Integration Using Partial Fractions

➢ In this section, we introduce a method for rewriting certain rational functions that
is very useful in integration.

➢ Note that:
3 2 1 3 𝑥+1 𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥− 𝑥−2 𝑥+1 8𝑥 + 2
− − = = 3
𝑥−2 𝑥+1 𝑥 𝑥−2 𝑥+1 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥

Partial Fractions A Fraction

3 2 1 8𝑥 + 2
− − is the partial fractions decomposition of 3
𝑥−2 𝑥+1 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥

➢ The partial fractions decomposition of the rational function is easier to be integrated

than the function itself.

Mathematics (2) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Partial Fractions

➢ Partial fractions are the fractions used for the decomposition of a rational
function into a sum of two or more rational expressions, then each part is called
a partial fraction.

➢ A rational expression is a partial fraction if:

1) The degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator.
2) The denominator cannot be factorized (a prime polynomial).

Mathematics (2) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Partial Fractions
Steps of partial fractions decomposition:
(1) If the degree of the numerator is not less than the degree of the denominator, then
perform the long division and work on the new fraction.
(2) If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, then
factorize the denominator into:
➢ Linear forms 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
➢ Repeated linear forms 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑛

➢ Irreducible quadratic forms 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 , where 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0

➢ Irreducible repeated quadratic forms 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑛 , where 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0
(3) Make the suitable assumption for the partial fractions decomposition.
(4) Find the unknown constants in the assumed forms, using the following methods:
➢ Covering.
➢ Substitution.
➢ Equating the Coefficients.

Mathematics (2) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Partial Fractions
Illustrative example:
8𝑥+2
➢ To decompose the fraction to its partial fractions, the decomposition is
𝑥 𝑥−2 𝑥+1
assumed to be in the form:
8𝑥 + 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑥 𝑥−2 𝑥+1 𝑥 𝑥−2 𝑥+1

➢ To Find the values of 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶, one of three methods can be used:

(1) The Covering Method:

8𝑥 + 2 8𝑥 + 2
𝐴= ቤ = −1 𝐵= ቤ =3
𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 1 𝑥=0 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 𝑥=2

8𝑥 + 2
𝐶= ቤ = −2
𝑥 𝑥 − 2 𝑥=−1

➢ The covering method is easy, but it is limited and cannot be used in all cases of
partial fractions decomposition.

Mathematics (2) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Partial Fractions

8𝑥 + 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑥 𝑥−2 𝑥+1 𝑥 𝑥−2 𝑥+1

(2) The Substitution Method:

1
Let 𝑥 = 1, then: −5 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶 ∴ 2𝐴 − 2𝐵 + 𝐶 = −10
2
7 1 1
Let 𝑥 = −2, then: = − 𝐴− 𝐵−𝐶 ∴ 2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 4𝐶 = −7
4 2 4
13 1 1
Let 𝑥 = 3, then: = 𝐴+𝐵+ 𝐶 ∴ 4𝐴 + 12𝐵 + 3𝐶 = 26
6 3 4

Solving the system of simultaneous linear equations, then:

𝐴 = −1 𝐵=3 𝐶 = −2

Mathematics (2) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Partial Fractions

8𝑥 + 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑥 𝑥−2 𝑥+1 𝑥 𝑥−2 𝑥+1

(3) The Method of Equating the Coefficients:

Multiplying both sides by 𝑥 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 1 , then:
∴ 8𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 1 + 𝐵𝑥 𝑥 + 1 + 𝐶𝑥 𝑥 − 2
8𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴𝑥 2 − 𝐴𝑥 − 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 2 − 2𝐶𝑥
∴ 0 𝑥 2 + 8 𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 𝑥 2 + 𝐵 − 𝐴 − 2𝐶 𝑥 + −2𝐴

𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 = 0
By equating the coefficients: ∴ ቐ𝐵 − 𝐴 − 2𝐶 = 8
−2𝐴 = 2

Solving the system of simultaneous linear equations, then:

𝐴 = −1 𝐵=3 𝐶 = −2

Mathematics (2) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Assumptions for Partial Fractions Decomposition

Factors of the Partial fractions How to find the

denominator assumption constants
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝐴
By covering
Distinct linear factor 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

5𝑥 − 39
Ex:
𝑥+2 𝑥−5

Assumption:

5𝑥 − 39 𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑥+2 𝑥−5 𝑥+2 𝑥−5

Mathematics (2) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Assumptions for Partial Fractions Decomposition

Factors of the Partial fractions How to find the

denominator assumption constants
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛 only by covering.
+ +⋯
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑛 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 2
𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , ⋯ , 𝐴𝑛−1 by
Repeated linear factor 𝐴𝑛
+ substitution or by
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑛 equating coefficients.

5𝑥 2
Ex: 3
𝑥+2

Assumption:
5𝑥 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
3 = + 2+ 3
𝑥+2 𝑥+2 𝑥+2 𝑥+2

Mathematics (2) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Assumptions for Partial Fractions Decomposition

Factors of the Partial fractions How to find the

denominator assumption constants
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐴 and 𝐵 by
substitution or by
Irreducible quadratic factor 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
equating coefficients.
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0

𝑥2
Ex:
𝑥 + 2 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1

Assumption:
𝑥2 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
= +
𝑥 + 2 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 𝑥+2 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1

Mathematics (2) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Assumptions for Partial Fractions Decomposition

Factors of the How to find the

Partial fractions assumption
denominator constants
𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝐴1 , 𝐴2, ⋯, 𝐴𝑛
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑛 + 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 , ⋯, 𝐵𝑛
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 2
Repeated irreducible by substitution
quadratic factor 𝐴𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛 or by equating
+⋯+
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑛
coefficients.

5𝑥 2 + 𝑥
Ex:
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 3

Assumption:

5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷 𝐸𝑥+𝐹

= + 2+
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 3 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 3

Mathematics (2) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Examples
𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 16
Ex 10: Evaluate න 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8
Solution: Quotient
𝑥 +2
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 16
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥

2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 16

𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 16 3𝑥 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 16
∴ = 𝑥 + 2 +
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 3𝑥 Remainder

𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 16 3𝑥
= 𝑥 + 2 +
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 𝑥−2 𝑥+4

Assume: 3𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑥−2 𝑥+4 𝑥−2 𝑥+4

Mathematics (2) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 3𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑥−2 𝑥+4 𝑥−2 𝑥+4

Calculating 𝐴 and 𝐵 by covering:

3𝑥 3𝑥
𝐴= ቤ =1 𝐵= ቤ =2
𝑥 + 4 𝑥=2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥=−4

𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 16 3𝑥 1 2
∴ = 𝑥 + 2 + =𝑥+2+ +
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 𝑥−2 𝑥+4 𝑥−2 𝑥+4

𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 16 1 2
∴න 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑥 + 2 + + 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 𝑥−2 𝑥+4

𝑥2
= + 2𝑥 + ln 𝑥 − 2 + 2 ln 𝑥 + 4 + 𝑐
2

Mathematics (2) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf