GENERAL BIOLOGY Biol (1011)

GROUP MEMBERS ID NUMBER

Abenezer mehari Tr2419/13
AMANUEL TSEGAY MMR/836/17
BEREKET TESHOME MMR/703/17
BITANIA FASIL MMR/540/17

Bithania ketema MMR/616/17

EPHRATA SAHLE MMR/283/17
Hemrol mengistu MMR/581/17
MOHAMMOD MOHAMMUD MMR//17
SARA NIGUSSE MMR/238/17
 INFECTIOUS
DISEASES AND
IMMUNITY
 INFECTIOUS
DISEASES AND
IMMUNITY
 PRINCIPLES OF INFECTIOUS
DISEASES
 DEFINITIONS OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
• INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR WAYS OF INFECTION
• DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INFECTION AND DISEASE
• DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SIGN, SYMPTOM AND SYNDROME
 CLASSIFICATION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
 DEVELOPMENT OF DISEASES
 PATHOGENICITY AND SPREAD OF
INFECTION
TYPES OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND
THEIR CAUSATIVE AGENT
 DEFINITIONS. CHARACTERISTICS, CLASSIFICATIONS,
DISEASES AND PREVENTION METHODS INCLUDING
DIAGNOSTIC AND TREATMENT OPTIONS FOR MAIN
BACTERIA,
INFECTIOUS DISEASES LIKE
VIRUSES, FUNGI, PROTOZOA, HELMINTHS,
PRIONS
 TRADITIONAL MEDICINES IN ETHIOPIA RELATED
TO THE TREATMENT FOR EACH PATHOGENS
MODES OF TRANSMISSION
 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
TRANSPLACENTAL (VERTICAL) AND
HORIZONTAL TRANSMISSION
 DIRECT AND INDIRECT CONTACT
 HOST DEFENCES AGAINST
INFECTIOUS DISEASES
 HOST DEFENSE MECHANISM AND IMMUNE
SYSTEM
 MAIN TYPES OF HOST DEFENSES
 GENERAL TRADITIONAL MEDICINES RELATING TO
THE FACILITATION OF DEFENSE MECHANISMS
 ADVERSE IMMUNE REACTIONS
(RESPONSES)
 HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS
 AUTOIMMUNOLOGY AND AUTOIMMUNE
DISEASE
 IMMUNE DEFICIENCIES
 TUMOR IMMUNOLOGY
 DEFINITIONS OF TUMOR, CANCER AND
TUMOR IMMUNOLOGY
 EVIDENCES FOR IMMUNE REACTIVITY TO
TUMOR
 TUMOR ESCAPE MECHANISMS
 TUMOR ASSOCIATED ANTIGENS
 IMMUNOTERAPHY OF CANCER AND
OTHER RELATED TRADITIONAL
MEDICINES
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES
Infectious diseases are diseases caused by living organisms
called infectious agents like bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and
helminthes (parasitic worms) and prions, it occurs as the result of
interactions between pathogenic(disease-producing) microorganisms
and the host.
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES

All infectious diseases begin at some surface of the host,

whether it is the external surfaces such as the skin and conjunctiva or
internal surfaces such as the mucous membranes of the respiratory
tract, intestine, or urogenital tract.
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR
WAYS OF INFECTION
• To cause an infectious disease, a pathogen must successfully complete the following four stages of pathogenesis:

INFECTION

Exposure
The pathogen comes
into contact with the Stages of INVASION
host. This happens infection
through the skin,
mucous membranes
and other routes.

ADHESION
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR
WAYS OF INFECTION
• To cause an infectious disease, a pathogen must successfully complete the following four stages of pathogenesis:

INFECTION

EXPOSURE
Stages of INVASION
infection

Adhesion
Is a crucial step for
pathogens to persist
in the host by using
adhesins, which are
proteins on their
surface, to attach to
the host.
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR
WAYS OF INFECTION
• To cause an infectious disease, a pathogen must successfully complete the following four stages of pathogenesis:

INFECTION

INVASION
The pathogen enters
the host and travels
Stages to the site of
EXPOSURE of infection. Once a
infection pathogen has
infected a host, it
can spread to the
other host.

ADHESION
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR
WAYS OF INFECTION
• To cause an infectious disease, a pathogen must successfully complete the following four stages of pathogenesis:

INFECTION
Is the final stage
where the pathogen
damages the host’s
tissue which causes
disease at last.

Stages
EXPOSURE of INVASION
infection

ADHESION
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INFECTION
AND DISEASE
 Infection is the initial stage where a pathogen enters and multiplies in the host.

 Disease occurs when the infection progresses to a point where it disrupts normal bodily

functions and causes noticeable symptoms.

ASPECT INFECTIONS DISEASE

DEFINITIONS The invasion and multiplication of The clinical manifestation of symptoms

pathogens in the host's body. caused by an infection or other factors.
PRESENCE OF May or may not cause symptoms. Always causes symptoms or clinical signs.
SYMPTOMS
HOST RESPONSE The immune system may control or The pathogen or the immune response
eliminate the pathogen without damages the host, leading to dysfunction.
noticeable harm.
EXAMPLES A person with the flu virus in their When flu symptoms like fever, fatigue, and
body but no symptoms is infected. cough occur, it is considered a disease.
 DIFFERENCES AMONG SIGN,
SYMPTOM AND SYNDROME

The main differences between signs, symptoms, and syndromes are:

 Signs: Things that can be seen or measured, such as a fever or bleeding.
 Symptoms: Sensations that the patient feels but that cannot be seen by others
or measured, such as pain or fatigue.
 Syndromes: A collection of signs and symptoms that are associated with a
disease, condition, or disorder.
 DIFFERENCES AMONG SIGN,
SYMPTOM AND SYNDROME

ASPECT SYMPTOME SIGN SYNDROME

DEFINITIONS A subjective experience An objective, measurable A collection or group of signs,

reported by the patient, indication of a disease, symptoms, and medical history
not directly observable observable by others, characteristic of a particular
by others. including doctors. condition.

OBSERVATIONS Experienced and Observed or detected by A diagnosis or condition defined by

described only by the healthcare professionals the presence of specific signs and
patient (subjective). (objective). symptoms together.

EXAMPLES Pain, fatigue, dizziness, Fever, rash, high blood Down syndrome, metabolic
nausea. pressure, swelling. syndrome, acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
 Communicable Disease: Diseases that can be transmitted from one host to

another.

Transmission Mode: Direct contact (e.g.., touching, kissing, sexual contact)

Indirect contact (e.g.., contaminated objects, surfaces)

Vector-borne (e.g.., mosquitoes, ticks)

Droplet transmission (e.g.., coughing, sneezing)

Examples: Tuberculosis, Influenza, HIV/AIDS

BASED ON mode of transmission and how easily the disease spreads between hosts.
 Contagious Diseases: subtypes of communicable diseases that are easily spread

from one host to another, often requiring minimal contact or exposure.

Transmission Mode: Highly transmissible through direct contact or respiratory droplets.

Examples: Measles, Chickenpox, Common cold, Hepatitis, Ringworm, Giardiasis…

Distinction: While all contagious diseases are communicable, not all communicable diseases

are considered contagious (e.g.., HIV is communicable but not highly contagious).

BASED ON mode of transmission and how easily the disease spreads between hosts.
 Non-communicble Disease: Diseases caused by pathogens but not transmitted from

one host to another.

Causes: Infections from environmental sources (e.g.., soil, water)

Internal imbalances or other non-infectious mechanisms.

