality factor (series R-L-C coil model) -
ω LS2
QLS2 =
RLS
2

The coupling
d distance between the coil planes for parallel coils m
M mutual inductance H
k coil coupling factor (also called coupling coefficient) -
M
k=
Ls1 .Ls2
n square root ratio of the coil inductances -
L s2
n=
Ls1
Loads
Rout d.c. load at the regulated output of the inductive link Ω
Rd.c. equivalent d.c. resistance of the loaded regulator Ω
Rload2 equivalent a.c. resistor of the rectifier connected to the loaded Ω
regulator
Link voltages
Vprim a.c. link input voltage V
Vsec a.c. link output voltage (= voltage across Rload2 ) V
the rectified but non-regulated d.c. output of the driven
Vd.c., Id.c. V, A
inductive link (= voltage across and current through Rd.c.)
the rectified and regulated d.c. output of the driven inductive
Vout, Iout V, A
link (= voltage across and current through Rout)
The primary tank
resonance frequency of the primary tank, coupled to the
ωtank secondary (i.e. amplitude resonance for saturated-class-C rad/s
drivers and phase resonance for all other drivers).
the quality factor of the primary tank, connected to the driver
amplifier, but not coupled to the secondary (including coil
Qprim -
losses, on-resistance of the driver transistors, resistive losses
in capacitors,...)
Zeq the equivalent impedance of the secondary transformed to the Ω
primary (series R-L-C model for the primary coil)
Req Zeq that has become real at the phase-resonance frequency of Ω
the secondary tank (series R-L-C model for the primary coil)
Rs*1 series resistance of the primary coil coupled to the secondary Ω
circuit (R-L-C coil model)
Rs*1 = Req + Rs1
x - SYMBOLS AND UNITS

Symbol Description Unit

QL*S1 quality factor of the primary coil coupled to the secondary -
circuit (series R-L-C coil model)
ω Ls ω Ls1
QL*s1 = * 1 =
Rs1 Req + Rs1
RL*1 series resistance of the primary coil coupled to the secondary Ω
circuit (R-L coil model)
QL*1 quality factor of the primary coil coupled to the secondary -
circuit (R-L coil model)
ωL
QL*1 = * 1
RL1
C1 primary tank capacitor (class C and D drivers) F
C1ser primary series capacitor in a class-E driver F
C1par primary parallel capacitor in a class-E driver F
C1res resonance capacitor in a (semi-) resonant class-E driver F
Secondary tank
ωresP phase-resonance frequency of the uncoupled secondary tank rad/s
ωresA amplitude-resonance frequency of the uncoupled secondary rad/s
tank (i.e. maximal voltage across Rload )
2

ωresP = ωresA ≡ωres for a series-tuned secondary

Qsec quality factor of the loaded, but uncoupled secondary tank -
C2 secondary tank capacitor F
The inductive-link driver
the d.c. supply voltage and current of the primary coil driver V, I
Vcc, Icc
for the first-order-simplified driver model
V
Rcc Rcc ≡ cc Ω
I cc
Vcc* real supply voltage that also accounts for the driver losses V
V
Vcc* ≡ cc
ηdriver
the voltage across the active element or switch of the primary V
vAE, vS
coil driver
iAE, iS the current through the active element or switch A
p the power output capability of the primary coil driver -
Plink in P
p≡ or p ≡ link in
vAEmax iAEmax vSmax iSmax
D switch duty cycle -
tON
D≡
tON + tOFF
tR, tF switch rise and fall times s
VSsat switch saturation voltage (i.e. the extrapolation of the switch V
voltage-current curve to a zero current)
RON switch-on resistance: vS = VSsat + RON iS Ω
LS parasitic series inductance of the switch H
Pt R , PtF switch dissipation due to non-zero rise and fall times W
PVSsat switch dissipation due to non-zero saturation voltage W
PRON power dissipation in the switch-on resistance W
ζ normalised slope of the switch voltage at turn-on -
(ζ = 0 for class E and < 0 for saturated class C)
1 dvS (t )
ζ≡
ω Vcc dt turn − on
 SYMBOLS AND UNITS - xi

Symbol Description unit

Link optimisation
α the ratio of Rload and the impedance of the capacitor C2
2
-
α = ω .C2 .Rload 2

X abbreviation for k 2QLS1 QLS2 -

Pin d.c. input power of the driven inductive link W

Plink in a.c. power into the coil set = Pin.ηdriver W
Psec total power delivered to the secondary = Plink in.ηprimary W
Plink out useful a.c. power output of the coil set = Plink in.ηlink W
Pout useful d.c. power output of the driven inductive link = Pin.η W
ηprimary primary efficiency = ratio of the power transferred to the -
secondary circuit and the power put into the primary coil
ηsecondary secondary efficiency = ratio of the power dissipated in the -
load Rload2 and the total dissipation of the secondary circuit
ηlink link efficiency: ηlink = ηprimary.ηsecondary -
ηrectif rectifier efficiency
ηregul regulator efficiency -
ηdriver P
primary coil-driver efficiency = link out
Pin
η global efficiency of the driven inductive link -
η = ηdriver.ηlink.ηrectif.ηregul

Symbol Description Value

μ0 permeability constant (in vacuum) 4π 10-7 H/m
ε0 permittivity constant (in vacuum) 8.85419 10-12 F/m
c speed of light (in vacuum) 2.99792 108 m/s

Abbr. Description
a.c. alternating current (which means a non-zero signal frequency)
ADC analogue-to-digital converter
AM amplitude modulation
ASK amplitude shift keying
CW continuous wave
DAC digital-to-analogue converter
d.c. direct current (which refers to a zero frequency signal)
EM electromagnetic
EMI electromagnetic interference
FM frequency modulation
FSK frequency shift keying
MO master oscillator
MOPA master-oscillator-power-amplifier configuration
PA power amplifier
PCM pulse code modulation
PDM pulse duration modulation (a synonym for PWM)
PFM pulse frequency modulation
PPM pulse position modulation
PWM pulse width modulation
r.f. radio frequency
RMS root mean square
RX receiver
THD total harmonic distorsion
TX transmitter
VFO voltage-controlled-frequency oscillator
PREFACE v

SYMBOLS AND UNITS vii

CHAPTER 1: AN INTRODUCTION ON TELEMETRY 1

1.1 WIRELESS CONNECTIONS.................................................................................. 2
1.1.1 Modulation............................................................................................................. 4
1.1.1.1 Continuous wave carrier modulation .............................................................. 4
1.1.1.2 Analogue pulse modulation.............................................................................. 7
1.1.1.3 Digital pulse-code modulation......................................................................... 9
1.1.2 Propagating-wave links........................................................................................ 11
1.1.2.1 Radio-frequency links..................................................................................... 11
1.1.2.2 Optical links ................................................................................................... 15
1.1.2.3 Ultrasound links ............................................................................................. 16
1.1.3 Conduction links .................................................................................................. 17
1.1.4 Quasi-stationary or induction field links ............................................................. 18
1.1.4.1 Capacitive links .............................................................................................. 18
1.1.4.2 Magnetic links ................................................................................................ 18
1.2 HOW TO CHOOSE BETWEEN LINK TYPES?.................................................. 20
1.2.1 Transducer dimensions ........................................................................................ 21
1.2.2 Influence of the link on its environment.............................................................. 21
1.2.2.1 R.f. electromagnetic fields.............................................................................. 21
1.2.2.2 Electric currents through the body ................................................................ 25

xiii
xiv - TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.2.2.3 Optical effects ................................................................................................ 27

