A PPLIED P HYSICS FOR E LECTRICAL AND E LECTRONICS

S TREAM
A S HORT N OTES - F IRST E DITION

D EPARTMENT OF P HYSICS
ATME C OLLEGE OF E NGINEERING,
Affiliated to Visveswaraya Technological Univesrsity - Belagavi
13𝑡ℎ km Stone, Mysuru-Bannur Road, Mysuru, PIN - 570 028.
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Contents

I MODULE 1 : Quantum Mechanics 1

1 Quantum Mechanics 3
1.1 Wave-Particle dualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 de Broglie hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Matter waves and its properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Phase velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2 Wave packet and Group velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.3 Properties of matter waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.1 Application of uncertainty principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Principle of Complementarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Wave Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7 Time Independent Schrödinger Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.8 Physical significance of Wave Function : Physical Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.9 Expectation Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.10 Eigen values and eigen functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.11 Applications of schrödinger wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.11.1 Particle in one-dimensional potential well of infinite height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.12 Model Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.13 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

II MODULE 2 : Electrical Properties of Materials 11

2 Conductors 13
2.1 Quantum free electron theory of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 Fermi energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.3 Density of States (DoS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.4 Fermi–Dirac Statistics and Fermi factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.5 Dependence of Fermi factor on energy and temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.6 Variation of number density of 𝑒 − with temperature - Fermi Dirac Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.7 Expression for electrical conductivity using QFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 Dielectric Constant 17
3.0.1 Polarization of Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.0.2 Relation between Dielectric constant and Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.0.3 Types of Polarization or Polarization mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.0.4 Classification of Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.1 Internal fields in Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.1.2 Expression for Internal field in case of one dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.1.3 Expression for Internal field in case of three dimension- Lorentz Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1.4 Derivation of Clausius - Mossotti equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3
4 CONTENTS

4 Superconductivity 21
4.1 Introduction to Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Meissner’s Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3 Critical Field and its Temperature Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.4 Types of Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.5 BCS Theory of Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.6 High Temperature Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.7 Quantum Tunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.8 AC and DC Josephson Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.8.1 Josephson Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.8.2 DC Josephson Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.8.3 AC Josephson Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.9 DC and RF Squids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.9.1 SQUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.9.2 DC Squid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.9.3 RF (AC) Squid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.10 Model Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.11 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

III MODULE 3 : LASER AND OPTICAL FIBERS 27

5 LASER 29
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2 Characteristics of a LASER beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3 Interaction of radiation with matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3.1 Induced Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3.2 Spontaneous Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3.3 Stimulated Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.4 Einstein’s A and B co-efficients and expression for energy density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.5 LASER Action and the Conditions for LASER action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.5.1 Population Inversion and Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.5.2 meta-stable state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.6 Requisites of a LASER system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.6.1 Energy Source or Pumping Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.6.2 Active medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.6.3 Resonant cavity (or) LASER cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.7 Construction and Working of 𝐶𝑂 2 LASER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.8 Applications of LASER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.8.1 Application of LASER in defense - LASER Range Finder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.8.2 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.8.3 LASER Printer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.9 Model Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.10 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

6 Optical Fibers 37
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.2 Total Internal Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.3 Angle of acceptance and Numerical aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.3.1 Condition for propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.3.2 Fractional RI Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.3.3 Relation between NA and Δ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.4 Modes of propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.4.1 Types of optical fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.5 Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.5.1 Absorption loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.5.2 Scattering loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
CONTENTS 5

6.5.3 Geometric effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

6.6 Applications of Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.6.1 Point to point communication using Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.6.2 Fiber Optic Displacement Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.6.3 Merits and Demerits of Fiber Optic Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.7 Model Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.8 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

IV Module - 4 - Maxwell’s equations and EM Waves 43

7 Maxwell’s Equations 45
7.1 Fundamentals of vector calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.1.1 Dot product or Scalar product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.1.2 Vector product or Cross product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.1.3 Scalar field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.1.4 Vector field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.1.5 The ∇ Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.1.6 The Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.1.7 The Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.1.8 The Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.2 Line, Surface and Volume integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.2.1 Line integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.2.2 Surface integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.2.3 Volume integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.3 Some Theorems of Electrostatics, Electricity, Magnetism and Electromagnetic induction . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.3.1 Gauss flux theorem - Gauss’ law in electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.3.2 Gauss Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.3.3 Stokes’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.3.4 Gauss’ law of Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.3.5 Amperes Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.3.6 Biot-Savart Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.3.7 Faraday’s Laws of electro-magnetic induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.4 Equation of continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.5 Displacement Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.5.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.5.2 Maxwell-Ampere Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.5.3 Expression for Displacement current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.6 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

8 Electromagnetic waves 53
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.2 Wave equation for EM waves in vacuum in terms of electric field using Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . 53
8.3 Plane electromagnetic waves in vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.4 Polarization of Elecromagnetic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.4.1 Transverse nature of electromagnetic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

V Module - 5 - Semiconductor and Devices 55

9 Semiconductors 57
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
9.2 Significance of Fermi level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
9.3 Carrier Concentration in intrinsic semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9.3.1 Expression for Electron concentration (𝑁𝑒 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9.3.2 Expression for Hole concentration (𝑁𝑒 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9.3.3 Expression relating Fermi energy and Energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . 58
6 CONTENTS

9.4 Expression for electrical conductivity in semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

9.5 Hall Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
 Part I

MODULE 1 : Quantum Mechanics

1
Chapter 1

Quantum Mechanics

1.1 Wave-Particle dualism and 𝑒, the de Broglie wavelegth is given by the ex-
pression 𝜆 = 12.27
√ Å.
𝑉
The phenomena like Interference, Diffraction and Po-
larization are attributed to the wave properties of radia-
tion. The Quantum theory of radiation and experiments 1.3 Matter waves and its properties
like Photoelectric effect and Compton Effect describe the
particle nature of radiation. Thus radiation behaves like 1.3.1 Phase velocity
waves and like particles under different suitable circum-
The velocity with which a wave travels is called phase
stances. Hence radiation exhibits dual nature.
velocity (𝑣 𝑝 ) and is also called wave velocity. If a point is
marked on the wave representing the phase of the particle
1.2 de Broglie hypothesis then the velocity with which the phase propagates from one
point to another is called phase velocity.
In the year 1924 French physicist Louis de Broglie ex-
𝜔 𝐸 𝑐2
tended wave-particle dualism through a hypothesis stating 𝑣𝑝 = = = (1.1)
If radiant energy could behave like waves in some exper- 𝑘 𝑃 𝑣
iments and particles or photons in others and since na- Here 𝑐 is the velocity of light in vacuum and 𝑣 is the ve-
ture loves symmetry, then one can expect the particles like locity of the matter wave. It is also evident, from the above
protons and electrons to exhibit wave nature under suit- equation 1.1, that the phase velocity is not only greater than
able circumstances. This is well known as de Broglie’s the particle velocity it is also greater than the velocity of
hypothesis. light. Hence there is no physical meaning for phase veloc-
ity of matter waves.
Therefore some sort of waves can be even associated
with moving material particles called Matter waves or de- 1.3.2 Wave packet and Group velocity
Broglie waves and the wavelength associated with matter
waves is called de Broglie wavelength.The wavelength of Since the velocity of matter waves must be equal to that
a photon in-terms of its momentum is given by 𝜆 = ℎ𝑝 . of the particle velocity and since no physical meaning can
Hence by analogy the de Broglie wavelength of matter be associated with phase velocity, the concept of group ve-
waves is given by 𝜆 = ℎ𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 ℎ
. Here 𝑚 is the mass of locity is introduced.
the moving particle and 𝑣 is its velocity.

Note

• For a particle, charged or uncharged, moving with ki-

netic energy 𝐸 the de Broglie wavelength is given by
𝜆 = ℎ𝑝 = √ ℎ .
2𝑚𝐸

• For a charged particle accelerated with a potential

𝑉 volt, the de Broglie wavelength is given by 𝜆 =
√ ℎ .
2𝑚𝑞𝑉

• For an electron accelerated through a potential differ- Figure 1.1: Wave group or wave packet
ence of 𝑉 volt, the de Broglie wavelength is given by
𝜆 = √ ℎ . Further substituting the values of ℎ, 𝑚
2𝑚𝑒𝑉

3
Applied Physics for EE Stream BPHYE102/202

Matter wave can be considered as a resultant wave due Physical significance : According to Newtonian
to the superposition of many component waves whose ve- physics the simultaneous measurement of position and mo-
locities differ slightly. Thus a wave group or wave packet mentum are exact. But the existence of matter waves in-
is formed. The velocity with which the wave group travels duces serious problems due to the limit to accuracy asso-
is called group velocity which is same as particle velocity. ciated with the simultaneous measurement. Hence the ex-
It is denoted by 𝑣 𝑔 and is as given in the equation 1.2. actness in Newtonian physics is replaced by probability in
quantum mechanics.
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 = (1.2)
𝑑𝑘
1.4.1 Application of uncertainty principle
1.3.3 Properties of matter waves
Non-existence electrons inside the nucleus : Beta rays
The following are the properties associated with the matter are emitted by the nucleus. When it was first observed it
waves was believed that electrons exist inside the nucleus and are
1. Matter waves are associated only with particles in mo- emitted at certain instant. If the electron can exist inside
tion the atomic nucleus then uncertainty in its position must
not exceed the diameter of the nucleus. The diameter of
2. They are not electromagnetic in nature the nucleus is of the order of Δ𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥 is 10−14 𝑚. Applying
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle for an electron expected
3. Group velocity is associated with matter waves to be inside the nucleus we get
4. As a result of superposition of large number of com-
ℎ
ponent waves which slightly differ in frequency, mat- Δ𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥 Δ𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ (1.6)
ter waves are localized. 4𝜋