Examples: Tetanus (caused by Clostridium tetani (wounds))

Botulism (caused by Clostridium botulinum toxin (wood)), Cancer, Diabetes and

others.

BASED ON mode of transmission and how easily the disease spreads between hosts.
 Incidence: fraction of a population that contracts a disease during a specific time.
OR the number of people in a population who develop a disease over a period of
time. This is limited to new cases only.
 Prevalence: fraction of a population having a specific disease at a specific point in
time. This includes both new and pre-existing cases.
1. Sporadic disease: an infectious disease that occurs irregularly, infrequently, and in
isolated places, without a clear pattern of when or where it occurs like TETANUS.
2. Endemic disease: A disease that is regularly found in a specific area or among a
particular group of people. For example, MALARIA is an endemic disease.
3. Epidemic disease: disease acquired by many hosts in a given area in a short time.
It is an outbreak of disease that spreads quickly and affects many individuals at
the same time like Cholera, Diarrheal diseases, Measles
4. Pandemic disease: A disease that is widespread across a country or the world.
COVID-19 is an example of a pandemic disease.

BASED ON occurrence of diseases at the time of the outbreak.

 Acute: a short-term disease which develops rapidly.
 Chronic: disease develops slowly. It lasts for months and years.
 Subacute: symptoms appear between acute and chronic.
 Latent: disease with a period of no symptoms when the causative agent is Inactive.

BASED ON the severity and duration of the diseases .

A. Local Infection: Pathogens are confined to a specific area of the body (e.g.. a
wound or tooth infection and abscesses ).

B. Systematic Infection: an infection spreads throughout the body via blood or

lymph meaning that it affects the entire body, rather than just one organ or body part.
There are main types of systematic infection. The mains are Bacteremia, Sepsis,
Septicemia, Toxemia, Viremia.

BASED ON the extent of host involvement after infection.

A.Bacteremia: Presence of bacteria in the blood.
B.Sepsis: Toxic inflammatory response from microbes
or their toxins.
C.Septicemia: Active bacterial growth in the blood.
D.Toxemia: Presence of toxins in the blood.
E.Viremia: Presence of viruses in the blood.

BASED ON the extent of host involvement after infection.

C. Focal Infection: A systemic infection that started as a localized infection (e.g.., a
tooth infection spreading to cause rheumatoid arthritis). It can cause disease in other
parts of the body that spreads from a primary infection site known as “focus of
infection“.

D. Primary Infection: The initial acute infection that causes illness. It is the first
time a patient is exposed to a virus or pathogen and doesn't have antibodies to fight it.

BASED ON the extent of host involvement after infection.

E. Secondary Infection: Follows after the host's immune system is weakened by the

primary infection. It’s a bacterial or viral illness that occurs after or during treatment for

another infection, or because of changes to the body or immune system.

F. Subclinical Infection: No noticeable symptoms or signs of infection (asymptomatic). It

can also be called an inapparent or pre-infection.

SECONDARY
INFECTION SUBCLINICAL INFECTION

BASED ON the extent of host involvement after infection.

DEVELOPMENT OF
DISEASES
The development of a disease typically follows several stages, each

representing a different phase in the progression of an infection:

Incubation Period
Prodromal Period
Period of Illness
Period of Decline
Period of Convalescence
The development of a disease typically follows several stages, each representing a different phase

in the progression of an infection:

The time between the initial

infection and the appearance of

the first signs or symptoms.

During this period, the pathogen

is replicating, but the host

doesn’t yet feel ill.

The development of a disease typically follows several stages, each representing a different phase

in the progression of an infection:

The phase when the first mild, non-

specific symptoms (like fatigue, mild

fever, or headache) begin to appear.

These symptoms are often vague and

not enough to diagnose the disease.

The development of a disease typically follows several stages, each representing a different phase

in the progression of an infection:

SS This is the height

E
N of the disease,
L
IL where the
F
O symptoms are
D
IO most severe and
R
E specific to the
P
disease (e.g..,
fever, pain, rashes,
etc.). The
pathogen is
actively causing
harm to the body,
and the immune
system is fighting
the infection.
The development of a disease typically follows several stages, each representing a different phase

in the progression of an infection:

PERTIOD OF DECLINE

The stage where signs and symptoms start to lessen as the body’s immune response,
medications, or treatment begin to control and eliminate the pathogen. The patient may
still feel weak or tired, but overall health begins to improve .
The development of a disease typically follows several stages, each representing a different phase

in the progression of an infection:

The final phase where the body

fully recovers and returns to its
pre-disease state. This is when
the patient regains strength and
health is restored, although
some diseases may leave
lasting effects or complications.

PERIOD OF CONVALESCENCE
SSTAGES OF DISEASE INFECTION
 Pathogenicity
• Refers to the ability of a microorganism (such as a bacterium,
virus, or fungus) to cause disease in a host.
• The degree of pathogenicity is influenced by the presence of
specific traits or factors that enable the microorganism to cause
harm, known as virulence factors.
Microorganisms are classified based on their pathogenicity:
1. Primary Pathogens: These cause disease in healthy individuals, such as
those responsible for malaria, influenza, and tuberculosis. They are
inherently virulent due to specific virulence factors.
2. Opportunistic Pathogens: These cause disease only when the host's
immune defences are weakened or the pathogen is in an unusual location.
They are often part of the normal microbiota or found in the environment.
• The degree of pathogenicity is influenced by the presence of
specific traits or factors that enable the microorganism to cause
harm, known as virulence factors.
Microorganisms are classified based on their pathogenicity:
1. Primary Pathogens: These cause disease in healthy individuals, such as
those responsible for malaria, influenza, and tuberculosis. They are
inherently virulent due to specific virulence factors.
2. Opportunistic Pathogens: These cause disease only when the host's
immune defences are weakened or the pathogen is in an unusual location.
They are often part of the normal microbiota or found in the environment.
3. Normal Microbiota: Harmless microorganisms that live on the body, but
can become harmful if the immune system is compromised.
4. Immune-compromised Individuals: People with weakened immunity (due
to factors like disease, surgery, or drug use) are more vulnerable to infections
from opportunistic pathogens.
SPREAD OF INFECTION
The spread of infection refers to the process by which
infectious agents (like bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites)
are transmitted from one host (person, animal, or
environment) to another, leading to new cases of disease.
Spread of Infection:
1. Human Reservoirs: People who harbor disease-causing
microorganisms.
 Sick People: Actively ill individuals.
 Carriers: Individuals who carry pathogens without showing
symptoms.
 Latent Carriers: Individuals who are contagious during incubation or
recovery.
2. Zoonoses: Diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans
through:
Direct contact with animals or their waste.
Eating animals.
Blood-sucking insects.
3. Non-living Reservoirs:
Soil, water, and food can also
carry pathogens, often
through contamination by
faeces or urine.
 Decreased barriers

between humans and Environmental

wildlife
degradation
Decreasing barriers
Ecosystem degradation
between humans and
can reduce the

FACTORS
wildlife can increase
ecosystem's ability to
the risk of zoonotic
regulate disease.
diseases.

AFFECTING
Lack of resources Climate
A lack of resources can make it

difficult to control nosocomial

change
infections. This can include: Lack
Climate change can affect the
of infection control measures
spread of diseases like
and environmental

DISEASE
leishmaniasis by changing the
hygiene Inappropriate use of
size and distribution of sandfly
antibiotics Use of counterfeit
populations. Drought, famine,
drugs Understaffing and lack of
and flood can also cause people
training of health-care
to migrate to areas where the
professionals disease is transmitted.