1.2.2.4 Ultrasound effects .......................................................................................... 28
1.2.3 Influence of the environment on the link performance ....................................... 28
1.2.3.1 Influence on electromagnetic links ................................................................ 29
1.2.3.2 Influence on optical links ............................................................................... 30
1.2.3.3 Influence on ultrasound links......................................................................... 33
1.3 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................... 33
1.4 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 33

CHAPTER 2: THE CONCEPTS OF INDUCTIVE POWERING 41

2.1 INDUCTION THEORY......................................................................................... 42
2.1.1 Magnetic fields .................................................................................................... 42
2.1.2 Mutually coupled coils ........................................................................................ 44
2.1.3 Equivalent network models ................................................................................. 46
2.2 INDUCTIVE POWERING .................................................................................... 47
2.2.1 Power transfer ...................................................................................................... 47
2.2.2 Secondary tank resonance ................................................................................... 50
2.3 THE DRIVEN INDUCTIVE LINK ....................................................................... 52
2.3.1 Rectifiers.............................................................................................................. 52
2.3.1.1 Half-wave rectification .................................................................................. 53
2.3.1.2 Full-wave rectification with voltage doubling............................................... 54
2.3.1.3 Full-wave rectification without voltage doubling.......................................... 56
2.3.1.4 Class-E rectifiers............................................................................................ 56
2.3.2 Secondary coil and capacitor tapping.................................................................. 58
2.3.3 Regulators ............................................................................................................ 60
2.3.3.1 Linear regulators ........................................................................................... 61
2.3.3.2 Switch-mode regulators ................................................................................. 62
2.3.4 Primary coil driver............................................................................................... 64
2.4 LINK OPTIMISATION ......................................................................................... 67
2.4.1 Efficiency optimisation........................................................................................ 68
2.4.2 Desensitising the link gain to coupling variations, by critical coil coupling ...... 68
2.4.3 Link stabilisation through stagger tuning ............................................................ 69
2.4.4 Link stabilisation through self-oscillation ........................................................... 70
2.5 DISCUSSION: OPTIMISATION OF WEAKLY COUPLED LINKS ................. 71
2.5.1 Optimisation of the driven inductive link............................................................ 72
2.5.2 On-line adjustment of the driver output power ................................................... 73
2.5.3 Additional system optimisation ........................................................................... 73
2.6 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................... 74
2.7 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 74

CHAPTER 3: EXACT LINK FORMULAE 77

3.1 INDUCTIVE LINKS WITH A PARALLEL-RESONANT SECONDARY......... 79
3.1.1 Equivalent secondary impedance ........................................................................ 79
3.1.2 Link efficiencies .................................................................................................. 80
3.1.2.1 Primary link efficiency ................................................................................... 80
3.1.2.2 Secondary link efficiency ............................................................................... 81
3.1.2.3 Total link efficiency........................................................................................ 82
3.1.3 Link gain .............................................................................................................. 82
3.1.3.1 Non-resonant primary coil............................................................................. 83
3.1.3.2 Series-resonant primary coil.......................................................................... 84
3.1.3.3 Parallel-resonant primary coil ...................................................................... 84
3.1.4 Link optimisation................................................................................................. 85
3.1.4.1 Solution at maximal link efficiency ................................................................ 85
3.1.4.2 Solution at critical coupling .......................................................................... 87
3.2 INDUCTIVE LINKS WITH A SERIES-RESONANT SECONDARY................ 92
3.2.1 Equivalent secondary impedance ........................................................................ 93
3.2.2 Link efficiencies .................................................................................................. 94
3.2.2.1 Primary link efficiency ................................................................................... 94
3.2.2.2 Secondary link efficiency ............................................................................... 94
 TABLE OF CONTENTS - xv

3.2.2.3 Total link efficiency ........................................................................................ 94

3.2.3 Link gain .............................................................................................................. 94
3.2.3.1 Non-resonant primary coil............................................................................. 94
3.2.3.2 Series-resonant primary coil.......................................................................... 95
3.2.3.3 Parallel-resonant primary coil ...................................................................... 95
3.2.4 Link optimisation ................................................................................................. 96
3.2.4.1 Solution at maximal link efficiency ................................................................ 96
3.2.4.2 Solution at critical coupling........................................................................... 97
3.3 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................. 100
3.4 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... 101

CHAPTER 4: PRIMARY COIL DRIVERS 103

4.1 CLASS C .............................................................................................................. 106
4.2 MODELLING OF SWITCH TRANSISTORS .................................................... 110
4.3 CLASS D .............................................................................................................. 112
4.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF SUPPLY DECOUPLING ........................................... 117
4.5 IDEAL ACTIVE-DEVICE BEHAVIOUR .......................................................... 118
4.6 SATURATING CLASS C.................................................................................... 120
4.7 CLASS E............................................................................................................... 127
4.8 CLASS E WITH 1 COIL AND 1 CAPACITOR ................................................. 136
4.9 DRIVING WEAKLY COUPLED LINKS ........................................................... 137
4.10 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................. 139
4.11 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... 141

CHAPTER 5: OPTIMISATION OF THE DRIVEN INDUCTIVE

LINK 145
5.1 OPTIMISATION OF THE DRIVEN LINK ........................................................ 146
5.1.1 Relation between k and η ................................................................................... 146
5.1.2 Relation between QLS and η ............................................................................... 147
1

5.1.3 Relation between QLS and η ............................................................................... 147

2

5.1.4 Relation between ω and η .................................................................................. 148

5.1.5 Relation between D and η .................................................................................. 148
5.1.6 Relation between the coil inductances and η..................................................... 148
5.1.7 Relation between α and η................................................................................... 148
5.1.8 Critical coupling of the driven inductive link.................................................... 151
5.2 THE OPTIMISATION STRATEGY ................................................................... 152
5.2.1 Magnetic design ................................................................................................. 154
5.2.1.1 Simple coils in a passive medium................................................................. 155
5.2.1.2 Coils nearby electric materials .................................................................... 158
5.2.2 Electronic design................................................................................................ 159
5.3 DESIGN EXAMPLE............................................................................................ 162
5.3.1 Magnetic link design.......................................................................................... 162
5.3.2 Electronic link design ........................................................................................ 163
5.3.2.1 The saturating-class-C driver ...................................................................... 163
5.3.2.2 The class-E driver ........................................................................................ 164
5.4 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................. 166
5.5 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... 167

