Different Generations of Computer Hardware

The computer has evolved from a large,—sized simple calculating machine to a smaller
but much more powerful machine. The evolution of computers to the current state is
defined in terms of the generations of computers. Each generation of computers is
designed based on a new technological developments, resulting in better, cheaper and
smaller computers that are more powerful, faster and more efficient than their
predecessors. Currently, there are five generations of computers. In the following
subsections, we will discuss the generations of computers in terms of—

1. the technology used by them (hardware and software)

2. Input and Output devices
3. computing characteristics (speed, i.e., number of instructions executed per second),
4. physical appearance, and
5. their applications.

1.5.1 First Generation (1940 to 1956): Using Vacuum Tubes

Hardware Technology: The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes (Figure
1.4) for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.

Definition: A vacuum tube works like a switch or amplifier, controlling the flow of
electrical current in devices. Imagine a glass bulb with metal parts inside and all the air
removed (that's why it's called a "vacuum" tube). When electricity flows through it, the
tube can either let the current pass or block it, or it can increase the strength of the
signal. Vacuum tubes were used in early radios, televisions, and computers, but they
were large, fragile, and used a lot of power, so they were eventually replaced by smaller,
more efficient transistors.

Input: The input to the computer was through punched cards and paper tapes.
Output: The output was displayed as printouts.
Figure 1.4 Vacuum tube

Software Technology: The instructions were written in machine language. Machine

language uses 0s and 1s for coding the instructions. The first generation computers
could solve one problem at a time.
Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in milliseconds. Physical
Appearance: These computers were enormous in size and required a large room for
installation.
Application: They were used for scientific applications as they were the fastest
computing device of their time.
Examples: UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), Electronic Numerical Integrator
And Calculator (ENIAC), and Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
(EDVAC).

The first generation computers used a large number of vacuum tubes and thus
generated a lot of heat. They consumed a great deal of electricity and were expensive to
operate. The machines were prone to frequent malfunctioning and required constant
maintenance. Since first generation computers used machine language, they were
difficult to program.
1.5.2 Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using Transistors
Hardware Technology: The transistors (Figure 1.5) replaced the vacuum tubes of the
first generation of computers. Transistors allowed computers to become smaller, faster,
cheaper, energy efficient and reliable. The second generation computers used magnetic
core technology for primary memory. They used magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for
secondary storage.

Definition: A transistor is a small electronic component that acts like a switch or an

amplifier in a circuit. It controls the flow of electrical current by turning it on or off, or by
boosting the signal. Think of it like a faucet that can control how much water (or
electricity) flows through a pipe. Transistors are essential in devices like computers,
phones, and radios, where they help manage and process information.

Input: The input was still through punched cards.

Output: The output using printouts.
They used the concept of a stored program, where instructions were stored in the
memory of the computer.

Figure 1.5 Transistors

Software Technology The instructions were written using the assembly language.
Assembly language uses mnemonics (codes) like ADD for addition and SUB for
subtraction for coding the instructions. It is easier to write instructions in assembly
language, as compared to writing instructions in machine language.

High-level programming languages, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN

were also developed during this period.

Computing Characteristics The computation time was in microseconds. Physical

Appearance Transistors are smaller in size compared to vacuum tubes, thus, the
size of the computer was also reduced.

Application The cost of commercial production of these computers was very high,
though less than the first generation computers. The transistors had to be assembled
manually in second-generation computers.
Examples PDP-8, IBM 1401 and CDC 1604.

Second-generation computers generated a lot of heat but much less than

first-generation computers. They required less maintenance than the first generation
computers.

1.5.3 Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using Integrated Circuits

Hardware Technology The third generation computers used the Integrated Circuit (IC)
chips.

Figure 1.6 shows IC chips.

In an IC chip, multiple transistors are placed on a silicon chip. Silicon is a type of

semiconductor. The use of an IC chip increased the speed and the efficiency of the
computer, manifold.

Input: Keyboard
Output: Monitor.

Software Technology The keyboard and the monitor were interfaced through the
operating system. The operating system allowed different applications to run at the
same time. High-level languages were used extensively for programming, instead of
machine language and assembly language.
Computing Characteristics The computation time was in nanoseconds. Physical
Appearance The size of these computers was quite small compared to the
second-generation computers.

Application Computers became accessible to a mass audience. Computers were

produced commercially and were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Examples IBM 370, PDP 11.

The third-generation computers used less power and generated less heat than the
second-generation computers. The cost of the computer was reduced significantly, as
individual components of the computer were not required to be assembled manually.
The maintenance cost of the computers was also less compared to their predecessors.

1.5.4 Fourth Generation (1971 to present): Using Microprocessors

Hardware Technology They use the Large Scale Integration (LSI) and the Very Large
Scale Integration (VLSI) technology. Thousands of transistors are integrated on a small
silicon chip using LSI technology. VLSI allows hundreds of thousands of components to
be integrated into a small chip. This era is marked by the development of
microprocessors. Microprocessor is a chip containing millions of transistors and
components, and, designed using LSI and VLSI technology.

A microprocessor chip is shown in Figure 1.7.

This generation of computers gave rise to the Personal Computer (PC). Semiconductor
memory replaced the earlier magnetic core memory, resulting in fast random access to
memory. Secondary storage devices like magnetic disks became smaller in physical
size
and larger in capacity. The linking of computers is another key development of this era.
The computers were linked to form networks that led to the emergence of the Internet.
This generation also saw the development of pointing devices like mouse, and handheld
devices.
Input: Mouse and Keyboard
Output: Monitor, Speaker, Printer, etc. This generation had developed proper output
devices.

Software Technology Several new operating systems like the MS-DOS and MS Windows
were developed during this time. This generation of computers supported a Graphical
User Interface (GUI). GUI is a user-friendly interface that allows users to interact with the
computer via menus and icons. High-level programming languages are used for the
writing of programs.

Computing Characteristics The computation time is in picoseconds. Physical

Appearance They are smaller than the computers of the previous generation. Some
can even fit into the palm of the hand (Smartphones).

Application They became widely available for commercial purposes. Personal

computers became available to the home user.

Examples The Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. The components of the
computer like the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory were located on a single
chip.
In 1981, IBM introduced the first computer for home use. In 1984, Apple introduced the
Macintosh.

The microprocessor has resulted in the fourth generation computers being smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors. They are also portable and more reliable. They
generate much less heat and require less maintenance compared to their predecessors.
GUI and pointing devices facilitate easy use and learning on the computer. Networking
has resulted in resource sharing and communication among different computers.

1.5.5 Fifth Generation (Present and Next): Using Artificial Intelligence

The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop computers that are capable of
learning and self-organization.
The fifth-generation computers use Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI) chips that are
able to store millions of components on a single chip. These computers have large
memory requirements. This generation of computers uses parallel processing that
allows several instructions to be executed in parallel, instead of serial execution. Parallel
processing results in faster processing speed. The Intel dual-core microprocessor uses
parallel processing.

The fifth-generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). They try to
simulate the human way of thinking and reasoning. Artificial Intelligence includes areas
like Expert System (ES), Natural Language Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice
recognition, robotics, etc.