Introduction of

new vectors

The introduction of new

plant or insect vectors

CONTROL
into a region can lead to

the rapid transmission of

diseases like dengue,

malaria, and Rift Valley

fever.
 Lack of resources Decreased barriers

A lack of resources can make it

between humans
difficult to control nosocomial
and wildlife
infections. This can include: Lack

of infection control measures

Decreasing barriers

Climate change
and environmental

hygiene Inappropriate use of between humans and

antibiotics Use of counterfeit
wildlife can increase
drugs Understaffing and lack of
the risk of zoonotic
training of health-care

professionals diseases.

Climate change can affect the

Introduction of

new vectors
spread of diseases like Environmental

The introduction of new

plant or insect vectors

leishmaniasis by changing the degradation

into a region can lead to

the rapid transmission of

diseases like dengue,

size and distribution of sandfly Ecosystem degradation

can reduce the

ecosystem's ability to

malaria, and Rift Valley

fever.
populations. Drought, famine, regulate disease.

and flood can also cause people

to migrate to areas where the
disease is transmitted.
 Lack of resources
Introduction of
A lack of resources can make it
new vectors
difficult to control nosocomial

infections. This can include: Lack

The introduction of new
of infection control measures

plant or insect vectors and environmental

Environmental
into a region can lead to hygiene Inappropriate use of

antibiotics Use of counterfeit

the rapid transmission of
drugs Understaffing and lack of
diseases like dengue,
training of health-care
malaria, and Rift Valley
professionals

fever.

degradation Decreased barriers

between humans

Ecosystem degradation and wildlife

Decreasing barriers

between humans and

can reduce the wildlife can increase

the risk of zoonotic

diseases.

ecosystem's ability to
Climate

regulate disease. change

Climate change can affect the

spread of diseases like

leishmaniasis by changing the

size and distribution of sandfly

populations. Drought, famine,

and flood can also cause people

to migrate to areas where the

disease is transmitted.
 Introduction of

new vectors

The introduction of new

Decreased barriers plant or insect vectors

into a region can lead to

the rapid transmission of

between humans and diseases like dengue,

malaria, and Rift Valley

wildlife
fever.

Decreasing barriers
Lack of resources

A lack of resources can make it

difficult to control nosocomial

infections. This can include: Lack

between humans and

of infection control measures

and environmental

hygiene Inappropriate use of

antibiotics Use of counterfeit

drugs Understaffing and lack of

wildlife can increase the

training of health-care

professionals

Climate risk of zoonotic Environmental

change
Climate change can affect the

spread of diseases like

leishmaniasis by changing the

diseases. degradation

Ecosystem degradation

size and distribution of sandfly can reduce the

populations. Drought, famine,
ecosystem's ability to
and flood can also cause people

to migrate to areas where the regulate disease.

disease is transmitted.
 Lack of resources
A lack of resources can make it
difficult to control nosocomial
Climate
infections. This can include: Lack Introduction of

change of infection control measures and new vectors

The introduction of new

environmental
Climate change can affect the
plant or insect vectors
spread of diseases like

leishmaniasis by changing the into a region can lead to

size and distribution of sandfly
the rapid transmission of

hygiene Inappropriate use of

populations. Drought, famine,
diseases like dengue,
and flood can also cause people

to migrate to areas where the malaria, and Rift Valley

disease is transmitted.
fever.

antibiotics Use of counterfeit

drugs Understaffing and lack of Decreased barriers

Environmental between humans

degradation training of health-care and wildlife

professionals.
Decreasing barriers
Ecosystem degradation
between humans and
can reduce the
wildlife can increase
ecosystem's ability to
the risk of zoonotic
regulate disease.
diseases.
 Climate

change
Climate change can affect the

spread of diseases like

leishmaniasis by changing the

size and distribution of sandfly

populations. Drought, famine,

Introduction of
and flood can also cause people

to migrate to areas where the

disease is transmitted.

Environmental
new vectors
degradation

Ecosystem degradation
The introduction of new plant or
can reduce the

ecosystem's ability to
insect vectors into a region can
lead to the rapid transmission of
regulate disease.

diseases like dengue, malaria, and

Decreased barriers

between humans
Rift Valley fever. Lack of resources

A lack of resources can make it

difficult to control nosocomial

and wildlife
infections. This can include: Lack

of infection control measures

Decreasing barriers
and environmental

between humans and hygiene Inappropriate use of

antibiotics Use of counterfeit

wildlife can increase
drugs Understaffing and lack of
the risk of zoonotic
training of health-care

diseases. professionals
 TE R I A
BAC
BACTERIA Definition of Bacteria​
Bacteria are single-celled prokaryotic organisms
characterized by their lack of a nucleus and​
membrane-bound organelles. These microscopic
organisms are found in diverse environments,
including extreme conditions. They play crucial roles
in ecosystems, human health, and industry but can
also cause various diseases.​
 Definition of Bacteria​
Characteristics of Bacteria​
Bacteria are single-celled prokaryotic organisms
characterized by their lack of a nucleus and​ membrane-
bound organelles. These microscopic organisms are found
1. Structural Features:​
in diverse environments, including extreme conditions.
They play crucial roles in ecosystems, human health, and
industry but can also cause various diseases.​
 Cell wall: Composed of
peptidoglycan in most bacteria.​
 Plasma membrane: Regulates
material exchange.​
 DNA: Typically a single circular
chromosome.​
 Ribosomes: Smaller (70s) than
eukaryotic ribosomes (80s).​
 Appendages: Flagella (movement),
pili (attachment, conjugation).​
2. Reproduction:​
 Binary fission is the primary
  Binary fission is the primary
method of reproduction, producing
Definition of Bacteria​
genetically identical​offspring.​
Bacteria are single-celled prokaryotic organisms
characterized by their lack of a nucleus and​ membrane-
 Genetic variation occurs via
bound organelles. These microscopic organisms are found
in diverse environments, including extreme conditions.
They play crucial roles in ecosystems, human health, and horizontal gene transfer
industry but can also cause various diseases.​