CHAPTER 6: AUTOMATIC LINK TUNING 169

6.1 AUTOMATIC SEARCH OF THE TRANSFER FREQUENCY
AND AUTO-REGULATION OF THE DRIVER POWER................................. 170
6.2 SWITCH-MODE COIL DRIVER WITH LOAD-RESONANCE CONTROL... 173
6.3 PROTOTYPE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION................................................... 175
6.4 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... 177
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I notice, for example, that it was necessary to close the agricultural
school at Debreczen, which was conducted in connection with an
agricultural college at the same place, because, as the report of the
Minister of Agriculture states, “the pupils of this school, being in
daily contact with the first-year pupils of the college, attempted to
imitate their ways, wanted more than was necessary for their social
position, and at the same time aimed at a position they were unable
to maintain.”
All this is in striking contrast to the spirit and method of the
Danish rural high school, which started among the poorest farming
class, and has grown, year by year, until it has drawn within its
influence nearly all the classes in the rural community. In this school
it happens that the daughters of the peasant and of the nobleman
sometimes sit together on the same bench, and that the sons of the
landlord and of the tenant frequently work and study side by side,
sharing the personal friendship of their teacher and not infrequently
the hospitality of his home.
The most striking thing about the rural high school in Denmark is
that it is neither a technical nor an industrial school and, although it
was created primarily for the peasant people, the subject of
agriculture is almost never mentioned, at least not with the purpose
of giving practical or technical education in that subject.
It may seem strange that, in a school for farmers, nothing should
be said about agriculture, and I confess that it took some time for me
to see the connection between this sort of school and Denmark’s
agricultural prosperity. It seemed to me, as I am sure it will seem to
most other persons, that the simplest and most direct way to apply
education to agriculture was to teach agriculture in the schools.
The real difference between the Hungarian and the Danish
methods of dealing with this problem is, however, in the spirit rather
than in the form. In Hungary the purpose of the schools seems to be
to give each individual such training as it is believed will fit him for
the particular occupation which his station in life assigns him, and
no more. The government decides. In other words, education is
founded on a system of caste. If the man below learns in school to
look to the man in station above him, if he begins to dream and hope
for something better than the life to which he has been accustomed—
then, a social and political principle is violated, and, as the
Commissioner of Agriculture says, “the government is not deterred
from issuing energetic orders.”
BRICKLAYING AT HAMPTON INSTITUTE
 BLACKSMITHING AT HAMPTON INSTITUTE