5. The phase velocity has no physical meaning for mat- ℎ

Δ𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ (1.7)
ter waves 4𝜋Δ𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥
6. The amplitude of the matter wave at a given point is 6.625 × 10−34
associated with the probability density of finding the Δ𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ = 5.276 × 10−21 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1
4 × 3.142 × 10−14
particle at that point. (1.8)
ℎ
7. The wave length of matter waves is given by 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣
Therefore, the electron should possess momentum
1.4 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Princi- 𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≃ Δ𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 5.276 × 10−21 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 (1.9)
ple
Statement: The simultaneous determination of the exact Non-relativistic equation of energy of the electron is
position and momentum of a moving particle is impossible. given by
( 𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) 2
𝐸= = 1.53 × 10−11 𝐽 (1.10)
Explanation : According to this principle if Δ𝑥 is the er- 2𝑚 𝑒
ror involved in the measurement of position and Δ𝑝 𝑥 is the
here 𝑚 𝑒 is the rest mass of the electron
error involved in the measurement of momentum during
their simultaneous measurement, then the product of the
corresponding uncertainties is given by 1.53 × 10−11
𝐸 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 95MeV (1.11)
1.6 × 10−19
ℎ
Δ𝑥Δ𝑝 𝑥 ≥ (1.3)
4𝜋 Conclusion : According to experiments, the energy as-
ℎ sociated with the beta ray (electron) emission is around 3
Δ𝐸Δ𝑡 ≥ (1.4) MeV which is much lesser than the energy of the electron
4𝜋
expected to be inside the nucleus 95 MeV. Hence electrons
ℎ do not exist inside the nucleus.
Δ𝜃Δ𝐿 ≥ (1.5)
4𝜋

The product of the errors is of the order of Planck’s con- Note : Equations 1.4 and 1.5 represent the uncertainty
stant. If one quantity is measured with high accuracy then relationship between the conjugate physical quantities (En-
the simultaneous measurement of the other quantity be- ergy,time) and (Angular displacement, Angular momen-
comes less accurate. tum).

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1.5 Principle of Complementarity 2. It is large in magnitude where is particle or photon is

likely to be found and small else where.
Statement Bohr stated as “In a situation where the wave
aspect of a system is revealed, its particle aspect is con- 3. It will be regarded as describing the behavior of single
cealed; and, in a situation where the particle aspect is re- particle or photon and not statistical distribution of
vealed, its wave aspect is concealed. Revealing both si- number of quanta.
multaneously is impossible; the wave and particle aspects
are complementary.”
1.7 Time Independent Schrödinger
Explanation We know that the consequence of the un-
Wave Equation
certainty principle is both the Wave and particle nature of The wave equation which has variations only with respect
the matter can not be measured simultaneously. In other to position and describes the steady state is called Time In-
words, we can not precisely describe the dual nature of dependent Schrodinger wave equation. Consider a particle
Light. of mass 𝑚 moving with velocity 𝑣 along +ve x–axis. The
de Broglie wave length 𝜆 is given by
• If an experiment is designed to measure the particle
nature of the matter,during this experiment, errors of ℎ
measurement of both position and the time coordi- 𝜆= (1.13)
𝑚𝑣
nates must be zero and hence the momentum, energy
and the wave nature of the matter are completely un- The wave equation for one dimensional propagation of
known. waves is given by

• Similarly, if an experiment is designed for measuring 𝜕2𝜓 1 𝜕2𝜓

= (1.14)
the wave nature of the particle, then the errors in the 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2
measurement of the energy and the momentum will
The wave function is given by
be zero, whereas the position and the time coordinates
of the matter will be completely unknown. unknown. 𝜓 = 𝜓0 𝑒 𝑖 (𝑘 𝑥− 𝜔𝑡 ) (1.15)

here 𝜓0 is the amplitude at the point of consideration, 𝜔 is

From the above explanation, we can conclude that, when
angular frequency and 𝑘 is the wave number. Differentiat-
the particle nature of the matter is measured or displayed,
ing 𝜓 twice with respect to 𝑡, we get
the wave nature of the matter is necessarily suppressed and
vice versa. 𝜕2𝜓
= −𝜔2 𝜓0 𝑒 𝑖 (𝑘 𝑥− 𝜔𝑡 ) (1.16)
𝜕𝑡 2
1.6 Wave Function 𝜕2𝜓
= −𝜔2 𝜓 (1.17)
𝜕𝑡 2
According to the de Broglie’s hypothesis the relation be-
tween momentum and wavelength is found to be experi- substituting equation 1.17 in equation 1.14
mentally valid for both photons and particles. The quanta
𝜕2𝜓 1
of matter or radiation can be represented in agreement with 2
= 2 (−𝜔2 𝜓) (1.18)
uncertainty principle by wave packets. Thus it suggests 𝜕𝑥 𝑣
that concentrated bunches of waves might be used to de- substituting for 𝜔 and 𝑣 we get
scribe localized particles and quanta of radiation. The vari-
𝜕2𝜓 1
ations of which make up the matter wave is called wave = (−(2𝜋 𝑓 ) 2 𝜓) (1.19)
function. Hence we shall consider a wave function that 𝜕𝑥 2 ( 𝑓 𝜆) 2
depends on space (x, y and z) and time(t) and is denoted 𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2
by 𝜓(𝑟, 𝑡). The wave function for a wave packet moving = − 𝜓 (1.20)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜆2
along +ve x axis is given by substituting for 𝜆 from equation 1.13

𝜓 = 𝜓0 𝑒 𝑖 (𝑘 𝑥− 𝜔𝑡 ) (1.12) 𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2
= − 𝜓 (1.21)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ 2
( 𝑚𝑣 )
The quantity 𝜓 is assumed to have the following three
𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2 (𝑚𝑣) 2
basic properties = − 𝜓 (1.22)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
1. It can interfere with itself so that it can account for 𝜕2𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚( 12 𝑚𝑣 2 )
diffraction experiments. = − 𝜓 (1.23)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2

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𝜕2𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈) 1.9 Expectation Value

2
=− 𝜓 (1.24)
𝜕𝑥 ℎ2
here In quantum mechanics The expectation value is the
1 2 probabilistic expected value of the result (measurement)
𝑚𝑣 = 𝐸 − 𝑈 (1.25) of an experiment. It can be thought of as an average of
2
here 𝐸 is the total and 𝑈 is potential energy of the particle. all the possible outcomes of a measurement as weighted
by their likelihood. Expectation value as such it is not the
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈) most probable value of a measurement. In the real sense
+ 𝜓=0 (1.26) the expectation value may have zero probability of occur-
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
ring. Let us consider a particle moving along the x axis.
This can be extended to three dimension
𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈) The result of a measurement of the position x is a con-
+ + 2 + 𝜓=0 (1.27) tinuous random variable. Consider a wave function 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡).
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 ℎ2
The |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| 2 value is a probability density for the position
8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈) observable and |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| 2 𝑑𝑥 is the probability of finding the
∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓=0 (1.28) particle between 𝑥 and 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 at time t. Thus, if a measure-
ℎ2
ment of position is repeated many times in an identical way
here the operator ∇2 is given by on an identical particle in identical circumstances, many
possible outcomes are possible and the expectation value
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇2 = 2
+ 2+ 2 (1.29) of these outcomes is, according to the following equation
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∫ +∞
Hence the Time Independent Schrodinger equation. ⟨𝑥⟩ = 𝑥 |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| 2 𝑑𝑥 (1.33)
−∞

1.8 Physical significance of Wave 1.10 Eigen values and eigen func-
Function : Physical Interpreta- tions
tion The Schrodinger wave equation is a second order differ-
ential equation. Thus solving the Schrodinger wave equa-
The wave function 𝜓 just as itself has no direct physical
tion to a particular system we get many expressions for
meaning. It is more difficult to give a physical interpreta-
wave function (𝜓). However,all wave functions are not ac-
tion to the amplitude of the wave. The amplitude of the
ceptable. Only those wave functions which satisfy certain
wave function 𝜓 is certainly not like displacement in wa-
conditions are acceptable. Such wave functions are called
ter wave or the pressure wave nor the waves in stretched
Eigen functions for the system. The energy values corre-
string. It is a very different kind of wave. The quantity
sponding to the Eigen functions are called Eigen values.
squared absolute value of the amplitude gives the proba-
The wave functions are acceptable if they satisfy the fol-
bility of finding the particle per unit volume at the given
lowing conditions.
location in space and is referred to as probability density.
This is also referred to as Born interpretation. It is given 1. 𝜓 must be finite everywhere (Cannot be infinite)
by
2. 𝜓 must be single valued which implies that solution
𝑃(𝑥) = |𝜓| 2 (1.30) is unique for a given position in space.
Thus, in one dimension the probability of finding a particle 3. 𝜓 and its first derivatives with respect to its variables
in the width 𝑑𝑥 of length 𝑥 must be continuous everywhere.

𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = |𝜓| 2 𝑑𝑥 (1.31)

1.11 Applications of schrödinger
Similarly, in three dimension, the probability of finding
a particle in a given small volume 𝑑𝑉 of volume 𝑉 is given wave equation
by
𝑃 𝑑𝑣 = |𝜓| 2 𝑑𝑣 (1.32) 1.11.1 Particle in one-dimensional potential
well of infinite height
here 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 and 𝑃 is the probability of finding
the particle at given location per unit volume and is called Consider a particle of mass 𝑚 bouncing back and forth be-
Probability Density.Since 𝜓 is a complex quantity |𝜓| 2 = tween the walls of one dimensional potential well as shown
𝜓𝜓 ∗ and the product is a real number. 𝜓 ∗ is the complex in figure 1.2. The particle is said to be under bound state.
conjugate of 𝜓. Let the motion of the particle be confined along the 𝑥-axis

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in between two infinitely hard walls at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝑎. here 𝑘 is a constant for a given value of energy 𝐸. The
Since the walls are infinitely hard, no energy is lost by the general solution for equation 1.37 is given by
particle during the collision with walls and the total energy
remains constant. 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥 (1.39)

Here in the above equation A and B are arbitrary constants

which can be evaluated by applying boundary conditions.

Applying Boundary Conditions

1. The first boundary condition is, at 𝑥 = 0, 𝜓(𝑥) = 0.
Applying this to equation 1.39, we get 0 = 𝐴 sin 0 +
𝐵 cos 0 =⇒ 𝐵 = 0 hence equation 1.39 reduces to

𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 (1.40)

2. The second boundary condition is,at 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝜓(𝑥) = 0.

Applying this to equation 1.40, we get 0 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑎.
Since 𝐴 ≠ 0 then sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0. This results in 𝑘𝑎 = 𝑛𝜋
which further could be written as 𝑘 = 𝑛𝑎𝜋 . 𝑛 can take
integer values. Hence equation 1.40 could be written
as  𝑛𝜋𝑥 
Figure 1.2: One dimensional potential well of infinite 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin . (1.41)
height 𝑎
also from equation 1.38

𝑛2 𝜋 2 8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸 𝑛
𝑘2 = = (1.42)
The description of the potential well is as follows. In 𝑎2 ℎ2
between walls i.e. 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎, the potential 𝑉 = 0. Beyond
𝑛2 ℎ 2
the walls i.e. 𝑥 ≤ 0and 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎, the potential 𝑉 = ∞. 𝐸𝑛 = (1.43)
8𝑚𝑎 2

Beyond the walls or outside the potential well

Quantization of Energy States
Since the particle is unable to penetrate the hard walls
it exists only inside the potential well. Hence 𝜓 = 0 and Substituting for 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4, .. in the above equa-
the probability of finding the particle outside the potential tion Energy Eigen Values are obtained. The lowest
well is also zero. energy state corresponds to lowest integral value of
𝑛 = 1 which is also called as Zero Point Energy is
ℎ2
In between the walls or inside the potential well given by 𝐸 1 = 8𝑚𝑎 2 . The energy values of a bound
particle in one dimensional potential well are quan-
The Schrodinger wave equation is given by tized (discrete) and are represented by the equation
𝐸 𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝐸 1 .
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈)
+ 𝜓=0 (1.34)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
Normalization of wave function
Since the potential inside the well 𝑉 = 0, hence potential
The wave function for a particle in one dimensional po-
energy 𝑈 = 0, the Schrodinger wave equation becomes
tential well of infinite

height is given by the equation 1.41
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 0) 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑛 𝑎𝜋 𝑥 . In this equation 𝐴 is an arbitrary con-
+ 𝜓=0 (1.35) stant and it can take any value. The process of determi-
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
nation of value of the arbitrary constant is called Normal-
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸 ization of wave function. The particle has to exist some
+ 𝜓=0 (1.36) where inside the potential the probability of the finding the
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
particle inside the potential well is given by
𝜕2𝜓
+ 𝑘 2𝜓 = 0 (1.37) ∫ 𝑎 ∫ 𝑎
𝜕𝑥 2 |𝜓(𝑥)| 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑃𝑑𝑥 = 1 (1.44)
0 0
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
𝑘2 = (1.38) Substituting for the wave function in the integral
ℎ2

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∫ 𝑎  𝑛𝜋𝑥  phenomenon. Wein and Rayleigh-Jeans were able to ex-

2
𝐴 sin2
𝑑𝑥 = 1 (1.45) plain the black-body radiation spectrum in the lower and
0 𝑎 higher wavelength region respectively. Planck’s radiation
from trigonometry sin2 𝜃 = 21 (1 − cos 2𝜃). There fore law, based on discrete energy packet ’Quanta’ or ’Photon’,
the above equation could be written as is able to explain the energy distribution in the black body
radiation spectrum completely. Several experiments and
∫ 𝑎 2   
𝐴 2𝑛𝜋𝑥 theories were put forward to understand the particle and
1 − cos 𝑑𝑥 = 1 (1.46) wave nature of radiations. This proved dual nature of ra-
0 2 𝑎
diation. Further, based on analogy, Louis de Broglie ex-
integrating the above equation we get
tended the same concept to moving particles and proposed
𝐴2

𝑎

2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎 a hypothesis which indicates the wave nature of moving
𝑥− sin =1 (1.47) particles. Diffraction experiments prove the wave nature
2 2𝑛𝜋 𝑎 0
of moving particles. Attempts were successful in knowing
the different quantities related to the wave associated with
√︂
2
=⇒ 𝐴 = (1.48) particles called matter waves. Irwin Schrodinger set up
𝑎
a differential equation for the moving particle implement-
Substituting this in equation 1.41 the normalized wave ing de Broglie hypothesis. The Schrodinger wave equation
function or eigen function for a particle in one dimensional is set up for a bound particle and free particles. Subse-
potential well of infinite height is given by quent solutions prove that the energies of bound particles
√︂ are quantized and that of free particles is continuous.
2  𝑛𝜋𝑥 
𝜓(𝑥) = sin . (1.49)
𝑎 𝑎
The wave functions and the probability densities for the 1.12 Model Questions
first three values of 𝑛 are as shown in fig 1.3
1. State and Explain de Broglie hypothesis.

2. What are matter waves and mention the properties.

3. Derive the relation between Phase velocity and Group

velocity.

4. Derive the relation between Group velocity and Parti-

cle velocity.

5. State and Explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

Mention its physical significance.

6. Explain why electron cannot exist inside the nucleus?

7. State and Explain the Principle of Complementarity.

Figure 1.3: Wave function and Probability density for n = 8. Define wave function? Mention its basic properties.
1,2,3
9. Derive Time independent Schrodinger wave equation
for a particle moving in three dimension.

Thus for ground state (𝑛 = 1). The probability of find- 10. Discuss the physical interpretation of wave function?
ing the particle at the walls is zero and at the center 𝑎2 is
maximum. The first excited state has three nodes and the 11. Elucidate expectation value.
second excited state has four nodes.
12. Describe Eigen functions and Eigen values.

Summary 13. Discuss the motion of a particle in one dimensional

potential well of infinite height.
Black Body radiation spectrum posed challenges during
the early 19th century. Many experiments were con- 14. Discuss the energies of a free particle using time in-
ducted and theories were put forward to understand the dependent schrodinger equation.

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1.13 Numerical Problems 17. The position and momentum of 1 keV electron are
simultaneously determined. If it position is located
1. Calculate the momentum of the particle and the de within 1Å, find the uncertainty in the determination
Broglie wavelength associated with an electron with of its momentum.
a kinetic energy of 1.5𝑘𝑒𝑉.
18. A spectral line of wavelength 4000 Å has a width of
2. Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron 8 × 10−5 Å. Evaluate the minimum time spent by the
having kinetic energy 100𝑒𝑉. electrons in the upper energy state between the exci-
tation and de-excitation processes.
3. Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with elec-
tron carrying energy 2000𝑒𝑉. 19. The inherent uncertainty in the measurement of time
spent by Iridium 191 nuclei in the excited state is
4. Find the energy of the neutron in 𝑒𝑉 whose de Brogle found to be 1.4 × 10−10 𝑠. Estimate the uncertainty
wavelength is 1 Å. that results in its energy in eV in the excited state.
5. Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with neu- 20. An electron is bound in one dimensional potential
1 𝑡ℎ
tron of mass 1.674 × 10−27𝑘𝑔 with 10 part of speed well of width 0.18𝑛𝑚. Find the energy value in 𝑒𝑉
of light. of the second excited state.

6. Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with elec- 21. The first excited state energy of an electron in an in-
trons whose speed is 0.01 part of the speed of light. finite well is 240𝑒𝑉. What will be its ground state
energy when the width of the potential well is dou-
7. What is the de Broglie wavelength of a proton whose bled?
energy is 3𝑒𝑉 given mass of proton is 1.67×10−27 𝑘𝑔.
22. A quantum particle confined to one–dimensional box
8. Find the kinetic energy and group velocity of an elec- of width 𝑎 is in its first excited state. What is the
tron with de Broglie wavelength of 0.2𝑛𝑚. probability of finding the particle over an interval of
𝑎
9. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of particle of 2 marked symmetrically at the center of the box.

mass 0.65 𝑀𝑒𝑉

𝑐2
has a kinetic energy 80𝑒𝑉.

10. Find de Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass

0.58 𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝑐2
has a kinetic energy 90𝑒𝑉, Where 𝑐 is speed
of light.

11. A particle of mass 940 𝑀𝑒𝑉𝑐2

has kinetic energy
0.5𝑘𝑒𝑉. Find it de Broglie wavelength, where 𝑐 is
speed of light.

12. Find the de Broglie wavelength of an electron acceler-

ated through a potential difference of 182𝑉 and object
of mass 1𝑘𝑔 moving with a speed of 1𝑚𝑠 −1 . Compare
the results and comment.

13. The position and momentum of an electron with en-

ergy 0.5𝑘𝑒𝑉 are determined. What is the minimum
percentage uncertainty in its momentum if the uncer-
tainty in the measurement of position is 0.5Å.

14. The speed of electron is measured to with in an un-

certainty of 2.2 × 104 𝑚𝑠 −1 in one dimension. What
is the minimum width required by the electron to be
confined in an atom?

15. Estimate the time spent by an atom in the excited state

during the excitation and de-excitation processes,
when a spectral line of wavelength 546𝑛𝑚 and width
10−14 𝑚 is emitted.

16. An electron is confined to a box of length 10−9 𝑚, cal-

culate the minimum uncertainty in its velocity.

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 Part II

MODULE 2 : Electrical Properties of

Materials

11
Chapter 2

Conductors

2.1 Quantum free electron theory of levels below Fermi level are completely filled and above
Fermi level are empty.
metals
The failures of classical free electron theory led to the
rise of Quantum Free electron theory and was proposed by
Sommerfield in the year 1928. The quantum free electron
theory is based on the following assumptions.

2.1.1 Assumptions
1. Unlike classical free electron theory, in quantum free
electron theory, energy values of free electrons are
quantized. Figure 2.1: Energy Band diagram and Fermi Energy

2. Thus in a metal there exists large number of closely

spaced energy levels for free electrons which form a
band.
2.1.3 Density of States (DoS)
3. The distribution of free electrons in the energy levels
occur as per Pauli’s exclusion principle. Only maxi- According to band theory of solids the number of energy
mum of two electrons can occupy a given an energy levels in a band is equal to the number of atoms present in
level. the solid. Out of all bands the valence band is of most
concern. The spacing between any two energy levels in
4. The potential setup by the lattice ions is assumed to an energy band is not a constant quantity. The density of
be constant throughout the metal. levels in a band increases with increase in energy hence
it depends on the energy value itself. Each level can ac-
5. The mutual repulsion between electrons and the at-
commodate two electrons with opposite spins. Hence an
traction between electrons and lattice ions are ne-
energy level supports two states for electron occupation.
glected.

2.1.2 Fermi energy The Density of States is defined as the number of en-
ergy states available per unit volume of the material in
Consider a metal containing 𝑁 number of atoms. Thus the unit energy range in the valence band of the ma-
there exists 𝑁 number of energy levels in each band. These terial. It is mathematically a continuous function de-
energy levels are very closely spaced. The filling up of en- noted by 𝑔(𝐸). Consider a very small energy range dE
ergy levels in bands occur as per Pauli’s exclusion principle centered around E such that the density around 𝐸 remains
and thus each level can accommodate a pair of electrons constant. The number of energy levels in the energy range
with spin up and spin down. Thus electrons in a metal start 𝐸 and 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸 per unit volume of the material is given by
filling up the available energy levels from the lower most 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸. The variation of 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 as a function of 𝐸 is
level of the lower most band. All bands below the valence given by
band are completely filled. The valence band is partially
filled. The highest filled energy level in a metal at ab- √ !
solute zero by free electrons is called Fermi Level and 8 2𝜋𝑚 3/2 1
𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 3
𝐸 2 𝑑𝐸 (2.1)
the corresponding energy is called Fermi Energy (𝐸 𝐹 ). ℎ
Thus, at absolute zero and with no electric field applied, all

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Probability of occupation of levels with energy 𝐸 < 𝐸 𝐹

and at T = 0K
The Fermi factor or Fermi function is given by

1
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓
(2.4)
𝑒 𝑘𝑇
+1
Here 𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑓 is negative. Substituting the value for 𝑇 = 0
Figure 2.2: Density of states function vs Energy
1
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓
𝑒 𝑘∗0
+1
2.1.4 Fermi–Dirac Statistics and Fermi fac- 1 1
𝑓 (𝐸) = =
tor 𝑒 −∞ +1 0+1
a metal contains large number free of electrons. The oc- There fore 𝑓 (𝐸) = 1. Hence, at 𝑇 = 0𝐾, all energy levels
cupation of energy levels in the valence band is according below the Fermi level are completely filled.
to Pauli’s exclusion principle. This distribution of elec-
trons follows a certain universal rule called Fermi-Dirac Probability of occupation of levels with energy 𝐸 > 𝐸 𝐹
Distribution. This statistics is applicable for the distribu- and at T = 0K
tion of particles of spin half. A distribution statistics pro-
vides the probability of occupation of an energy level with The Fermi factor or fermi function is given by
energy (𝐸) at a given temperature 𝑇 under thermal equi-
1
librium. Thus the probability of occupation of an energy 𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸  (2.5)
𝑓
level of energy (𝐸) at temperature (𝑇) under thermal equi- 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
+1
librium is given by Fermi Factor ( 𝑓 (𝐸)).
Here 𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑓 is positive. Substituting the value for 𝑇 = 0
1
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓
(2.2) 1
𝑒 𝑘𝑇
+1 𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓
𝑒 𝑘∗0
+1
The number density of electrons defined as the number 1 1
of free electrons per unit volume the material in the energy 𝑓 (𝐸) = =
𝑒∞ + 1 ∞ + 1
range 𝐸 and 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸 in the valence band of the material is
There fore 𝑓 (𝐸) = 0. Hence, at 𝑇 = 0𝐾, all energy levels
given by 𝑛(𝐸)𝑑𝐸. Mathematically
above the Fermi level are empty.
𝑁 (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 𝑓 (𝐸) (2.3)
Probability of occupation of levels with energy 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝐹
Here 𝑓 (𝐸) is the Fermi factor. and at T > 0K
The Fermi factor or Fermi function is given by
The number density of electrons is the product of the
number of available energy states and their occupation 1
probability. This is called Fermi-Dirac distribution. As per 𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓
(2.6)
this rule at temperature absolute zero all levels below the 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
+1
Fermi level are completely filled and above the Fermi level Here 𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑓 = 0. Substituting the values
are empty. At higher temperatures the probability of oc-
cupation of energy levels above the Fermi level increases 1
and below the Fermi level decreases due to the increase in 𝑓 (𝐸) = 0
(2.7)
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ) + 1
(
thermal energy of the valence electrons.
1
𝑓 (𝐸) = 0
(2.8)
2.1.5 Dependence of Fermi factor on energy 𝑒( ) + 1
𝑘𝑇

and temperature 1 1
𝑓 (𝐸) = = = 0.5 (2.9)
As described, the Fermi factor is a function of energy and 1+1 2
temperature. This dependence could be explained for en- Thus for all temperatures above 0 𝐾 the probability of oc-
ergy levels below and above Fermi level at absolute zero cupation of Fermi level is ½. Thus the variation of Fermi
and higher temperatures. factor with temperature is as shown in the graph 2.3

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The Fermi energy of copper is 7𝑒𝑉. The calculation of

Fermi temperature for copper is as given below

7 × 1.6 × 10−19
𝑇𝐹 =
1.38 × 10−23

𝑇𝐹 = 81159𝐾

This is temperature cannot be realized in practice. Thus

the Fermi temperature is a theoretical concept.

Effective mass of free electron

Figure 2.3: Variation of 𝑓 (𝐸) as a function of Temperature
and Energy Free electrons in a metal will be in drift motion due to the
applied electric field. Thus the motion of free electrons in
a metal is actually influenced by applied electric field and
the periodic potential well. Hence mass of the electron is
2.1.6 Variation of number density of 𝑒 − with different from its rest mass and is called Effective mass.
temperature - Fermi Dirac Distribu- The effective mass of the electron is denoted by 𝑚 ∗ .
tion
As per Fermi-Dirac statistics the number density of elec- 2.1.7 Expression for electrical conductivity
trons in the energy range 𝐸 and 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸 is given by the using QFET
product of density of states and the Fermi factor. There-
fore 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝐹
𝜎= (2.12)
𝑁 (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 𝑓 (𝐸) (2.10) 𝑚∗
Is the equation for electrical conductivity as per quantum
Graphically The distribution of free electrons in a metal at fre electron theory.
various temperatures and energy levels is as shown in the
graph 2.4.
Model Questions
1. Give the assumptions on which quantum free electron
theory is based/

2. Describe Fermi level and Fermi energy.

3. Explain the density of states and mention density of

states function.