(conjugation, transformation,
transduction).​
3. Metabolism and Adaptability:​
 Metabolic diversity includes photo-
trophy, chemo-trophy, autotrophy,
and heterotrophy.​
 Adaptations allow survival in
extreme environments like hot
springs (thermophiles) or acidic
waters (acidophiles).​
 Classification of Bacteria
1. By Gram Stain:
 Gram-positive: Retain crystal violet stain
(e.g.., Staphylococcus, Streptococcus).
 Gram-negative: Do not retain crystal violet;
have an outer lipid membrane (e.g. Escherichia
coli, Salmonella).
2. By Shape:
 Cocci (round), Bacilli (rod-shaped), Spirilla
(spiral), Vibrions (comma-shaped).
3. By Oxygen Requirements:
 Aerobic (require oxygen), Anaerobic (survive
without O2), Facultative anaerobes adaptable.
4. Other Criteria:
 Environmental preferences, nutritional modes,
and pathogenicity.
 Diseases Caused by Bacteria​
I. Respiratory Diseases​
1. Tuberculosis (TB):​
 Cause: Mycobacterium tuberculosis.​
 Symptoms: Chronic cough, fever, weight loss,
night sweats.​
 Treatment: Combination of antibiotics
(Rifampicin, Isoniazid, Ethambutol,
Pyrazinamide) for 6-9 months.​
 Traditional Medicine:​ Garlic and honey for
immune support.​ And also Ayurvedic remedies
like Tulsi and Ashwagandha.​
2. Pneumonia:​
 Cause: Streptococcus pneumoniae or
Haemophilus influenzae.​
 Symptoms: Fever, cough, chest pain, difficulty
breathing.​
 Symptoms: Fever, cough, chest pain, difficulty
breathing.​
 Treatment: Antibiotics (Amoxicillin,
Azithromycin).​
 Traditional Medicine:​
• Eucalyptus oil inhalation for decongestion.​
• Herbal teas (ginger, turmeric).
II. Gastrointestinal Diseases​
1. Cholera:​
 Cause: Vibrio cholerae.​
 Symptoms: Severe diarrhea, dehydration.​
 Treatment: Oral rehydration therapy,
tetracyclines, or azithromycin.​
 Traditional Medicine:​Neem extracts and ginger
for diarrhea.​
2. Typhoid Fever:​
 Cause: Salmonella typhi.​
 Symptoms: High fever, abdominal pain,
• Herbal teas (ginger, turmeric).
II. Gastrointestinal Diseases​
1. Cholera:​
 Cause: Vibrio cholerae.​
 Symptoms: Severe diarrhea, dehydration.​
 Treatment: Oral rehydration therapy,
tetracyclines, or azithromycin.​
 Traditional Medicine:​Neem extracts and ginger
for diarrhea.​
2. Typhoid Fever:​
 Cause: Salmonella typhi.​
 Symptoms: High fever, abdominal pain,
constipation/diarrhea.​
 Treatment: Ciprofloxacin or Azithromycin​
 Traditional Medicine:​Fenugreek seeds and basil
leaves.
 III. Skin Infections​
1. Impetigo:​
 Cause: Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus
pyogenes.​
 Symptoms: Red sores, blisters, itching.​
 Treatment: Topical antibiotics (Mupirocin).​
 Traditional Medicine:​Tea tree oil for its
antibacterial properties.​
2. Leprosy:​
 Cause: Mycobacterium leprae.​
 Symptoms: Skin lesions, nerve damage,
numbness.​
 Treatment: Multi-drug therapy (Dapsone,
Rifampicin).​
 Traditional Medicine:​Herbal pastes made from
neem or turmeric.​
 IV. Sexually Transmitted Diseases
(STDs)​
1. Gonorrhea:​
 Cause: Neisseria gonorrhoeae.​
 Symptoms: Painful urination during discharge
and pelvic pain.​
 Treatment: Ceftriaxone, Azithromycin.​
 Traditional Medicine:​Cranberry juice for
urinary health.​
2. Syphilis:​
 Cause: Treponema pallidum.​
 Symptoms: Sores, rashes, systemic organ damage
(late stage).​
 Treatment: Penicillin G injection.​
 Traditional Medicine:​Decoctions of guava
leaves and other astringents.​
Diagnosis and Treatment of Bacterial Diseases
DIAGNOSIS OPTIONS
1. Laboratory Tests:
 Gram staining, Accurate microscopy.
 Culturing bacteria on selective media.
 Sensitivity testing for antibiotic resistance.
2. Molecular Techniques:
 PCR for detecting bacterial DNA.
 Serological tests for antibodies or antigens.
 Diagnosis and Treatment of Bacterial Diseases
TREATMENT OPTIONS
1. Antibiotics:​
 Beta-lactams (e.g. penicillin), macrolides (e.g. erythromycin),
quinolones (e.g. ciprofloxacin).​
 Antibiotic stewardship to prevent resistance.​
2. Supportive Care:​
 Intravenous fluids, oxygen therapy, symptomatic management.​
3. Vaccines:​
 Examples: Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) for TB,
pneumococcal vaccines.​
 Diagnosis and Treatment of Bacterial
Diseases
TREATMENT OPTIONS
Traditional Medicines for Bacterial Infections
1. Herbal Antibacterials:​
 Garlic: Allicin exhibits strong antibacterial activity.​
 Turmeric: Curcumin reduces bacterial growth and inflammation.​
 Neem: Widely used for skin infections and ulcers.​
2. Probiotic Therapy:​
 Yogurt and fermented foods promote gut health and fight harmful bacteria.​
3. Essential Oils:​
 Tea tree oil, eucalyptus oil, and peppermint oil are effective for topical infections.​
4. Honey-Based Treatments:​
 Manuka honey accelerates wound healing and prevents infections.​
FUNGI
 Fungi are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms

that include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. They are

distinct from plants and animals, primarily because

they lack chlorophyll and cannot photosynthesize.

Instead, they obtain nutrients through absorption.

Their cell walls are rigid and composed mainly of

chitin, a characteristic that sets them apart from

plants (which have cellulose cell walls).

 Fungi are a diverse group of eukaryotic
organisms that include yeasts, molds, and
mushrooms. They are distinct from plants and
animals, primarily because they lack
chlorophyll and cannot photosynthesize.
Instead, they obtain nutrients through
absorption. Their cell walls are rigid and
composed mainly of chitin, a characteristic
that sets them apart from plants (which have
cellulose cell walls).
1. Cellular Structure:
o Eukaryotic cells with a true nucleus enclosed by a
nuclear membrane.
o Membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria
and the endoplasmic reticulum.
2. Cell Wall Composition:
o Made of chitin, glucans, and sometimes cellulose,
providing structural support.
3. Mode of Nutrition:
o Heterotrophic organisms obtaining nutrients through
absorption.
o Can be saprophytic (decomposing organic matter),
parasitic (feeding on living hosts), or mutualistic (in
symbiotic relationships, such as mycorrhizae).
 1. Cellular Structure:

o Eukaryotic cells with a true nucleus enclosed by a nuclear

membrane.

o Membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria and the

endoplasmic reticulum.

2. Cell Wall Composition:

o Made of chitin, glucans, and sometimes cellulose, providing

structural support.

3. Mode of Nutrition:

o Heterotrophic organisms obtaining nutrients through

absorption.

o Can be saprophytic (decomposing organic matter), parasitic

4. Reproduction: (feeding on living hosts), or mutualistic (in symbiotic

relationships, such as mycorrhizae).

o Asexual reproduction through spore formation,

budding, or fragmentation.
o Sexual reproduction through the fusion of specialized
cells, producing zygospores, ascospores, or
basidiospores.
5. Habitat:
o Thrive in moist, warm environments but can also
survive in extreme conditions.
6. Ecological Role:
o Act as decomposers, recycling nutrients in
ecosystems.
o Form symbiotic relationships, such as lichen (fungus +
algae) and mycorrhizae (fungus + plant roots).
CLASSIFICATION
OF FUNGI
 1. Zygomycota
oduction

2. Ascomycota
spores in sac-like structures.

3. Basidiomycota
structures called basidia.

4. Chytridiomycota

5. Glomeromycota
t roots.
  Example: Rhizopus (bread mold).
 Characteristics: Produce zygospores during sexual reproduction
1. Zygomycota

2. Ascomycota
spores in sac-like structures.

3. Basidiomycota
structures called basidia.

4. Chytridiomycota

5. Glomeromycota
t roots.
 1. Zygomycota
oduction

 Example: Aspergillus, Penicillium, Saccharomyces (yeast).

2. Ascomycota
 Characteristics: Called sac fungi due to the production of ascospores in sac-like structures.

3. Basidiomycota
structures called basidia.

4. Chytridiomycota

5. Glomeromycota
t roots.
 1. Zygomycota
oduction

2. Ascomycota
spores in sac-like structures.

 Example: Mushrooms, rusts, smuts.