Of course, the natural result of such measures is to increase the

discontent. Just as soon as any class of people feel that privileges
granted to others are denied to them, immediately these privileges—
whether they be the opportunities for education, or anything else—
assume in the eyes of the people to whom they are denied a new
importance and value.
The result of this policy is seen in emigration statistics. I doubt,
from what I have been able to learn, whether all the efforts made by
the Hungarian Government in the way of agricultural instruction
have done very much to allay the discontent among the masses of the
farming population. Thousands of these Hungarian peasants every
year still prefer to try their fortune in America, and the steady exodus
of the farming population continues.
The rural high school in Denmark has pursued just the opposite
policy. It has steadily sought to stimulate the ambitions and the
intellectual life of the peasant people. Instead, however, of
compelling the ambitious farmer’s boy, who wants to know
something about the world, to go to America, to the ordinary college,
or to the city, the schools have brought the learning of the colleges
and the advantages of the city to the country.
The most interesting and remarkable thing about these high
schools is the success that they have had in presenting every subject
that an educated man should know about in such a form as will make
it intelligible and interesting to country boys and girls who have only
had, perhaps, the rudiments of a common school education.
The teachers in these country high schools are genuine scholars.
They have to be, for the reason that the greater part of their teaching
is in the form of lectures, without text-books of any kind, and their
success depends upon the skill with which they can present their
subjects. In order to awaken interest and enthusiasm, they have to go
to the sources for their knowledge.
Most of the teachers whom I met could speak two or three
languages. I was surprised at the knowledge which every one I met in
Denmark, from the King and Queen to the peasants, displayed in
American affairs, and the interest they showed in the progress of the
Negro and the work we have been doing at Tuskegee. As an
illustration of the wide interests which occupy the teachers in these
rural schools, I found one of them engaged in translating Prof.
William James’s book on “Pragmatism” into the Danish language.
I have heard it said repeatedly since I was in Denmark that the
Danish people as a whole were better educated and better informed
than any other people in Europe. Statistics seem to bear out this
statement; for, according to the immigration figures of 1900,
although 24.2 per cent. of all persons over fourteen years of age
coming into the United States as immigrants could neither read nor
write, only .8 per cent. of the immigrants from Scandinavia were
illiterate. Of the Germans, among whom I had always supposed
education was more widely diffused than elsewhere in Europe, 5.8
per cent. were illiterate.
Before I go farther, perhaps, I ought to give some idea of what
these rural high schools look like. One of the most famous of them is
situated about an hour’s ride from Copenhagen, near the little city of
Roskilde. It stands on a piece of rolling ground, overlooking a bay,
where the little fisher vessels and small seafaring craft are able to
come far inland, almost to the centre of the island. All around are
wide stretches of rich farm land, dotted here and there with little
country villages.
There is, as I remember, one large building with a wing at either
end. In one of these wings the head master of the school lives, and in
the other is a gymnasium. In between are the school rooms where the
lectures are held. Everything about the school is arranged in a neat
and orderly manner—simple, clean, and sweet—and I was especially
impressed by the wholesome, homelike atmosphere of the place.
Teachers and pupils eat together at the same table and meet together
in a social way in the evening. Teachers and students are thus not
merely friends; they are in a certain sense comrades.
In the school at Roskilde there are usually about one hundred and
fifty students. During the winter term of five months the young men
are in school; in the summer the young women take their turn.
Pupils pay for board and lodging twenty crowns, a little more than
five dollars a month, and for tuition, twenty crowns the first month,
fifteen the second, ten the third, five the fourth, and nothing the fifth.
These figures are themselves an indication of the thrift as well as the
simplicity with which these schools are conducted. Twenty years ago,
when they were first started, I was told the pupils used to sleep
together, in a great sleeping room on straw mattresses, and eat with
wooden spoons out of a common dish, just as the peasant people did
at that time. This reminds me that just about this same time, at
Tuskegee, pupils were having similar hardships. For one thing, I
recall that, in those days, the food for the whole school was cooked in
one large iron kettle and that sometimes we had to skip a meal
because there wasn’t anything to put in the kettle. Since that time
conditions have changed, not only in the rural high schools of
Denmark, but among the country people. At the present day, if not
every peasant cottage, at least every coöperative dairy has its shower-
bath. The small farmer, who, a few years ago, looked upon every
innovation with mistrust, is likely now to have his own telephone—
for Denmark has more telephones to the number of the population
than has any other country in Europe—and every country village has
its gymnasium and its assembly hall for public lectures.
 I have before me, on my desk, a school plan showing the manner
in which the day is disposed of. School begins at eight o’clock in the
morning and ends at seven o’clock in the evening, with two hours
rest at noon. Two thirds of the time of the school is devoted to
instruction in the Danish mother-tongue and in history. The rest is
given to arithmetic, geography, and the natural sciences.
It is peculiar to these schools that most of the instruction is given
in the form of lectures. There are no examinations and few
recitations. Not only the natural sciences, but even the higher
mathematics, are taught historically, by lectures. The purpose is not
to give the student training in the use of these sciences, but to give
him a general insight into the manner in which different problems
have arisen and of the way in which the solution of them has
widened and increased our knowledge of the world.
In the Danish rural high school, emphasis is put upon the
folksongs, upon Danish history and the old Northern mythology. The
purpose is to emphasize, in opposition to the Latin and Greek
teaching of the colleges, the value of the history and the culture of the
Scandinavian people; and, incidentally, to instil into the minds of the
pupils the patriotic conviction that they have a place and mission of
their own among the people of the world.
There are several striking things about this system of rural high
schools, of which there are now 120 in Denmark. The first thing
about them that impressed me was the circumstances in which they
had their origin. In the beginning the rural high schools were a
private undertaking, as indeed they are still, although they get a
certain amount of support from the State. The whole scheme was
worked out by a few courageous individuals, who were sometimes
opposed, but frequently assisted by the Government. The point
which I wish to emphasize is that they did not spring into existence
all at once, but that they grew up slowly and are still growing. It took
long years of struggles to formulate and popularize the plans and
methods which are now in use in these schools. In this work the
leading figure was a Lutheran bishop, Nicolai Frederick Severen
Grundvig, who is often referred to as the Luther of Denmark. The
rural school movement grew out of a non-sectarian religious
movement and was, in fact, an attempt to revive the spiritual life of
the masses of the people.
 Rural high schools were established as early as 1844, but it was not
until twenty years later, when Denmark, as a result of her disastrous
war with Prussia, had lost one third of her richest territory, that the
rural high school movement began to gain ground. It was at that
time, when affairs were at their lowest ebb in Denmark, that
Grundvig began preaching to the Danish people the gospel that what
had been lost without, must be regained within; and that what had
been lost in battle must be gained in peaceful development of the
national resources.
Bishop Grundvig saw that the greatest national resource of
Denmark, as it is of any country, was its common people. The schools
he started and the methods of education he planned were adapted to
the needs of the masses. They were an attempt to popularize
learning, put it in simple language, rob it of its mystery and make it
the common property of the common people.
Another thing peculiar about these schools is that they were not
for children, but for older students. Eighty per cent. of the students
in the rural high schools are from eighteen to twenty-five years of
age; 12 per cent, are more than twenty-five years of age and only 8
per cent. are under eighteen. These schools, are, in fact, farmer’s
colleges. They presuppose the education of the common school. The
farmer’s son and the farmer’s daughter, before they enter the rural
high school, have had the training in the public schools and have had
practical schooling in the work of the farm and the home. At just
about the age when a boy or a girl begins to think about leaving home
and of striking out in the world for himself; just at the age when
there comes, if ever, to a youth the desire to know something about
the larger world and about all the mysteries and secrets that are
buried away in books or handed down as traditions in the schools—
just at this time the boys and girls are sent away to spend two
seasons or more in a rural high school. As a rule they go, not to the
school in their neighbourhood but to some other part of the country.
There they make the acquaintance of other young men and women
who, like themselves, have come directly from the farms, and this
intercourse and acquaintance helps to give them a sense of common
interest and to build up what the socialists call a “class
consciousness.” All of this experience becomes important a little later
in the building up of the coöperative societies, coöperative dairies,
coöperative slaughter houses, societies for the production and sale of
eggs, for cattle raising and for other purposes.
The present organization of agriculture in Denmark is indirectly
but still very largely due to the influence of the rural school.
The rural high school came into existence, as I have said, as the
result of a religious rather than of a merely social or economic
movement. Different in methods and in outward form as these high
schools are from the industrial schools for the Negro in America,
they have this in common, that they are non-sectarian, but in the
broadest, deepest sense of that word, religious. They seek, not merely
to broaden the minds, but to raise and strengthen the moral life of
masses of the people. This peculiar character of the Danish rural high