4. Write a note of Fermi function and Fermi-Dirac dis-

Figure 2.4: Fermi-Dirac Distribution of Conduction Elec-
tribution statistics.
trons
5. Explain the variation of Fermi factor with energy and
temperature.

6. Write a note on Fermi velocity, Fermi temperature

Fermi Temperature
and effective mass. Mention the expression for elec-
It is the temperature at which the average thermal en- trical conductivity derived using Quantum free elec-
ergy of the free electron in a metal is equal to Fermi en- tron theory of metals.
ergy at 0 𝐾. The thermal energy of the electron is given
by 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇, here 𝑘 is Boltzmann constant. Hence Fermi 7. Derive an expression for Fermi energy at 0K using
temperature is given by the equation. quantum free electron theory of metals.

𝐸𝐹 8. Describe the success of quantum free electron theory

𝑇𝐹 = (2.11) of metals.
𝑘

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Numerical Problems
1. Calculate the Fermi velocity and the mean free path
for conduction electrons in silver, given that its Fermi
energy is 5.5𝑒𝑉, and the relaxation time for electrons
is 3.83 × 10−14 𝑠.
2. The Fermi level in silver is 5.5𝑒𝑉 at 0 𝐾. Calculate
the number of free electrons per unit volume and the
probability of occupation for electrons with energy
5.6𝑒𝑉 in silver at the same temperature.
3. Calculate the free electron concentration in alu-
minium metal assuming that each of its atom con-
tributes 3 free electrons for conduction. Given, for
Aluminium, resistivity = 2.7 × 108 Ω𝑚, atomic weight
= 26.98 and density = 2.7 × 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚 −3 .
4. Calculate the Fermi energy in 𝑒𝑉 for a metal at Zero
kelvin, whose density is 10500𝑘𝑔𝑚 −3 , atomic weight
is 107.9 and it has one conduction electron per per
atom. Given 𝑁 𝐴 = 6.025 × 1026 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 −1 .
5. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an
energy level 0.02𝑒𝑉 above the Fermi level at 200𝐾
and 400𝐾.

6. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an

energy level 0.02𝑒𝑉 below the Fermi level at 400𝐾.
7. The Fermi level for silver is 5.5𝑒𝑉. What is the en-
ergy for which probability of occupancy at 300𝐾 is
0.01

8. Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability

that a state with an energy 0.5eV above Fermi energy
is occupied.
9. Find the free electron density in a metal with Fermi
energy 3 eV.

10. Calculate the Fermi energy (in eV), Fermi velocity

and Fermi temperature for sodium, given that the den-
sity of sodium is 971𝑘𝑔𝑚 −3 . Its atomic weight is 23,
and it has one conduction electron per atom.

11. Find the probability that an energy level at 0.2𝑒𝑉 be-

low Fermi level being occupied at temperature 300𝐾
and 1000𝐾
12. The Fermi level in Pottasium is 2.1 eV at a particular
temperature. Calculate the number of free electrons
per unit volume in pottasium at the same temperature.

13. Calculate the probability that an electron occupies an

energy level 0.02 eV above Fermi level at 300 K.
14. In an energy band of a material of 1𝑐𝑚 3 volume, Cal-
culate the Density of States at 2.5𝑒𝑉 above the bottom
of the band. Ans.1.07 × 1022 𝑐𝑚 −3 𝑒𝑉 −1 .

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Chapter 3

Dielectric Constant

Faraday discovered that the capacitance of the con- free space it has the same unit as 𝐷 and is related to it as
denser increases when the region between the plates is
filled with dielectric. If 𝐶0 is the capacitance of the ca- 𝑃® = 𝜖0 (𝜖𝑟 − 1) 𝐸® (3.4)
pacitor without dielectric and 𝐶 is the capacitance of the
capacitor with dielectric then the ratio 𝐶𝐶0 gives𝜖𝑟 called 3.0.3 Types of Polarization or Polarization
relative permittivity or Dielectric constant. Also for a given
mechanisms
isotropic material the electric flux density is related to the
applied field strength by the equation 𝐷 = 𝜖 𝐸, Here 𝜖 is The electrical polarization takes place through four differ-
Absolute permittivity. In SI system of units the relative ent mechanisms. They are
permittivity is given by the ratio of absolute permittivity to
permittivity of free space. 1. Electronic polarization 𝑃𝑒

2. Ionic polarization 𝑃𝑖
𝜖 = 𝜖 0 𝜖𝑟 (3.1)
3. Orientation polarization 𝑃𝑜
Here 𝜖0 is permittivity of free space. 𝜖𝑟 is relative per-
mittivity or dielectric constant.Dielectric constant is also 4. Space charge polarization 𝑃𝑠
denoted by 𝐾.
The net polarization of the material is due to the contribu-
tion of all four polarization mechanism
For an isotropic material, under static field conditions,
the relative permittivity is called static dielectric constant. 𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑒 + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑃 𝑜 + 𝑃 𝑠 (3.5)
It depends on the structure of the atoms of which the ma-
terial is composed.
Electronic polarization

3.0.1 Polarization of Dielectrics This involves the separation of the center of the electron
cloud around an atom with respect to the center of its nu-
The displacement of charged particles in atoms or cleus under the application of electric field. Hence dipoles
molecules of dielectric material so that net dipole moment are induced within the material. This leads to the develop-
is developed in the material along the applied field direc- ment of net dipole moment in the material and is the vector
tion is called polarization of dielectric Polarization is mea- sum of dipole moments of individual dipoles.
sured as net dipole moment per unit volume and is a vector
quantity.
𝑃 = 𝑁𝜇 (3.2)
Here 𝑃 is polarization, 𝑁 number of dipoles per unit vol-
ume, 𝜇 is average dipole moment per molecule. Also 𝜇 is
given by
𝜇 = 𝛼𝐸 (3.3)
Figure 3.1: Electronic Polarization
Here 𝛼 is defined as Polarizability.

3.0.2 Relation between Dielectric constant

and Polarization Ionic polarization
As the polarization 𝑃 measures the additional flux density This occurs in ionic solids such as sodium chloride etc.
arising from the presence of the material as compared to Ionic solids possess net dipole moment even in the absence

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Applied Physics for EE Stream BPHYE102/202

of external electric field. But when the external electric the polarization of polar dielectric materials. Materials like
field is applied the separation between the ions further in- 𝐻2 𝑂, 𝑁 𝐻3 are the examples for polar dielectrics.
creases. Hence the net dipole moment of the material also
increases Non Polar Dielectrics
Non polar dielectric materials do not possess permanent
electric dipoles. Thus the net dipole moment across the
material is zero in the absence of external electric field.
In non polar dielectric materials dipoles are induced due
to the applied electric field which results in the net dipole
moment in the dielectric material in the direction of the ap-
plied field. This is the polarization of non-polar dielectric
materials.Elementary gasses like 𝐻𝑒, 𝐻2 are the examples
Figure 3.2: Ionic Polarization for non polar dielectrics.

3.1 Internal fields in Dielectrics

Orientation polarization
3.1.1 Definition
This occurs in polar dielectric material, which possesses
permanent electric dipoles. In polar dielectrics the dipoles When a dielectric material is placed in the external elec-
are randomly oriented due thermal agitation. Therefore net tric field polarization occurs. Hence the net electric field
dipole moment of the material is zero. But when the exter- at any point within the dielectric material is given by The
nal electric field is applied all dipoles tend to align in the sum of external field and the field due to all dipoles sur-
field direction. There fore dipole moment develops across rounding that point. This net field is called internal field or
the material. This is referred to as orientation polariza- Local field.
tion.It is temperature dependent.
3.1.2 Expression for Internal field in case of
one dimension
Consider a dielectric material placed in the external
electric field 𝐸. Consider an array of dipoles in the po-
larized dielectric material as shown in the figure 3.4. Let 𝑎
be the distance between to successive dipoles in the array.

Figure 3.3: Orientation Polarization

Space charge polarization

This involves limited movement of charges resulting in Figure 3.4: One Dimensional Array of Dipoles
alignment of charge dipoles under applied field. This usu-
ally happens at the grain boundaries or lattice defects and
localized charge is set up. Since this is very small it can be
neglected. the internal field at a dipole ‘X’due to all dipoles in the
array is given by
3.0.4 Classification of Dielectrics 1.2𝜇
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + (3.6)
Polar Dielectrics 𝜋𝜖0 𝑎 3
Polar dielectric materials possess permanent electric Here 𝑚𝑢 is the dipole moment, 𝜖0 is the permittivity of free
dipoles in the material and are oriented in random direc- space, 𝑎 is the inter dipole distance in the array.
tions so that the net dipole moment of the material is zero 1.2𝛼𝐸
in the absence of applied electric field. If polar dielectric 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + (3.7)
𝜋𝜖0 𝑎 3
materials are placed in the external electric field then all
dipoles tend to align in the field direction and hence net here 𝛼 is polarizability. Since 𝛼,𝜖0 and 𝑎 are positive quan-
dipole moment develops cross dielectric material. This is tities the local field 𝐸 𝑖 > 𝐸.