3. Basidiomycota
 Characteristics: Produce basidiospores on club-shaped structures called basidia.

4. Chytridiomycota

5. Glomeromycota
t roots.
 1. Zygomycota
oduction

2. Ascomycota
spores in sac-like structures.

3. Basidiomycota
structures called basidia.

 Example: Batrachochytrium.
4. Chytridiomycota
 Characteristics: Primitive fungi with flagellated spores.

5. Glomeromycota
t roots.
 1. Zygomycota
oduction

2. Ascomycota
spores in sac-like structures.

3. Basidiomycota
structures called basidia.

4. Chytridiomycota

 Example: Mycorrhizal fungi.

5. Glomeromycota
 Characteristics: Form symbiotic relationships with plant roots.
• Fungi can cause superficial, subcutaneous, or systemic
infections in humans, animals, and plants.​
A. Superficial Infections:​
 Tinea Pedis (Athlete’s Foot): Affects the skin between toes,
causing itching and scaling.​
 Tinea Corporis (Ringworm): Causes circular, scaly skin
lesions.​
Subcutaneous Infections:​
 Sporotrichosis: Caused by Sporothrix schenckii, often
transmitted through thorn pricks.​
B. Systemic Infections:​
 Candidiasis: Overgrowth of Candida species affects mucous
membranes and can lead to invasive infections.​
 Cryptococcosis: Caused by Cryptococcus neoformans,
commonly affecting immunocompromised individuals.​
 Histoplasmosis: Caused by Histoplasma capsulatum,
primarily affecting the lungs.
DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT
OPTIONS FOR FUNGI
3) Culture:-
Growth of fungi on Sabouraud dextrose agar.
4) Molecular Techniques:
PCR for species identification.
 Treatment of fungi
1) Antifungal Medications:
 Topical: Clotrimazole, Miconazole
for superficial infections.
 Systemic: Fluconazole,
Amphotericin B, Itraconazole for
severe infections.
2) Traditional Remedies:
 Neem leaves and turmeric for mild
fungal infections.
 Garlic for antifungal effects due to
its active compound, allicin.
Viruses
 Viruses Characteristics​
•Structure:​
 Composed of a core of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid.​
 Some viruses have an additional lipid envelope
HOW SMALL ARE VIRUSES? derived from the host cell membrane.​
•Size:​
 Extremely small, ranging from 20-300 nanometers.​
•Reproduction:​
 Obligate intracellular parasites; they hijack the host
cell’s machinery to replicate.​
•Host Range:​
 Infect plants, animals, humans, and even bacteria
(bacteriophages).​
•Modes of Transmission:​
 Airborne (e.g., Influenza), direct contact (e.g.,
Herpes), vector-borne (e.g., Zika), or bloodborne (e.g.,
Hepatitis B).
Viruses Definition​
 Viruses are
submicroscopic
infectious agents that
replicate exclusively
within living cells of
a host organism. ​
 They are not
considered living
organisms because
they lack cellular
structure, metabolic
processes, and the
ability to reproduce
independently.
Viruses
Classification
1. Based on Genetic Material:
o DNA Viruses: Double-stranded (Herpesvirus) or
single-stranded (Parvovirus).
o RNA Viruses: Positive-sense (Poliovirus) or
negative-sense (Influenza).
2. Based on Shape:
o Helical (Ebola), Icosahedral (Adenovirus),
Complex (Bacteriophages).
3. Enveloped vs. Non-Enveloped:
o Enveloped viruses (e.g., HIV) are more sensitive to
environmental changes.
o Non-enveloped viruses (e.g., Norovirus) are more
resilient.
 Diseases Caused by Viruses
1. Respiratory Viruses:
o Influenza: Causes fever, cough, and body aches.
o COVID-19: Caused by SARS-CoV-2, leading to respiratory
distress.
Viruses 2. Chronic Viral Infections:
o HIV/AIDS: Weakens the immune system.
o Hepatitis B and C: Affects the liver, potentially leading to
cirrhosis or cancer.
3. Neurological Viruses:
o Rabies: Causes encephalitis.
o Polio: Can lead to paralysis.
 Diagnosis and Treatment
1. Diagnosis:
 PCR, ELISA, antigen/antibody tests, and viral culture.
2. Treatment:
 Antiviral Medications:
 Acyclovir for Herpes.
 Oseltamivir for Influenza.
 Vaccines:
 MMR (Measles, Mumps, Rubella), Influenza, HPV.
Viruses  Traditional Remedies:
 Ginger and honey for symptomatic relief.
 Tulsi (Holy Basil) to boost immunity.
PROTOZOA
 PROTOZOA
Microscopic Parasites and Their
Medical Relevance
Exploring the Impact of Protozoa on Human Health.
What are Protozoa?
Unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms.
Diverse in morphology, reproduction, and habitats.
Relevance to Medicine:
Many protozoa are pathogens causing diseases in humans
and animals.
 PROTOZOA
Microscopic Parasites and Their
Medical Relevance
Exploring the Impact of Protozoa on Human

PROTOZOA
Health.
What are Protozoa?
Unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms.
Diverse in morphology, reproduction, and

Characteristics of Protozoa habitats.

Relevance to Medicine:
Many protozoa are pathogens causing
diseases in humans and animals.

 Eukaryotic cells with

specialized organelles (nucleus,
mitochondria).
 Modes of reproduction:
asexual (binary fission) and sexual.
 Movement: through flagella,
cilia, or pseudopodia.
 PROTOZOA
Characteristics of Protozoa
 Eukaryotic cells with

PROTOZOA 
specialized organelles (nucleus,
mitochondria).
Modes of reproduction:

Classification of Protozoa 
asexual (binary fission) and
sexual.
Movement: through flagella,
1. Flagellates: Move using flagella. cilia, or pseudopodia.

• Example: Giardia lamblia (giardiasis),

Trypanosoma (sleeping sickness).
2. Amoeboid: Move using pseudopodia.
• Example: Entamoeba histolytica (amoebiasis).
3. Ciliates: Move using cilia.
• Example: Balantidium coli (balantidiasis).
4. Apicomplexans: Non-motile, obligate
intracellular parasites.
• Example: Plasmodium (malaria),
Toxoplasma gondii (toxoplasmosis).
 PROTOZOA
Classification of Protozoa
1. Flagellates: Move using flagella.
• Example: Giardia lamblia
(giardiasis), Trypanosoma (sleeping

PROTOZOA
sickness).
2. Amoeboid: Move using pseudopodia.
• Example: Entamoeba histolytica
(amoebiasis).
3. Ciliates: Move using cilia.

Life Cycles of Protozoa

• Example: Balantidium coli
(balantidiasis).
4. Apicomplexans: Non-motile, obligate
intracellular parasites.
• Example: Plasmodium (malaria),

 Example: Plasmodium spp. (malaria):

Toxoplasma gondii (toxoplasmosis).

Mosquito vector and human host.

Sporozoite, merozoite, and gametocyte
stages.
 Example: Entamoeba histolytica:
Fecal-oral transmission via cysts.
 Relevance in Medicine:
Understanding life cycles aids in
diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.
 PROTOZOA
Life Cycles of Protozoa
 Example: Plasmodium spp.
(malaria):
Mosquito vector and human host.

PROTOZOA 
Sporozoite, merozoite, and
gametocyte stages.
Example: Entamoeba histolytica:
Fecal-oral transmission via cysts.