school was defined to me in one word by a gentleman I met in
Denmark. He called them “inspirational.”
It is said of Grundvig that he was one of those who did not look for
salvation merely in political freedom. In spite of this fact, the rural
high schools have had a large influence upon politics in Denmark. It
is due to them, although they have carefully abstained from any kind
of political agitation, that Denmark, under the influence of its
“Peasant Ministry,” has become the most democratic country in
Europe. It is certainly a striking illustration of the result of this
education that what, a comparatively few years ago, was the lowest
and the most oppressed class in Denmark, namely the small farmer,
has become the controlling power in the State, as seems to be the
case at the present time.
I have gone to some length to describe the plans and general
character of the rural high schools because they are the earliest, the
most peculiar and unusual feature in Danish rural life and education,
and because, although conducted in the same spirit, they are
different in form and methods from the industrial schools with which
I have been mainly interested during the greater part of my life.
The high schools, however, are only one part of the Danish system
of rural schools. In recent years there has grown up side by side with
the rural high school another type of school for the technical training
in agriculture and in the household arts. For example, not more than
half a mile from the rural high school which I visited at Roskilde,
there has recently been erected what we in America would call an
industrial school, where scientific agriculture, as well as technical
training in home-keeping are given. In this school, young men and
women get much the same practical training that is given our
students at Tuskegee, with the exception that this training is
confined to agriculture and housekeeping. Besides, there is, in these
agricultural schools, no attempt to give students a general education
as is the case with the industrial schools in the South. In fact, schools
like Hampton and Tuskegee are trying to do for their students at one
and the same time, what is done in Denmark through two distinct
types of school.
I found this school, like its neighbour the high school, admirably
situated, surrounded by beautiful gardens in which the students
raised their own vegetables. In the kitchen, the young women
learned to prepare the meals and to set the tables. I was interested to
see also that, in the whole organization of the school there was an
attempt to preserve the simplicity of country life. In the furniture, for
example, there was an attempt to preserve the solid simplicity and
quaint artistic shapes with which the wealthier peasants of fifty or a
hundred years ago furnished their homes. Dr. Robert E. Park, my
companion on my trip through Europe, told me when I visited this
school that he found one of the professors at work in the garden
wearing the wooden shoes that used to be worn everywhere in the
country by the peasant people. This man had travelled widely, had
studied in Germany, where he had taken a degree in his particular
specialty at one of the agricultural colleges.
Perhaps the most interesting and instructive part of my visit was
the time that I spent at what is called a husmand’s or cotter’s school,
located at Ringsted and founded by N. J. Nielsen-Klodskov in 1902.
At this school I saw such an exhibition of vegetables, grains, and
especially of apples, as I think I had never seen before, certainly not
at any agricultural school.
I wish I had opportunity to describe in detail all that I saw and
learned about education and the possibilities of country life in the
course of my visit to this interesting school. What impressed me
most with regard to it and to the others that I visited, was the way in
which the different types of schools in Denmark have succeeded in
working into practical harmony with one another; the way also, in
which each in its separate way had united with the other to uplift,
vivify, and inspire the life and work of the country people.
 For example, the school at Ringsted, in addition to the winter
course in farming for men and the summer school in household arts
for women, offers, just as we do at Tuskegee, a short course to which
the older people are invited. The courses are divided between the
men and the women, the men’s course coming in the winter and the
women’s course in the summer. During the period of instruction,
which lasts eleven days, these older people live in the school, just as
the younger students do and gain thus the benefit of an intimate
association with each other and with their teachers. To illustrate to
what extent this school and the others like it have reached and
touched the people, I will quote from a letter written to me by the
founder. He says: “The Keorehave Husmandskole (cotter’s school) is
the first of its kind in Denmark. It is a private undertaking and the
buildings erected since 1902 are worth about 400,000 crowns
($100,000). During the seven years in which it has been in operation
631 men and 603 women have had training for six months. In
addition 3,205 men and women have attended the eleven-day
courses.”
In addition to the short courses in agriculture and housekeeping,
offered by the school at Ringsted, some of the rural high schools
hold, every fall, great public assemblies like our Chautauquas, which
last from a few days to a week and are attended by men and women
of the rural districts. At these meetings there are public lectures on
historical, literary and religious subjects. In the evening there are
music, singing, and dancing, and other forms of amusement. These
annual assemblies, held under the direction of the rural high schools,
have largely taken the place of the former annual harvest-home
festivals in which there was much eating and drinking, as I
understand, but very little that was educational or uplifting. In
addition to these yearly meetings, which draw together people from a
distance, there are monthly meetings which are held either in the
high school buildings, or in the village assembly buildings, or in the
halls connected with the village gymnasiums. In the cities these
meetings are sometimes held in the “High School Homes” as they are
called, which serve the double purpose of places for the meetings of
young men’s and young women’s societies and at the same time as
cheap and homelike hotels for the travelling country people.
 In this way the rural high schools have extended their influence to
every part of the country, making the life on the farm attractive, and
enabling Denmark to set before the world an example of what a
simple, wholesome, and beautiful country life can be.
No doubt there are in the country life of Denmark, as of other
countries, some things that cast a shadow here and there on the
bright picture I have drawn. New problems always spring up out of
the solution of the old ones. No matter how much has been
accomplished those who know conditions best will inevitably feel
that their work has just been begun. However that may be, I do not
believe there will be found anywhere a better illustration of the
possibilities of education than in the results achieved by the rural
schools of Denmark.
One of the things that one hears a great deal of talk about in
America is the relative value of cultural and vocational education. I
do not think that I clearly understood until I went to Denmark what
a “cultural” education was. I had gotten the idea, from what I had
seen of the so-called “cultural” education in America, that culture
was always associated with Greek and Latin, and that people who
advocated it believed there was some mysterious, almost magical
power which was to be gotten from the study of books, or from the
study of something ancient and foreign, far from the common and
ordinary experiences of men. I found, in Denmark, schools in which
almost no text-books are used, which were more exclusively cultural
than any I had ever seen or heard of.
I had gotten the impression that what we ordinarily called culture
was something for the few people who are able to go to college, and
that it was somehow bottled up and sealed in abstract language and
in phrases which it took long years of study to master. I found in
Denmark real scholars engaged in teaching ordinary country people,
making it their peculiar business to strip the learning of the colleges
of all that was technical and abstract and giving it, through the
medium of the common speech, to the common people.
Cultural education has usually been associated in my mind with
the learning of some foreign language, with learning the history and
traditions of some other people. I found in Denmark a kind of
education which, although as far as it went touched every subject and
every land that it was the business of the educated man to know
about, sought especially to inspire an interest and enthusiasm in the
art, the traditions, the language, and the history of Denmark and in
the people by whom the students were surrounded. I saw that a
cultural education could be and should be a kind of education that
helps to awaken, enlighten, and inspire interest, enthusiasm, and
faith in one’s self, in one’s race and in mankind; that it need not be,
as it sometimes has been in Denmark and elsewhere, a kind of
education that robs its pupils of their natural independence, makes
them feel that something distant, foreign, and mysterious is better
and higher than what is familiar and close at hand.
I have never been especially interested in discussing the question
of the particular label that should be attached to any form of
education; I have never taken much interest, for example, in
discussing whether the form of education which we have been giving
our students at Tuskegee was cultural, vocational, or both. I have
been only interested in seeing that it was the kind that was needed by
the masses of the people we were trying to reach, and that the work
was done as well as possible under the circumstances. From what I
have learned in Denmark, I have discovered that what has been
done, for example, by Dr. R. H. Boyd in teaching the Negro people to
buy Negro instead of white dolls for their children, “in order,” as Dr.
Boyd says, “to teach the children to admire and respect their own
type”; that what has been done at Fisk University to inspire in the
Negro a love of folksongs; that what has been done at Tuskegee in
our annual Negro Conferences, and in our National Business League,
to awaken an interest and enthusiasm in the masses of the people for
the common life and progress of the race has done more good, and,
in the true sense of the word, been more cultural than all the Greek
and Latin that have ever been studied by all Negroes in all the
colleges in the country.
For culture of this kind spreads over more ground; it touches more
people and touches them more deeply. My study of the Danish rural
schools has not only taught me what may be done to inspire and
foster a national and racial spirit, but it has shown how closely
interwoven are the moral and material conditions of the people, so
that each man responds to and reflects the progress of every other
man in a way to bring about a healthful, wholesome condition of
national and racial life.
 CHAPTER XII
THE MISTAKES AND THE FUTURE OF
NEGRO EDUCATION