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3.1.3 Expression for Internal field in case of 𝑁𝛼𝑒
= 1−
𝑁𝛼𝑒
three dimension- Lorentz Field 𝜖0 (𝜖𝑟 − 1) 3𝜖0
𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝑁𝛼𝑒
For three dimension 𝑎13 could be replaced with number + =1
𝜖0 (𝜖𝑟 − 1) 3𝜖0
of dipoles per unit volume 𝑁 and 1.2 𝜋 could be replaced  
with 𝛾, in equation 3.7. Thus we get 𝑁𝛼𝑒 3
+1 =1
3𝜖0 (𝜖𝑟 − 1)
𝛾𝑁𝛼𝐸
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + (3.8) 
𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝜖𝑟 + 2

𝜖0 =1
3𝜖 0 𝜖𝑟 − 1
𝛾𝑃
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + (3.9) 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝜖𝑟 − 1
𝜖0 = (3.14)
3𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 + 2
Here the polarization 𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼𝐸.
Equation 3.14 is called Clausius-Mossotti relation.
1
For an elemental solid dielectric material 𝛾 = 3, Thus
equation 3.9 becomes Numerical Problems
𝑃 1. Determine the polarization produced in a crystal by
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐸 + (3.10)
3𝜖0 an electric field of strength 6000 V/cm if it has a di-
electric constant of 5. Ans. 2.124 × 10−5 𝐶𝑚 −2
Thus the Lorentz field is given by equation 3.10.
2. Calculate the dielectric constant of NaCl crystal if the
3.1.4 Derivation of Clausius - Mossotti equa- polarization developed is 4.3 × 10−8 when subjected
to electric field of 2000𝑉 𝑚 −1 . Ans. 3.428.
tion
Consider an Elemental solid dielectric material. Since they 3. An elemental solid dielectric material has polarizabil-
don’t posses permanent dipoles, for such materials, the ity 7 × 10−40 𝐹𝑚 −2 . Assuming the internal field to be
ionic and orientation polarizabilities are zero. Hence the Lorentz, calculate the dielectric constant for the mate-
polarization 𝑃 is given by rial if the material has 3×1028 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑚 3 . Ans. 12.33.

4. The dielectric constant of sulphur is 3.4. Assuming a

𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸 𝐿 (3.11)
cubic lattice for its structure, calculate the electronic
polarizability of sulphur. Given: for sulphur density
Here 𝐸 𝐿 = 𝐸 + 3𝜖𝑃0 is the Lorentz field. Substituting for
= 2.07 gm/cc, and atomic weight 32.07. Ans. 𝛼𝑒 =
Lorentz Field in 3.11, we get
3.035 × 10−40 𝐹𝑚 2 .
 
𝑃
𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸 + 5. The atomic weight and density of sulphur are 32 and
3𝜖0 2.08 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 3 . The electronic polarizability of the
atom is 3.28 × 10−40 𝐹/𝑚 2 . If Sulphur solid has a
𝑃
𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸 + 𝑁𝛼𝑒 cubic structure, calculate its dielectric constant. Ans.
3𝜖0
3.873.
𝑃
𝑃 − 𝑁𝛼𝑒 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸 6. A solid contains 5 × 1028 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑚 3 each with a po-
3𝜖0
  larisability of 2 × 10˘40 𝐹𝑚 2 . Assuming that the in-
𝑃 1−
𝑁𝛼𝑒
= 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸 ternal field is given by Lorentz formula. Calculate
3𝜖0 the ratio of internal field to the external field. Given
𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸 𝜖0 = 8.854 × 10˘12 𝐹𝑚 ˘1 .
𝑃= h i (3.12)
𝑁 𝛼𝑒
1− 3𝜖0

The relation between the Polarization and Electric field

strength is given by

𝑃 = 𝜖0 (𝜖𝑟 − 1) 𝐸 (3.13)

equating equations 3.12 and 3.13

𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸
h i = 𝜖0 (𝜖𝑟 − 1) 𝐸
𝑁 𝛼𝑒
1− 3𝜖0

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Applied Physics for EE Stream BPHYE102/202

Department of Physics 20 A T M E College of Engineering, Mysuru

Chapter 4

Superconductivity

4.1 Introduction to Superconductiv- exhibit superconducting property, are called superconduc-

tors.
ity
Discovery : Lord Kamerlingh Onnes discovered the Above critical temperature material is said to be in nor-
phenomenon of superconductivity in the year 1911. When mal state and offers resistance for the flow of electric cur-
he was studying the temperature dependence of resistance rent. Below critical temperature material is said to be in
of Mercury at very low temperature he found that resis- superconducting state. Thus 𝑇𝑐 is also called as transition
tance of Mercury decreases with temperature with the de- temperature.
crease in temperature up to a particular temperature 𝑇𝑐 =
4.15K . Below this temperature the resistance of mercury
abruptly drops to zero. Between 4.15𝐾 and 0𝐾 Mercury 4.2 Meissner’s Effect
offered no resistance for the flow of electric current. This
In 1933, Meissner and Ochsenfeld showed that when a su-
phenomenon is reversible and material becomes normal
perconducting material is placed in a magnetic field it al-
once again when temperature was increased above 4.15K.
lows magnetic lines of force to pass through, if it’s tem-
This phenomenon is called superconductivity and material
perature is above 𝑇𝑐 . If the temperature is reduced below
which exhibits the property is named superconductor.
the critical temperature Tc then it expels all the flux lines
completely out of the specimen and exhibits perfect dia-
Definition : Thus the Superconductivity is defined as magnetism. This is known as Meissner’s effect. Since
“The phenomenon in which resistance of certain metals, superconductor exhibits perfect diamagnetism below the
alloys and compounds drops to zero abruptly, below cer- critical temperature Tc, magnetic flux density inside the
tain temperature is called superconductivity material is zero.

Variation of Resistivity with Temperature The varia-

tion of the resistivity of a superconductor,pure and impure
metals with temperature is as shown below.

The expression for magnetic flux density is given by

Critical Temperature : The temperature, below which 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝑀 + 𝐻) (4.1)
materials exhibit superconducting property is called crit-
ical temperature, denoted by 𝑇𝑐 . Critical temperature 𝑇𝑐 Here 𝐵 is Magnetic Flux Density, 𝑀 is Magnetization and
is different for different substances. The materials, which 𝐻 is the applied magnetic field strength. For a supercon-

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Applied Physics for EE Stream BPHYE102/202

ductor, 𝐵 = 0 at 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑐 . Thus we get Type I Superconductors

𝑀 = −𝐻 (4.2) Type I superconductors exhibit complete Meissener’s
Effect and posses a single value of critical field . The
Thus Meissner’s Effect signifies the negative magnetic mo- graph of magnetic moment Vs magnetic field is as shown
ment associated with superconductors. in the Fig.4.1. As the field strength increases the mate-
rial becomes more and more diamagnetic until 𝐻 becomes
equal to 𝐻𝑐 . Above 𝐻𝑐 the material allows the flux lines
4.3 Critical Field and its Tempera- to pass through and exhibits normal conductivity. The
ture Dependence value of 𝐻𝑐 is very small for soft superconductors. There-
fore soft superconductors cannot withstand high magnetic
Critical field We know that when superconductor is placed fields. Therefore they cannot be used for making super-
in a magnetic field it expels magnetic flux lines completely conducting magnets. Ex. Hg, Pb and Zn.
out of the body and exhibits a perfect diamagnetism. But
if the strength of the magnetic field is further increased, it
is found that for a particular value of the magnetic field,
material looses its superconducting property and becomes
a normal conductor. The value of the magnetic field at
which the transition occurs from the Superconducting state
to Normal Conducting state is called Critical Field or
Critical Magnetic Field and is denoted by 𝐻𝑐 . It is found
that by reducing the temperature of the material further su-
perconducting property of the material could be restored.
Thus, critical field does not destroy the superconducting
property of the material completely but only reduces the
critical temperature of the material.

The variation of Critical field with temperature below Figure 4.1: Type1 Superconductor
the critical temperature is given by
𝑇2
 
𝐻 𝑐 = 𝐻0 1 − 2 (4.3) Type II Superconductors
𝑇𝑐
paragraph Superconducting materials, which can with-
Here 𝐻𝑐 is the Critical field at any temperature 𝑇 less than stand high value of critical magnetic fields, are called Hard
𝑇𝑐 , 𝐻0 is the Critical field at 𝑇 = 0𝐾. Superconductors.