Diseases Caused by Protozoa

 Relevance in Medicine:
Understanding life cycles aids in
diagnosis, treatment, and
prevention.
 Malaria
• Caused by Plasmodium spp., transmitted by Anopheles
mosquitoes.
• Symptoms: fever, chills, anemia, organ damage.
 Amoebiasis
• Caused by Entamoeba histolytica.
• Symptoms: diarrhea, abdominal pain, liver abscess.
 Leishmaniasis
• Caused by Leishmania spp., transmitted by sandflies.
• Symptoms: skin ulcers, systemic infection (visceral
leishmaniasis).
 Sleeping Sickness
• Caused by Trypanosoma brucei, transmitted by tsetse flies.
• Symptoms: neurological disorders, coma, death.
 PROTOZOA
Diseases Caused by Protozoa
 Malaria
• Caused by Plasmodium spp., transmitted by
Anopheles mosquitoes.
• Symptoms: fever, chills, anemia, organ

PROTOZOA
damage.
 Amoebiasis
• Caused by Entamoeba histolytica.
• Symptoms: diarrhea, abdominal pain, liver
abscess.
 Leishmaniasis
• Caused by Leishmania spp., transmitted by

Protozoa and the Immune System

sandflies.
• Symptoms: skin ulcers, systemic infection
(visceral leishmaniasis).
 Sleeping Sickness
• Caused by Trypanosoma brucei, transmitted by
tsetse flies.

 Protozoa often evade the immune system through

• Symptoms: neurological disorders, coma,
death.

antigenic variation (e.g., Trypanosoma).

 Chronic infections modulate host immunity,
causing complications.
Public Health and Prevention
 Preventive Measures: Vector control (e.g.
mosquito nets, insecticides).
 Safe water and sanitation: to prevent fecal-oral
transmission.
 Vaccination: Research ongoing (e.g. Malaria
vaccines like RTS,s).
HELMINTHS
 HELMINTHS
•What are Helminths?
 Parasitic worms that infect
humans and animals.
 Three major groups: nematodes,
cestodes, and trematodes.
•Importance in Medicine:
 Cause significant morbidity
worldwide, particularly in low-
resource settings.
 Study of helminths aids in
understanding parasitic infections,
immune responses, and drug
development.
 Classification of Helminths
1. Nematodes (Roundworms):
Example: Ascaris lumbricoides,
Ancylostoma duodenale.

2. Cestodes (Tapeworms):
Example: Taenia solium,
Echinococcus granulosus.
3. Trematodes (Flukes):
Example: Schistosoma spp.,
Fasciola hepatica. •What are Helminths?
 Parasitic worms that
infect humans and
animals.
 Three major groups:
nematodes, cestodes,
and trematodes.
•Importance in Medicine:
 Cause significant
morbidity worldwide,
particularly in low-
resource settings.
 Study of helminths
aids in understanding
parasitic infections,
immune responses, and
drug development.
 Life Cycles of Helminths
Brief overview of life cycles (direct and
complex involving intermediate hosts).
Example:
• Ascaris lumbricoides: Fecal-oral
transmission.
• Schistosoma: Requires freshwater
snails as intermediate hosts.
Relevance to Medicine: Helps in
identifying infection sources and control
1.
Classification of Helminths
Nematodes (Roundworms):
measures.
Example: Ascaris lumbricoides,
Ancylostoma
duodenale.
2. Cestodes (Tapeworms):
Example: Taenia solium,
Echinococcus
granulosus.
3. Trematodes (Flukes):
Example: Schistosoma spp.,
Fasciola
hepatica.
 Life Cycles of Helminths
Brief overview of life cycles (direct
and complex involving intermediate
hosts).
Example:
• Ascaris lumbricoides: Fecal-
oral transmission.
• Schistosoma: Requires
freshwater snails as
intermediate hosts.
Relevance to Medicine: Helps in
identifying infection sources and
control measures.

Diseases Caused by
Helminths
 Nematodes: Ascariasis,
hookworm disease, lymphatic
filariasis.
 Cestodes: Taeniasis, cysticercosis,
echinococcosis.
 Trematodes: Schistosomiasis, liver
fluke disease.
 Diseases Caused by
Helminths
 Nematodes:
Ascariasis, hookworm
disease, lymphatic
filariasis.

Clinical Manifestations
 Cestodes: Taeniasis,
cysticercosis,
echinococcosis.
 Trematodes:

 General Symptoms:
Schistosomiasis, liver
fluke disease.

Gastrointestinal distress,
anemia, malnutrition,
chronic inflammation.
 Severe Cases:
Organ damage,
neurological complications
(e.g. neurocysticercosis),
immune modulation.
 Diagnostic Methods
 Stool examination for eggs
/larvae.
 Serological tests (e.g. ELISA for
cysticercosis).
 Imaging techniques (e.g.,
ultrasound, MRI for hydatid cysts).
Clinical
Manifestations
 General Symptoms:
Gastrointestinal
distress, anemia,
malnutrition, chronic
inflammation.
 Severe Cases:
Organ damage,
neurological
complications (e.g.
neurocysticercosis),
immune modulation.
 Treatment Options
 Anthelmintic Drugs:
Albendazole, mebendazole,
praziquantel.
 Challenges: Drug resistance,
adverse effects, need for
mass drug administration in
Diagnostic Methods
endemic areas.
 Stool examination for
eggs /larvae.
 Serological tests (e.g.
ELISA for cysticercosis).
 Imaging techniques
(e.g., ultrasound, MRI
for hydatid cysts).
Treatment Options
 Anthelmintic Drugs:
Albendazole,
mebendazole,
praziquantel.
 Challenges: Drug
resistance, adverse
effects, need for mass
drug administration in
endemic areas.

Helminths and Immunology

 Interaction with the Immune System:
Evade host immunity through antigenic
variation, immune suppression. Chronic
infections linked to immunomodulation (e.g.
protection against autoimmune diseases).
 Relevance in Medicine: Studying helminths
contributes to understanding immune
mechanisms and developing therapies (e.g.
helminth therapy for autoimmune conditions).
 Helminths and Immunology
 Interaction with the Immune
System: Evade host immunity
through antigenic variation,
immune suppression. Chronic
infections linked to
immunomodulation (e.g.
protection against autoimmune
diseases).
 Relevance in Medicine:
Studying helminths contributes to
understanding immune mechanisms

Prevention and
and developing therapies (e.g.
helminth therapy for autoimmune
conditions).