During the thirty years I have been engaged in Negro education in

the South my work has brought me into contact with many different
kinds of Negro schools. I have visited these schools in every part of
the South and have had an opportunity to study their work and learn
something of their difficulties as well as of their successes. During
the last five years, for example, I have taken time from my other
work to make extended trips of observation through eight different
states, looking into the condition of the schools and saying a word,
wherever I went, in their interest. I have had opportunities, as I went
about, to note not merely the progress that has been made inside the
school houses, but to observe, also, the effects which the different
types of schools have had upon the homes and in the communities by
which they are surrounded.
Considering all that I have seen and learned of Negro education in
the way I have described, it has occurred to me that I could not do
better in the concluding reminiscences of my own larger education
than give some sort of summary statement, not only of what has been
accomplished, but what seems to be the present needs and prospects
of Negro education in general for the Southern States. In view also of
the fact that I have gained the larger part of my own larger education
in what I have been able to do for this cause, the statement may not
seem out of place here. Let me then, first of all, say that never in the
history of the world has a people, coming so lately out of slavery,
made such efforts to catch up with and attain the highest and best in
the civilization about them; never has such a people made the same
amount of progress in the same time as is the case of the Negro
people of America.
 At the same time, I ought to add, also, that never in the history of
the world has there been a more generous effort on the part of one
race to help civilize and build up another than has been true of the
American white man and the Negro. I say this because it should be
remembered that, if the white man in America was responsible for
bringing the Negro here and holding him in slavery, the white man in
America was equally responsible for giving him his freedom and the
opportunities by which he has been able to make the tremendous
progress of the last forty-eight years.
In spite of this fact, in looking over and considering conditions of
Negro education in the South to-day, not so much with reference to
the past as to the future, I am impressed with the imperfect,
incomplete, and unsatisfactory condition in which that education
now is. I fear that there is much misconception, both in the North
and in the South, in regard to the actual opportunities for education
which the Negro has.
In the first place, in spite of all that has been said about it, the
mass of the Negro people has never had, either in the common
schools or in the Negro colleges in the South, an education in the
same sense as the white people in the Northern States have had an
education. Without going into details, let me give a few facts in
regard to the Negro schools of so-called higher learning in the South.
There are twenty-five Negro schools which are ordinarily classed as
colleges in the South. They have, altogether, property and
endowments, according to the report of the United States
commissioner of education, of $7,993,028. There are eleven single
institutions of higher learning in the Northern States, each of which
has property and endowment equal to or greater than all the Negro
colleges in the South. There are, for instance, five colleges or
universities in the North every one of which has property and
endowments amounting to more than $20,000,000; there are three
universities which together have property and endowments
amounting to nearly $100,000,000.
The combined annual income of twenty-four principal Negro
colleges is $1,048,317. There are fifteen white schools that have a
yearly income of from one million to five million dollars each. In fact,
there is one single institution of learning in the North which, in the
year of 1909, had an income, nearly twice as large as the combined
income of the one hundred and twenty-three Negro colleges,
industrial schools, and other private institutions of learning of which
the commissioner of education has any report. These facts indicate, I
think, that however numerous the Negro institutions of higher
learning may be, the ten million Negroes in the United States are not
getting from them, either in quality or in quantity, an education such
as they ought to have.
Let me speak, however, of conditions as I have found them in some
of the more backward Negro communities. In my own state, for
example, there are communities in which Negro teachers are now
being paid not more than from fifteen dollars to seventeen dollars a
month for services covering a period of three or four months in the
year. As I stated in a recent open letter to the Montgomery
Advertiser, more money is paid for Negro convicts than for Negro
teachers. About forty-six dollars a month is now being paid for first-
class, able-bodied Negro convicts, thirty-six dollars for second-class,
and twenty-six dollars for third-class, and this is for twelve months
in the year. This will, perhaps, at least suggest the conditions that
exist in some of the Negro rural schools.
I do not mean to say that conditions are as bad everywhere as
these that I refer to. Nevertheless, when one speaks “of the results of
Negro education” it should be remembered that, so far as concerns
the masses of the Negro people, education has never yet been really
tried.
One of the troubles with Negro education at the present time is
that there are no definite standards of education among the different
Negro schools. It is not possible to tell, for instance, from the name
of an institution, whether it is teaching the ordinary common school
branches, Greek and Latin, or carpentry, blacksmithing, and sewing.
More than that, there is no accepted standard as to the methods or
efficiency of the teaching in these schools. A student may be getting a
mere smattering, not even learning sufficient reading and writing to
be able to read with comfort a book or a newspaper. He may be
getting a very good training in one subject and almost nothing in
some other. A boy entering such a school does not know what he is
going for, and, nine times out of ten, he will come away without
knowing what he got. In many cases, the diploma that the student
carries home with him at the conclusion of his course is nothing less
than a gold brick. It has made him believe that he has gotten an
education, when he has actually never had an opportunity to find out
what an education is.
I have in mind a young man who came to us from one of those
little colleges to which I have referred where he had studied Greek,
Latin, German, astronomy, and, among other things, stenography.
He found that he could not use his Greek and Latin and that he had
not learned enough German to be able to use the language, so he
came to us as a stenographer. Unfortunately, he was not much better
in stenography and in English than he was in German. After he had
failed as a stenographer, he tried several other things, but because he
had gone through a college and had a diploma, he could never bring
himself to the point of fitting himself to do well any one thing. The
consequence was that he went wandering about the country, always
dissatisfied and unhappy, never giving satisfaction to himself or to
his employers.
Although this young man was not able to write a letter in English
without making grammatical errors or errors of some kind or other,
the last time I heard of him he was employed as a teacher of
business, in fact, he was at the head of the business department in
one of the little colleges to which I have referred. He was not able to
use his stenography in a well-equipped office, but he was able to
teach stenography sufficiently well to meet the demands of the
business course as given in the kind of Negro college of which there
are, unfortunately, too many in the South.
Now, there was nothing the matter with this young man—
excepting his education. He was industrious, ambitious, absolutely
trustworthy, and, if he had been able to stick at any one position long
enough to learn to do the work required of him well, he would have
made, in my opinion, a very valuable man. As it was, his higher
education spoiled him. In going through college he had been taught
that he was getting an education when, as a matter of fact, he really
had no education worth the mention.
One of the mistakes that Negro schools have frequently made has
been the effort to cover, in some sort of way, the whole school
curriculum from the primary, through the college, taking their
students, as a friend of mine once said, “from the cradle to the
grave.” The result is that many of the Negro colleges have so
burdened themselves with the work of an elementary grade that they
are actually doing no college work at all, although they still keep up
the forms and their students still speak of themselves as “college
students.”
In this way nearly every little school calling itself a college has
attempted to set up a complete school system of its own, reaching
from the primary grade up through the university. These schools,
having set themselves an impossible task, particularly in view of the
small means that they have at their command, it is no wonder that
their work is often badly done.
I remember visiting one of these institutions in the backwoods
district of one of the Southern States. The school was carried on in an
old ramshackle building, which had been erected by the students and
the teachers, although it was evident that not one of them had more
than the most primitive notion of how to handle a saw or a square.
The wind blew through the building from end to end. Heaps of
Bibles, which had been presented to the school by some friends, were
piled up on the floor in one corner of the building. The dormitory
was in the most disorderly condition one could possibly imagine.
Half of the building had been burned away and had never been
rebuilt. Broken beds and old mattresses were piled helter-skelter
about in the rooms. What showed as well as anything the total
incompetency of everybody connected with the school were the futile
efforts that had been made to obtain a supply of drinking water. The
yard around the school, which they called the “campus,” was full of
deep and dangerous holes, where some one had attempted at
different times to dig a well but failed, because, as was evident
enough, he had not the slightest idea of how the work should have
been done.
At the time I was there the school was supplied with water from an
old swamp in the neighbourhood, but the president of the college
explained to me an elaborate plan which he had evolved for creating
an artificial lake and this enterprise, he said, had the added
advantage of furnishing work for the students.
When I asked this man in regard to his course of study, he handed
me a great sheet of paper, about fifteen inches wide and two feet
long, filled with statements that he had copied from the curricula of
all sorts of different schools, including theological seminaries,
universities, and industrial schools. From this sheet, it appeared that
he proposed to teach in his school everything from Hebrew to
telegraphy. In fact, it would have taken at least two hundred teachers
to do all the work that he had laid out.
When I asked him why it was that he did not confine himself
within the limits of what the students needed and of what he would
be able to teach, he explained to me that he had found that some
people wanted one kind of education and some people wanted
another. As far as he was concerned, he took a liberal view and was
willing to give anybody anything that was wanted. If his students
wanted industrial education, theological education, or college
education, he proposed to give it to them.
I suggested to him that the plan was liberal enough, but it would
be impossible for him to carry it out. “Yes,” he replied, “it may be
impossible just now, but I believe in aiming high.” The pathetic thing
about it all was that this man and the people with whom he had
surrounded himself were perfectly sincere in what they were trying
to do. They simply did not know what an education was or what it
was for.
We have in the South, in general, five types of Negro schools.
There are (1) the common schools, supported in large part by state
funds supplemented in many cases by contributions from the
coloured people; (2) academies and so-called colleges, or
universities, supported partly by different Negro religious
denominations and partly by the contributions of philanthropic
persons and organizations; (3) the state normal, mechanical, and
agricultural colleges, supported in part by the state and in part by
funds provided by the Federal Government; (4) medical schools,
which are usually attached to some one or other of the colleges, but
really maintain a more or less independent existence; (5) industrial
schools, on the model of Hampton and Tuskegee.
Although these schools exist, in many cases, side by side, most of
them are attempting to do, more or less, the work of all the others.
Because every school is attempting to do the work of every other, the
opportunities for coöperation and team work are lost. Instead one
finds them frequently quarrelling and competing among themselves
both for financial support and for students. The colleges and the
academies frequently draw students away from the public schools.
The state agricultural schools, supported in part by the National
Government, are hardly distinguishable from some of the theological
seminaries. Instead of working in coöperation with one another and
with the public authorities in building up the public schools, thus
bringing the various institutions of learning into some sort of
working harmony and system, it not infrequently happens that the
different schools are spending time and energy in trying to hamper
and injure one another.
We have had some experience at Tuskegee of this lack of
coöperation among the different types of Negro schools. For some
years we have employed as teachers a large number of graduates, not
only from some of the better Negro colleges in the South, but from
some of the best colleges in the North as well. In spite of the fact that
Tuskegee offers a larger market for the services of these college
graduates than they are able to find elsewhere, I have yet to find a
single graduate who has come to us from any of these colleges in the
South who has made any study of the aims or purposes of industrial
education. And this is true, although some of the colleges claim that a
large part of their work consists in preparing teachers for work in
industrial schools.
Not only has it been true that graduates of these colleges have had
no knowledge or preparation which fitted them for teaching in an
industrial school, but in many cases, they have come to us with the
most distorted notions of what these industrial schools were seeking
to do.
Perhaps the larger proportion of the college graduates go, when
they leave college, as teachers into the city or rural schools.
Nevertheless, there is the same lack of coöperation between the
colleges and the public schools that I have described as existing
between the colleges and the industrial schools. It is a rare thing, so
far as my experience goes, for students in the Negro colleges to have
had an opportunity to make any systematic study of the actual
condition and needs of the schools or communities in which they are
employed after they graduate. Instead of working out and teaching
methods of connecting the school with life, thus making it a centre
and a source of inspiration that might gradually transform the
communities about them, these colleges have too frequently
permitted their graduates to go out with the idea that their diploma
was a sort of patent of nobility, and that the possessor of it was a
superior being who was making a sacrifice in merely bestowing
himself or herself as a teacher upon the communities to which he or
she was called.
One of the chief hindrances to the progress of Negro education in
the public schools in the South is in my opinion due to the fact that
the Negro colleges in which so many of the teachers are prepared
have not realized the importance of convincing the Southern white
people that education makes the same improvement in the Negro
that it does in the white man; makes him so much more useful in his
labour, so much better a citizen, and so much more dependable in all
the relations of life, that it is worth while to spend the money to give
him an education. As long as the masses of the Southern white
people remain unconvinced by the results of the education which
they see about them that education makes the Negro a better man or
woman, so long will the masses of the Negro people who are
dependent upon the public schools for their instruction remain to a
greater or less extent in ignorance.
COLLIS P. HUNTINGTON MEMORIAL BUILDING