Figure 4.2: Type2 Superconductor

The graph of magnetic moment Vs magnetic field is as

4.4 Types of Superconductors shown in the Fig.4.2. Hard superconductors are character-
ized by two critical fields 𝐻𝑐1 and 𝐻𝑐2 . When applied
Superconductors are classified into two types magnetic field is less than 𝐻𝑐1 material exhibits perfect
1. Type I Superconductor or Soft Superconductor diamagnetism. Beyond 𝐻𝑐1 partial flux penetrates and the
material is said to be Vortex State. Thus flux penetra-
2. Type II Superconductor or Hard Superconductor tion occurs through small-channelized regions called fila-

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ments. As the strength of the field increases further, more Below the critical temperature the dense cloud of
and more flux fills the body and thereby decreasing the Cooper pairs form a collective state and the motion all
diamagnetic property of the material. At 𝐻𝑐2 flux fills the Cooper pairs is correlated resulting in zero resistance of
body completely and material losses its diamagnetic prop- the material.
erty as well as superconducting property completely.

4.6 High Temperature Supercon-

ductivity
Superconducting materials which exhibit superconduc-
tivity at relatively higher temperatures are called high
temperature superconductors. Thus high temperature su-
perconductors posses higher value of critical temperature
compared to conventional superconductors. Most of the
high temperature superconductors are found to fall into the
category of ceramics. In 1986 George Bednorz and Alex
Muller discovered a compound containing Lanthanum,
The value of 𝐻𝑐2 is hundreds of times greater than Hc Barium, Copper and Oxygen having 𝑇𝑐 =30K was devel-
of soft superconductors. Therefore they are used for mak- oped. In 1987 scientists developed a compound which is
ing powerful superconducting magnets. Examples:𝑁 𝑏𝑇𝑖, an oxide of the form 𝑌 𝐵𝑎 2 𝐶𝑢 3 𝑂 7 which is referred to as
𝑁 𝑏 3 𝑆𝑛 1-2-3 compound with 𝑇𝑐 > 90𝐾 was discovered.

All high temperature superconductors are oxides of cop-

4.5 BCS Theory of Superconductiv- per and bear Perovskite crystal structure characterized by
large number of copper-oxygen layers. It was found that
ity addition of extra copper-oxygen layer pushes the critical
temperature 𝑇𝑐 to higher values. The super currents are
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer explained the phe- strong in the copper-oxygen layer and weak in the direc-
nomenon of superconductivity in the year 1957. The tion perpendicular to the planes. Following is the list of
essence of the BCS theory is as follows. High Temperature Superconductors.

Consider an electron approaching a positive ion core and

suffers attractive coulomb interaction. Due to this attrac-
tion ion core is set in motion and thus distorts that lattice.
Let a second electron come in the way of distorted lattice
and interaction between the two occurs which lowers the
energy of the second electron. The two electrons there-
fore interact indirectly through the lattice distortion or the
phonon field which lowers the energy of the electrons. The
above interaction is interpreted as electron - Lattice - elec-
tron interaction through phonon field.
It was shown by Cooper that, this attractive force be-
comes maximum if two electrons have opposite spins and
momentum. The attractive force may exceed coulombs re-
pulsive force between the two electrons below the critical
temperature, which results in the formation of bound pair
of electrons called cooper pairs.

4.7 Quantum Tunneling

In classical mechanics, when a particle has insufficient
energy, it would not be able to overcome a potential bar-
rier. In the quantum world the particles can often behave

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like waves. On encountering a barrier, a quantum wave depends on the thickness and width of the insulating layer
will not end abruptly. Rather its amplitude decrease ex- and the temperature.
ponentially. This drop in amplitude corresponds to a drop
in the probability of finding a particle further into the bar-
4.8.3 AC Josephson Effect
rier. If the barrier is thin enough, then the amplitude may
be non-zero on the other side. This would imply that there If we apply a dc voltage across the Josephson junction,
is a finite probability that some of the particles will tunnel it introduces an additional phase on Cooper pairs during
through the barrier. tunneling. As a result a strikingly new phenomenon will be
observed. The dc voltage generates an alternating current
I given by
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜙0 + Δ𝜙) (4.5)
Because of the dc voltage V applied across the barrier, the
energies of Cooper pairs on both sides of the barrier differ
in energy by 2eV.

In regions where the potential energy is higher than the

wave’s energy, the amplitude of the wave decays exponen-
tially. If the region is narrow enough, the wave can have a
non-zero amplitude on the other side.

4.8 AC and DC Josephson Junctions Figure 4.3: DC and AC Josephson Effects

4.8.1 Josephson Junction

In 1962, Brian Josephson predicted that Cooper pairs 4.9 DC and RF Squids
could tunnel through a very thin insulating layer separat-
ing two super conductors. The superconductor-insulator- 4.9.1 SQUID
superconductor layer constitutes the Josephson junction.
A superconducting quantum interference device
(SQUID) is a device used to measure extremely weak
4.8.2 DC Josephson Effects magnetic flux. Thus, it is basically a sensitive magnetome-
Consider a Josephson junction consisting of two supercon- ter made of a superconducting ring. The flux penetrating
ℎ
ducting metal films separated by a thin oxide barrier of 10 a superconducting loop is quantized in steps of 𝜙0 = 2𝑒 .
to 20 Å thick.The Cooper pairs tunnel from one side of The heart of a SQUID is a superconducting ring, which
the junction to the other side easily. This due to the phase contains one or more Josephson junctions. There are
difference introduced by the insulator between the wave two main types of SQUID: DC SQUID and RF (or AC)
function of Cooper pairs on both sides the junction. Due SQUID.
to the phase difference a super current flows through the
junction even if the applied voltage is zero. This is known 4.9.2 DC Squid
as the DC Josephson effect. Josephson showed that the
super current through the junction is given by The DC SQUID was invented in 1964 by Robert Jakle-
vic, John Lambe, Arnold Silver, and James Mercereau. It
has two Josephson junctions in parallel in a superconduct-
ing loop. It is based on the DC Josephson effect. It relies
on the interference of currents form each junction.

The dc SQUID is biased with a dc current equal to about

twice the superconducting current 𝐼𝑐 . Dc voltage across
the junctions is created. Change in the flux penetrating
the loop enhances the current through one JJ and reduces
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙0 (4.4)
the current through the other. This leads to JJs working
Here 𝜙0 is the phase difference between the wave func- asymmetrically, one JJ is driven normally and one is super-
tions describing Cooper pairs on both sides of the barrier, conducting. This asymmetry provides a feedback current
and 𝐼𝐶 is the critical current at zero voltage condition. 𝐼𝐶 that nulls the flux penetrating the SQUID loop. Total flux

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ods the coil produces in the detected RF output, because

the detected RF output is a periodic function.

Note : The DC SQUIDs offer higher sensitivity, but RF

SQUIDs have lower sensitivity. RF SQUIDs are com-
monly used form of the sensor, because of their ease and
low price of manufacturing in small batches.

4.10 Model Questions

1. Define Phonon. Describe Mathiessen’s rule.
within the loop is multiples of 𝜙0 . The feedback current is
a direct measure of changes in flux applied to the SQUID. 2. Explain the failures of Classical Free Electron Theory
of Metals.

4.9.3 RF (AC) Squid 3. Mention the Assumptions of Classical Free electron

theory of metals.
The RF SQUID was invented in 1965 by Robert Jak-
levic, John J. Lambe, Arnold Silver, and James Edward 4. Explain the concept of Fermi Level, Fermi Energy,
Zimmerman at Ford. It is based on the AC Josephson ef- Density of States.
fect and uses only one Josephson junction. It is less sensi- 5. Define Fermi Factor. Discuss the variation of Fermi
tive compared to DC SQUID but is cheaper and easier to Factor with Energy and Temperature and represent
manufacture in smaller quantities. graphically.
6. Discuss the discovery of Superconductivity and hence
discuss the variation of resistivity with temperature in
superconductor with critical temperature as reference.
7. State and explain Meissner’s Effect.
8. Define Critical field and hence explain its variation
with temperature below critical temperature.
9. Distinguish between/Explain Type-1 and Type-2 su-
perconductors.
10. Describe the evolution of high temperature of super-
conductivity.
11. Elucidate the BCS Theory of Superconductivity.
12. Explain the phenomenon of quantum tunneling.
13. Define a Josephson Junction and hence explain the
DC and AC Josephson effects.
14. Define Squid and describe DC and RF Squids.
15. Brief the applications of superconductivity in quan-
tum computing.

4.11 Numerical Problems

In RF SQUID the flux is coupled into a loop contain- 1. Lead has superconducting transition temperature of
ing a single JJ through an input coil and an RF coil. RF 7.26𝐾. If the initial field at 0𝐾 is 50 × 103 𝐴𝑚 −1 Cal-
coil is part of a high-Q resonant circuit to read out cur- culate the critical field at 6𝐾.
rent changes due to induced flux in the SQUID loop. The
tuned circuit is driven by a constant RF oscillator which is 2. A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of
weakly coupled to the loop. Measuring the change in the 3.7𝐾 at zero magnetic field and a critical field of
input coil current is done by counting the number of peri- 0.0306 tesla at 0𝐾. Find the critical field at 2𝐾.