Control
 Sanitation and hygiene.
 Health education.
 Mass deworming programs.
 Development of vaccines
(e.g. for schistosomiasis).
PRIONS
The Unique Infectious Agents and Their
Medical Impact​
Understanding Protein Misfolding and
Neurological Disorders​
 What are Prions?​
•Misfolded proteins capable of causing
infectious diseases.​
•Unique because they lack nucleic acids.​
 Discovery:​Identified by Stanley
Prusiner in the 1980s, awarded the Nobel
Prize in Medicine in 1997.​
 Relevance to Medicine:​Prions cause
fatal neurodegenerative diseases in
humans and animals.​
Structure and Function of
Prions
 Normal Prion Protein (PrP^C):
Found in the brain, role in cellular
signaling.
 Pathogenic Prion Protein
(PrP^Sc): Misfolded version,
induces other proteins to misfold.
 Illustrate structural differences
between PrP^C and PrP^Sc.
Mechanism of Prion
Propagation​
 Misfolded PrP^Sc interacts with
normal PrP^C, inducing
misfolding.​
 Aggregation of misfolded proteins
forms amyloid plaques.​
 Resistant to degradation, leading to
progressive accumulation.​
Diseases Caused by Prions
Human Prion Diseases:
(CJD):Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
Sporadic, familial, or
acquired.
Variant CJD (vCJD): Linked
to bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(BSE or "mad cow disease").
Kuru: Associated with ritual
cannibalism in Papua New Guinea.
 Fatal Familial Insomnia
(FFI): Rare genetic disorder affecting
sleep and the nervous system.
Clinical Manifestations
Neurological
Symptoms:
 Rapidly progressive
dementia, ataxia, myoclonus.
• Behavioral changes,
hallucinations, and insomnia.
• Fatal Outcome:
Most prion diseases are
invariably fatal within months
to a few years.
 Diagnostic Methods
 Challenges in Diagnosis:
• Long incubation periods and
nonspecific early symptoms.
 Tests:
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers
(e.g. 14-3-3 protein).
• MRI findings (e.g. cortical ribboning).
• Brain biopsy or autopsy for definitive
diagnosis.
 Emerging diagnostic tools:
• Like RT-QuIC (real-time quaking-
Induced Conversion assay) can be
used as well.
 Current Status: Research
No cure or effective Directions:
Treatment treatment for prion Investigating small
Options diseases. molecules to inhibit
Focus on prion aggregation.
supportive care. Gene therapy and
monoclonal
antibodies.
Prions and Transmission Preventive
Public Health Risks: Measures:
Contaminated surgical Strict sterilization
instruments or tissue protocols in hospitals.
transplants. Surveillance of animal
Consumption of health and food safety.
infected meat (e.g.,
BSE causing vCJD).
 Prions and Medicine​
 Scientific Insights:​
• Study of prions enhances understanding of
other protein misfolding diseases, such as
Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s.​
 Biotechnology Applications:​
• Prion-like properties are being studied for
synthetic biology and protein engineering.
 MODE OF TRANSMISSION MECHANISM EXAMPLES OF DISEASES

• Touching infected person

• Ingesting infected meat Ringworm, AIDS,
DIRECT CONTACT • Bites from animals/insects
• Droplet transmission Malaria
• Intimate sexual contact
• Pathogen survives outside host
and infects another Cholera, Rotavirus,
• Contaminated objects (tissues
INDIRECT CONTACT and toys) Cryptosporidiosis,
• Fecal-oral route like Giardiasis
contaminated food or water

Infectious agent
VERTICAL Includes direct and
spreads from person to
TRANSMISSION indirect transmission.
person in a group.

HORIZONTAL Passed from parent to AIDS, Herpes

TRANSMISSION the offspring. encephalitis.
 host defenses
against infectious
diseases
 host defenses
against infectious
diseases

The immune system protects

the body from harmful
invaders like bacteria, viruses,
fungi, and parasites.

Its study began in 1796 with

Edward Jenner's smallpox
vaccine and Louis Pasteur's
germ theory of disease.
 Immune Defense Systems
 Innate (Nonspecific) Immunity: First-line defense offering broad
protection.
• Barriers:
• Physical: Skin and mucosa block pathogens; mucus and cilia trap
invaders while skull and vertebral column protect the nerves.
• Chemical: Lysozymes in saliva and acidic stomach pH inhibit the
growth of microbes.
• Biological: Normal flora compete with pathogens for resources.
• Inflammatory Response: Infections trigger inflammation, recruiting
immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages to fight pathogens.
• Phagocytic Cells: Neutrophils and macrophages engulf and destroy
invaders and prevent their spread.
• Proteins: Cytokines, chemokines and complement proteins enhance
immune responses.
 Acquired (Specific) Immunity: Targets specific pathogens with memory
for long-term protection through memory cells.
• Antibody-Mediated: B cells produce antibodies to mark pathogens.
• Cell-Mediated: T cells attack infected cells directly.
• Types: Active Immunity: From infection or vaccination.
Passive Immunity: From transferred antibodies (e.g. maternal)
Traditional Ethiopian Remedies
for Host Defense Against
Infectious Diseases
  Garlic (Allium sativum): Antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal; consumed
raw, with honey, or in teas.
Traditional Ethiopian Remedies  Moringa (Moringa stenopetala): Antioxidant-rich; boosts immunity;
for Host Defense Against used in teas or food.
Infectious Diseases
 Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus): Steam inhalation relieves respirator
infections; antimicrobial.
 Gesho (Rhamnus prinoides): Antimicrobial; used in tella and herbal
drinks.
 Tenadam (Ruta chalepensis): Treats fevers, colds; boosts immunity in
teas.
 Korarima (Aframomum corrorima): Enhances immunity; combats GI
infections.
 Tobera (Justicia schimperiana): Treats fevers, respiratory infections;
antimicrobial.
 Ginger (Zingiber officinale): Anti-inflammatory; used in teas or with
honey for colds.
 Neem (Azadirachta indica): Boosts immunity; treats skin infections;
used as tea or topically.
 Koso (Hagenia abyssinica): Traditional antiparasitic; powdered flowers
improve immunity.
 Importance of Vaccination
One of the instance in acquired immunity
• Vaccines simulate acquired immunity safely
and almost effectively.
• Eradicate diseases like smallpox; control of
others like polio.
Limitations of Immune Responses
• Overactive immunity may led a person to
Allergies and autoimmune diseases.
• Inadequate immunity is another negative
factor recognized for: Severe infections and
immunodeficiency disorders.
Balancing Modern and Combining science with Consulting healthcare
Traditional Approaches cultural practices improves professionals before relying
outcomes. solely on traditional remedies
may reduce risks of the
therapies.
Adverse Immune
Reactions
 Adverse Immune
The immune system protects our body Reactions
from harmful things like germs, bacteria,
and viruses. But sometimes, it can cause
problems if it reacts too strongly or
makes mistakes. These problems are
called immune reactions.
There are three main types of immune
problems:
• Hypersensitivity – When the immune
system overreacts to harmless things.
• Autoimmune Diseases – When the
immune system attacks the body’s
own cells by mistake.
• Immunodeficiency – When the
immune system is too weak to protect
the body properly.
Hypersensitivity (Overreaction
of the Immune System)​
•Hypersensitivity happens when the immune system
overreacts to things that are not dangerous. This
overreaction can cause harm to the body.​
• There are four types of hypersensitivity:
Type I: Allergic Reactions
Type II: Cytotoxic Reactions
Type III: Immune Complex Disease
Type IV: Delayed Type Hypersensitivity
Type I: Allergic Reactions (Immediate
Reactions)​
 What happens: The immune system releases
histamine, mistaking harmless substances for
threats, causing sneezing, itching, and swelling.
 Examples:
o Hay fever (pollen allergy)
o Food allergies (e.g., peanuts)
o Asthma (allergic difficulty breathing)
o Insect sting allergies
 Atopy: Strong reactions to harmless substances,
such as allergic rhinitis, eczema, and asthma.
 Type II: Cytotoxic Reactions
(Killing Healthy Cells)​
 What happens: The immune
system attacks healthy cells.
 Examples:
o Rhesus incompatibility:
Mother's immune system
attacks baby’s red blood cells
during pregnancy.
o Blood transfusion reactions:
Immune response to
mismatched blood.
 Type III: Immune Complex Disease
(Clumps of Antibodies and Germs)
 What happens: Antibodies form clumps with
germs, causing inflammation and organ damage.
 Examples:
o Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE):
Immune system attacks multiple body parts.
o Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): Immune attack on
joints.
o Glomerulonephritis: Kidney inflammation.
o Serum sickness: Reaction to foreign proteins.
 Type IV: Delayed Type
Hypersensitivity (Late Reaction)​
 What happens: T-cells react slowly, with
symptoms appearing after days.
 Examples:
o Poison ivy: Rash appears days after contact.
o Tuberculosis (TB): Immune response to TB
bacteria.
o Contact dermatitis: Skin inflammation from
allergens like metals or chemicals.
o Transplant rejection: Immune attack on
transplanted organs.
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM ATTACKS THE BODY
 Autoimmune Diseases (The
Immune System Attacks the Body)​
•Autoimmune diseases happen when the
immune system makes a mistake and
attacks the body’s own healthy cells,
thinking they are harmful. Normally, the
immune system knows the difference
between “self” (your body) and “non-
self” (germs). But in autoimmune
diseases, it cannot tell the difference and
attacks normal parts of the body.​
 TYPES OF AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
 Type 1 Diabetes: Attacks insulin-producing pancreas cells.
 Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): Targets joints, causing pain and
swelling. Can affect people at any age.
 Psoriasis/Psoriatic Arthritis: Skin and joint inflammation.
 Multiple Sclerosis (MS): Damages nerve coverings, causing
weakness and coordination issues.
 Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE): Affects skin, joints,
kidneys, and heart with pain and fatigue.
 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): Intestinal inflammation
(e.g., Crohn's, ulcerative colitis).
 Addison’s Disease: Impairs adrenal hormone production.
 Graves’ Disease: Overstimulates the thyroid, causing weight
loss and increased heart rate
IMMUNODEFICIENCY
 IMMUNODEFICIENCY
Immunodeficiency is when the
immune system is too weak to
protect the body from infections.
This can happen if the immune
system is damaged or if someone is
born with a weak immune system.
It can also happen due to diseases
or treatments that weaken the
immune system.
 HIV/AIDS: HIV is a virus that attacks
the immune system. Over time, it can
weaken the immune system so much that
the body cannot fight off even simple
infections. When the immune system
becomes very weak, it leads to AIDS.
TUMOR IMMUNOLOGY
 TUMOR IMMUNOLOGY