Tuskegee Institute
 THE OFFICE BUILDING

In which are located the administrative offices of the school, the Institute Bank and
the Institute Post Office

Some of the schools of the strictly academic type have declared

that their purpose in sticking to the old-fashioned scholastic studies
was to make of their students Christian gentlemen. Of course, every
man and every woman should be a Christian and, if possible, a
gentleman or a lady; but it is not necessary to study Greek or Latin to
be a Christian. More than that, a school that is content with merely
turning out ladies and gentlemen who are not at the same time
something else—who are not lawyers, doctors, business men,
bankers, carpenters, farmers, teachers, not even housewives, but
merely ladies and gentlemen—such a school is bound, in my
estimation, to be more or less of a failure. There is no room in this
country, and never has been, for the class of people who are merely
gentlemen, and, if I may judge from what I have lately seen abroad,
the time is coming when there will be no room in any country for the
class of people who are merely gentlemen—for people, in other
words, who are not fitted to perform some definite service for the
country or the community in which they live.
In the majority of cases I have found that the smaller Negro
colleges have been modelled on the schools started in the South by
the anti-slavery people from the North directly after the war. Perhaps
there were too many institutions started at that time for teaching
Greek and Latin, considering that the foundation had not yet been
laid in a good common school system. It should be remembered,
however, that the people who started these schools had a somewhat
different purpose from that for which schools ordinarily exist to-day.
They believed that it was necessary to complete the emancipation of
the Negro by demonstrating to the world that the black man was just
as able to learn from books as the white man, a thing that had been
frequently denied during the long anti-slavery controversy.
I think it is safe to say that that has now been demonstrated. What
remains to be shown is that the Negro can go as far as the white man
in using his education, of whatever kind it may be, to make himself a
more useful and valuable member of society. Especially is it
necessary to convince the Southern white man that education, in the
case of the coloured man, is a necessary step in the progress and
upbuilding, not merely of the Negro, but of the South.
It should be remembered in this connection that there are
thousands of white men in the South who are perfectly friendly to the
Negro and would like to do something to help him, but who have not
yet been convinced that education has actually done the Negro any
good. Nothing will change their minds but an opportunity to see
results for themselves.
The reason more progress has not been made in this direction is
that the schools planted in the South by the Northern white people
have remained—not always through their own fault to be sure—in a
certain sense, alien institutions. They have not considered, in
planning their courses of instruction, the actual needs either of the
Negro or of the South. Not infrequently young men and women have
gotten so out of touch during the time that they were in these schools
with the actual conditions and needs of the Negro and the South that
it has taken years before they were able to get back to earth and find
places where they would be useful and happy in some form or other
of necessary and useful labour.
Sometimes it has happened that Negro college students, as a result
of the conditions under which they were taught, have yielded to the
temptation to become mere agitators, unwilling and unfit to do any
kind of useful or constructive work. Naturally under such conditions
as teachers, or in any other capacity, they have not been able to be of
much use in winning support in the South for Negro education.
Nevertheless it is in the public schools of the South that the masses
of the Negro people must get their education, if they are to get any
education at all.
I have long been of the opinion that the persons in charge of the
Negro colleges do not realize the extent to which it is possible to
create in every part of the South a friendly sentiment toward Negro
education, provided it can be shown that this education has actually
benefited and helped in some practical way the masses of the Negro
people with whom the white man in the South comes most in
contact. We should not forget that as a rule in the South it is not the
educated Negro, but the masses of the people, the farmers, labourers,
and servants, with whom the white people come in daily contact. If
the higher education which is given to the few does not in some way
directly or indirectly reach and help the masses very little will be
done toward making Negro education popular in the South or toward
securing from the different states the means to carry it on.
On the other hand, just so soon as the Southern white man can see
for himself the effects of Negro education in the better service he
receives from the labourer on the farm or in the shop; just so soon as
the white merchant finds that education is giving the Negro not only
more wants, but more money with which to satisfy these wants, thus
making him a better customer; when the white people generally
discover that Negro education lessens crime and disease and makes
the Negro in every way a better citizen, then the white taxpayer will
not look upon the money spent for Negro education as a mere sop to
the Negro race, or perhaps as money entirely thrown away.
I said something like this some years ago to the late Mr. H. H.
Rogers and together we devised a plan for giving the matter a fair
test. He proposed that we take two or three counties for the purpose
of the experiment, give them good schools, and see what would be
the result.
We agreed that it would be of no use to build these schools and
give them outright to the people, but determined rather to use a
certain amount of money to stimulate and encourage the coloured
people in these counties to help themselves. The experiment was
started first of all in Macon County, Ala., in the fall of 1905. Before it
was completed Mr. Rogers died, but members of his family kindly
consented to carry on the work to the end of the term that we had
agreed upon—that is to say, to October, 1910.
As a result of this work forty-six new school buildings were erected
at an average cost of seven hundred dollars each; school terms were
lengthened from three and four to eight and nine months, at an
average cost to the people themselves of thirty-six hundred dollars
per year. Altogether about twenty thousand dollars was raised by the
people in the course of this five-year period. Similar work on a less
extensive scale was done in four other counties. As a result we now
have in Macon County a model public-school system, supported in
part by the county board of education, and in part by the
contributions of the people themselves.
As soon as we had begun with the help of the coloured people in
the different country communities to erect these model schools
throughout the county, C. J. Calloway, who had charge of the
experiment, began advertising in coloured papers throughout the
South that in Macon County it was possible for a Negro farmer to buy
land in small or large tracts near eight-months’ schools. Before long
the Negro farmers not only from adjoining counties, but from
Georgia and the neighbouring states, began to make inquiries. A
good many farmers who were not able to buy land but wanted to be
near a good school began to move into the county in order to go to
work on the farms. Others who already had property in other parts of
the South sold out and bought land in Macon County. Mr. Calloway
informs me that, during the last five years, he alone has sold land in
this county to something like fifty families at a cost of $49,740. He
sold during the year 1910 1450 acres at a cost of $21,335.
I do not think that any of us realized the full value of this
immigration into Macon County until the census of 1910 revealed the
extent to which the dislocation of the farming population has been
going on in other parts of the state. The census shows, for example,
that a majority of the Black Belt counties in Alabama instead of
increasing have lost population during the last ten years. It is in the
Black Belt counties which have no large cities that this decrease has
taken place. Macon County, although it has no large cities, is an
exception, for instead of losing population it shows an increase of
more than ten per cent.
I think that there are two reasons for this: In the first place there is
very little Negro crime and no mob violence in Macon County. The
liquor law is enforced and there are few Negroes in Macon County
who do not coöperate with the officers of the law in the effort to get
rid of the criminal element.
In the second place, Macon County is provided not only with the
schools that I have described, but with teachers who instruct their
pupils in regard to things that will help them and their parents to
improve their homes, their stock, and their land, and in other ways to
earn a better living.
When the facts brought out by the census were published in
Alabama they were the subject of considerable discussion among the
large planters and in the public press generally. In the course of this
discussion I called attention, in a letter to the Montgomery
Advertiser, to the facts to which I have referred.
In commenting upon this letter the editor of The Advertiser said:

The State of Alabama makes liberal appropriations for education and it is part of
the system for the benefit to reach both white and black children. It must be
admitted that there are many difficulties in properly spending the money and
properly utilizing it which will take time and the legislature to correct. The matter
complained of in the Washington letter could be easily remedied by the various
county superintendents and it is their duty to see that the causes for such
complaint are speedily removed. Negro fathers and mothers have shown intense
interest in the education of their children and if they cannot secure what they want
at present residences they will as soon as possible seek it elsewhere. We commend
Booker Washington’s letter on this subject to the careful consideration of all the
school officials and to all citizens of Alabama.

The value of the experiment made in Macon County is, in my

opinion, less in the actual good that has been done to the twenty-six
thousand people, white and black, who live there, than it is in the
showing by actual experiment what a proper system of Negro
education can do in a country district toward solving the racial
problem.
We have no race problem in Macon County; there is no friction
between the races; agriculture is improving; the county is growing in
wealth. In talking with the sheriff recently he told me that there is so
little crime in this county that he scarcely finds enough to keep him
busy. Furthermore, I think I am perfectly safe in saying that the
white people in this county are convinced that Negro education pays.
What is true of Macon County may, in my opinion, be true of every
other county in the South. Much will be accomplished in bringing
this about if those schools which are principally engaged in preparing
teachers shall turn about and face in the direction of the South,
where their work lies. My own experience convinces me that the
easiest way to get money for any good work is to show that you are
willing and able to perform the work for which the money is given.
The best illustration of this is, perhaps, the success, in spite of
difficulties and with almost no outside aid, of the best of the Negro
medical colleges. These colleges, although very largely dependent
upon the fees of their students for support, have been successful
because they have prepared their students for a kind of service for
which there was a real need.
What convinces me that the same sort of effort outside of Macon
County will meet with the same success is that it has in fact met with
the same success in the case of Hampton and some other schools
that are doing a somewhat similar work. On “the educational
campaigns” which I have made from time to time through the
different Southern States I have been continually surprised and
impressed at the interest taken by the better class of white people in
the work that I was trying to do. Everywhere in the course of these
trips I have met with a cordial, even an enthusiastic, reception not
only from the coloured people but from the white people as well.
For example, during my trip through North Carolina in November
of 1910, not only were the suggestions I tried to make for the
betterment of the schools and for the improvement of racial relations
frequently discussed and favourably commented upon in the daily
newspapers, but after my return I received a number of letters and
endorsements from distinguished white men in different parts of the
state who had heard what I had had to say.
I was asked the other day by a gentleman who has long been
interested in the welfare of the coloured people what I thought the
Negro needed most after nearly fifty years of freedom. I promptly
answered him that the Negro needed now what he needed fifty years
ago, namely, education. If I had attempted to be more specific I
might have added that what Negro education needed most was not
so much more schools or different kinds of schools as an educational
policy and a school system.
In the last analysis, the work of building up such a school system
as I have suggested must fall upon the industrial normal schools and
colleges which prepare the teacher, because it is the success or failure
of the teacher which determines the success of the school. In order to
make a beginning in the direction which I have indicated, the
different schools and colleges will have to spend much less time in
the future than they have in the past in quarrelling over the kind of
education the Negro ought to have and devote more time and
attention to giving him some kind of education.
In order to accomplish this it will be necessary for these schools to
obtain very much larger sums of money for education than they are
now getting. I believe, however, if the different schools will put the
matter to the people in the North and the people in the South “in the
right shape,” it will be possible to get much larger sums from every
source. I believe the state governments in the South are going to see
to it that the Negro public schools get a much fairer share of the
money raised for education in the future than they have in the past.
At the same time I feel that very few people realize the extent to
which the coloured people are willing and able to pay, and, in fact,
are now paying, for their own education. The higher and normal
schools can greatly aid the Negro people in raising among themselves
the money necessary to build up the educational system of the South
if they will prepare their teachers to give the masses of the people the
kind of education which will help them to increase their earnings
instead of giving them the kind of education that makes them
discontented and unhappy and does not give them the courage or
disposition to help themselves.
 In spite of all the mistakes and misunderstandings, I believe that
the Negro people, in their struggle to get on their feet intellectually
and find the kind of education that would fit their needs, have done
much to give the world a broader and more generous conception of
what education is and should be than it had before.
Education, in order to do for the Negro the thing he most needed,
has had to do more and different things than it was considered
possible and fitting for a school to undertake before the problem of
educating a newly enfranchised people arose. It has done this by
bringing education into contact with men and women in their homes
and in their daily work.
The importance of the scheme of education which has been
worked out, particularly in industrial schools, is not confined to
America or to the Negro race. Wherever in Europe, in Africa, in Asia,
or elsewhere great masses are coming for the first time in contact
with and under the influence of a higher civilization, the methods of
industrial education that have been worked out in the South by, with,
and through the Negro schools are steadily gaining recognition and
importance.
It seems to me that this is a fact that should not only make the
Negro proud of his past, brief as it has been, but, at the same time,
hopeful of the future.
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