 The proliferation of normal cells is

carefully regulated. However, when
exposed to chemical carcinogens,
radiation, or certain viruses, these cells
may undergo mutations, leading to their
transformation into cells capable of
uncontrolled growth, resulting in the
formation of a tumor or neoplasm.
 Tumor immunology studies the immune
system's response to cancer, focusing on
how it recognizes and kills cancer cells
and how tumors evade it. This knowledge
is vital for understanding tumor rejection,
progression, and developing new cancer
immunotherapies.
TUMOR
TUMOR
TUMOR TUMOR
 Immune Responses to Tumors
 T-Lymphocytes:
• CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) kill tumor cells.
• CD4+ cells produce cytokines that help naive CD8+ T cells
differentiate into effector and memory CTLs.
• Cytokines (e.g., TNF, IFN-γ) boost tumor cell Class I MHC
expression, increasing susceptibility to CTLs.
 Antibody:
• Antibodies target tumor antigens, killing tumor cells by
complement activation or antibody-dependent cell-mediated
cytotoxicity.
 Natural Killer (NK) Cells:
• NK cells destroy tumor cells without prior sensitization, serving
as the first defense line against tumors.
 Macrophages:
• Recognize damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) from
dying tumor cells via TLRs.
Immune surveillance
Immune surveillance involves immune cells
like cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells
recognizing and destroying abnormal cells
to prevent tumors. It is more effective
against oncogenic viruses, as
immunosuppressed individuals show higher
rates of virus-related tumors.
Tumor-associated antigens, whether virus-
coded or altered host genes, aid diagnosis
and are targets for antibody-based therapies.
Passive immunotherapy with monoclonal
antibodies shows promise, while active
immunization and cell therapies remain
experimental due to tumor escape
mechanisms. Cytokines have limited
effectiveness against certain tumors.
 Tumor Escape Mechanisms
Tumor cells must develop strategies to escape or evade the immune
system in immunocompetent hosts. Some mechanisms include:
1. Weak Immunogenicity: Some tumors fail to elicit a strong immune
response.
2. Modulation of Surface Antigens: Tumor-specific antigens may
disappear from the surface of tumor cells when bound by antibodies
but reappear after the antibody is no longer present.
3. Masking Tumor Antigens: Tumors produce mucoproteins like
sialomucin, which binds to tumor cell surfaces, hiding antigens
from immune recognition.
4. Induction of Immune Tolerance: Some tumor cells produce
immunosuppressive substances or activate T regulatory cells (Tregs)
that suppress immune responses.
5. Production of Blocking Antibodies: Tumor cells may provoke the
immune system to produce blocking antibodies that prevent
cytotoxic T cells from recognizing the tumor.
6. Low Levels of HLA Class I Molecules: Some tumor cells
downregulate HLA class I molecules, impeding the presentation of
antigens to cytotoxic T cells.
Tumor-Associated Antigens
Tumor antigens are proteins or molecules found
on tumor cells but absent in normal cells.
Tumorigenesis leads to the expression of new
antigens (neoantigens) or altered forms of normal
cell proteins. Two types of tumor antigens include:
1. Tumor-Specific Transplantation Antigens
(TSTAs):
o Unique to tumor cells and not present in
normal cells.
o Can be induced by carcinogens or viruses.
2. Tumor-Associated Transplantation
Antigens (TATAs):
o Found in both tumor cells and some
normal cells but at higher levels in
tumors.
o Useful for diagnosing tumors and
developing antibody-based therapies.
Tumor-Associated Antigens
Tumor antigens are proteins or molecules found
on tumor cells but absent in normal cells.
Tumorigenesis leads to the expression of new
antigens (neoantigens) or altered forms of normal
cell proteins. Two types of tumor antigens include:
1. Tumor-Specific Transplantation Antigens
(TSTAs):
o Unique to tumor cells and not present in
normal cells.
o Can be induced by carcinogens or viruses.
2. Tumor-Associated Transplantation
Antigens (TATAs):
o Found in both tumor cells and some
normal cells but at higher levels in
tumors.
o Useful for diagnosing tumors and
developing antibody-based therapies.
 Immunotherapy of Cancer
Various approaches have been used for immunotherapy in
cancer, including:
 Nonspecific Active Immunotherapy:
 Biological response modifiers (BRMs) such as BCG for
bladder cancer and synthetic molecules like
Dinitrochlorobenzene.
 Cytokine-based therapies and hormonal treatments that
enhance immune function.
 Specific Passive Immunotherapy:
 Lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cells or bispecific
antibodies.
 Antibodies alone or conjugated to drugs, prodrugs,
toxins, or radioisotopes.
 REFLECTION
As a group, we found the presentation highly informative, providing a comprehensive
overview of protozoa, helminths, and prions, their classifications, and their medical
significance. The detailed exploration of pathogen life cycles and evasion strategies
enriched our understanding of how these agents impact human health.
We were particularly engaged by the discussion on public health measures and the
challenges of combating diseases like malaria and prion-related disorders. It sparked a
meaningful dialogue among us about the importance of integrated efforts in diagnosis,
treatment, and prevention.
Overall, the presentation deepened our collective understanding of infectious diseases and
inspired us to explore collaborative strategies for addressing these global health challenges.
 REFERENCES
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Smyth, M. J. (2019). Tumor immunology. Garland Science.
Murphy, K., Weaver, C., & Walport, M. (2019). Tumor immunology. In Janeway's
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