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3. The superconducting transition temperature of Lead

is 7.26𝐾. Calculate the initial field at 0𝐾 given the
critical field at 5 K as 33.644 × 103 𝐴𝑚 −1

4. Calculate the ratio of critical fields for a superconduc-

tor at 7𝐾 and 5𝐾 give the critical temperature 8𝐾.
5. The critical field for niobium is 1 × 105 𝐴𝑚 −1 at 8𝐾
and 2 × 105 𝐴𝑚 −1 at 0𝐾. Calculate the transition tem-
perature of the element.

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 Part III

MODULE 3 : LASER AND OPTICAL

FIBERS

27
Chapter 5

LASER

5.1 Introduction
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stim-
ulated Emission of Radiation. The first LASER was built
by Theodore H Maiman in the year 1960. Thus it finds
various applications starting from industries to communi-
cation.

5.2 Characteristics of a LASER

beam
Figure 5.1: Induced absorption
The LASER beam has the following four characteristics.
1. LASER beam is highly monochromatic.
5.3.2 Spontaneous Emission
2. LASER beam is highly coherent.
3. LASER beam is highly directional. Spontaneous emission is the process of emission of pho-
ton, when an atom transits from higher energy level to
4. LASER is a high intensity beam of light. lower energy level without the influence of any external
energy.
5.3 Interaction of radiation with
matter
The interaction between radiation and matter occurs
through the following three processes.
1. Induced absorption
2. Spontaneous emission
3. Stimulated emission

5.3.1 Induced Absorption Figure 5.2: Spontaneous emission

When a photon of right energy is incident on the atom
then the photon is absorbed This process is induced by the
photon and hence it is called Induced Absorption.
Consider an atom in a lower energy states 𝐸 1 , it will An electron in the higher energy state of an atom makes
excite to higher energy states 𝐸 2 by absorbing the incident a transition to lower energy state without the action of any
photon of energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 . Here 𝐸 1 energy external agency. the energy of the photon emitted is given
of the lower energy state, 𝐸 2 is the energy of the higher by 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 . In this process the emitted photons
energy state, ℎ is the Planck’s constant 𝜈 is the frequency need not travel in the same direction. Thus the light beam
of photon. is not directional.

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5.3.3 Stimulated Emission 2. Rate of Induced absorption = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝐸 𝜈

When a photon of suitable energy interacts with an
atom in the higher energy state then the atom is stimulated Here 𝐵12 is proportionality constant called Einsteins coef-
(Forced) to make transition from higher energy state to a ficient of Induced absorption.
lower energy state with the emission of a photon. Both
the incident photon and the emitted photons are coherent Rate of spontaneous emission:
and travel in the same direction. Thus the process is called
stimulated emission. The number of spontaneous emission per unit volume in
unit time is called rate of spontaneous emission. Rate of
spontaneous emission depends on

Since spontaneous emission is a voluntary process it is

independent of energy density 𝐸 𝜈 . The rate of sponta-
neous emission depends only on the number of atoms in
the higher energy state 𝑁2 . Thus

1. Rate of spontaneous emission ∝ 𝑁2

2. Rate of Spontaneous emission = 𝐴21 𝑁2

Here 𝐴21 is the proportionality constant called Einstein’s

Figure 5.3: Stimulated emission
co-efficient of spontaneous emission.

Rate of stimulated emission

When a photon of energy ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 interacts with
an atom in the higher energy state the stimulated emission The number of stimulated emission per unit volume in unit
takes place with the emission of two photons of same en- time is called rate of stimulated emission. Rate of stimu-
ergy that are highly directional and coherent.Thus stimu- lated emission depends upon,
lated emission could be used to generate a highly coherent
1. Number of atoms in the higher energy state (𝑁2 )
directional beam of light.
2. The energy density (𝐸 𝜈 ).

5.4 Einstein’s A and B co-efficients Hence

and expression for energy den- 1. The Rate of stimulated emission ∝ 𝑁2 𝐸 𝜈
sity 2. Rate of stimulated emission = 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝐸 𝜈

Consider a system containing 𝑁 atoms and is under ther- Here the proportionality constant called 𝐵21 is Einstein’s
mal equilibrium. Let 𝐸 1 and 𝐸 2 be the lower and higher coefficient of stimulated emission.
energy levels that contain 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 number of atoms re- Under Thermal Equilibrium the total Energy of the Sys-
spectively. Let the incident energy density of the radia- tem remains unchanged. Hence Rate of Absorption is
tion be 𝐸 𝜈 . Hence the system absorbs and emits the en- equal to rate of emission.
ergy through the following processes. The energy of the ∴ Rate of Induced Absorption = [Rate of Spontaneous
photons absorbed and emitted by the atoms is 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = emission + Rate of Stimulated Emission]
(𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 ) ∴
𝐵12 𝑁1 𝐸 𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝐸 𝜈 (5.1)
Rate of induced absorption
(𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 ) 𝐸 𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2
The rate of induced absorption is defined as the number
of induced absorption per second per unit volume in unit
time. Rate of absorption depends on 𝐴21 𝑁2
𝐸𝜈 = (5.2)
𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2
1. Number of atoms in the lower energy state 𝑁1 .
𝐴21
𝐸𝜈 = (5.3)
2. The incident energy density 𝐸 𝜈 . 𝑁1
𝐵12 𝑁2 − 𝐵21
Hence
" #
𝐴21 1
𝐸𝜈 = 𝐵12 𝑁1
(5.4)
1. Rate of Induced absorption ∝ 𝑁1 𝐸 𝜈 𝐵21
𝐵21 𝑁2 −1

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According to Boltzmann relation the we have

𝑁2 −ℎ𝜈
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (5.5)
𝑁1
or we can re-write as,
𝑁1 ℎ𝜈
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (5.6)
𝑁2
Here ℎ is the Planck’s constant, 𝑐 is the speed of light in
vacuum, 𝜆 is the wavelength of the photon, 𝑘 is the Boltz-
mann constant and 𝑇 is the absolute temperature. Substi- Figure 5.4: LASER action
𝑁1
tuting for 𝑁2
in equation 5.4
 
𝐴21  1  LASER action could be achieved through the conditions
𝐸𝜈 = (5.7)
 
population inversion and meta-stable state.
  ℎ𝜈  
𝐵21  𝐵12 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1 
 𝐵21 
 
According to Planck’s radiation law, the equation for en- 5.5.1 Population Inversion and Pumping
ergy density in the frequency domain is given by
If a system is under thermal equilibrium the number of
8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3
 
1 atoms in excited state is less than the number of atoms in
𝐸𝜈 = (5.8) the lower energy state. For the production of LASER num-
𝑐3 ℎ𝜈
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1
ber of stimulated emission must be more when compared
on comparing equations 5.7 and 5.8 we can get to induced absorption and spontaneous emission. This is
possible only if the number of atoms in the higher energy
𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3
= (5.9) state is more than the number of atoms in the lower en-
𝐵21 𝑐3 ergy state and is called population inversion. The means of
and achieving population inversion by supplying energy from
𝐵12 a suitable source is called Pumping. In addition,to have
=1 (5.10)
𝐵21 more stimulated emissions, the life time of atoms in the
or 𝐵12 = 𝐵21 excited state must be longer. Thus the essential conditions
This means that Probability of Induced absorption is for population inversion are
equal to Probability of Stimulated emission. Hence 𝐴21 1. Higher energy state should posses a longer life time.
& 𝐵21 can be replaced by 𝐴 & 𝐵. Thus equation 5.7 could
be written as   2. The number of atoms in the higher energy state must
𝐴 1 be greater than the number of atoms in the lower en-
𝐸𝜈 = ℎ𝜈
(5.11)
𝐵 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1 ergy state.
Hence the expression for energy density in terms of Ein-
stein’s co-efficient 𝐴 and 𝐵. 5.5.2 meta-stable state
The life time of an energy level is of the order of 10−8
5.5 LASER Action and the Condi- second. If an atom posses unusual longer life time in an
energy state such a state is referred to as a meta-stable state.
tions for LASER action Usually the life time of meta-stable state varies from 10−2 s
to 10−3 s. Population inversion could be achieved with the
Consider a LASER system. Let an atom in the excited
help of three energy state with one of them a meta-stable
state is stimulated by a photon of right energy so that atom
state and is as shown in the figure 5.5. The population
makes stimulated emission. Two coherent photons are ob-
inversion is achieved between the state 𝐸 2 and 𝐸 1 as state
tained. These two coherent photons if stimulate two atoms
𝐸 2 is a meta-stable state.
in the exited state to make emission then four coherent pho-
tons are emitted. These four coherent photons stimulate 4 Note : The principles of Laser are
more atoms in the excited state resulting in 8 coherent pho-
tons and so on. As the process continues number of coher- 1. Stimulated Emission
ent photons increases. These coherent photons constitute
an intense beam of LASER. This phenomenon of building 2. Population Inversion
up of number of coherent photons so as to get an intense 3. meta-stable State
LASER beam is called lasing action.
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5.7 Construction and Working of

𝐶𝑂 2 LASER
It is a molecular gas LASER and was designed by Dr.
C.K.N. Patel of BELL labs in 1963. In molecular LASER,
the lasing action occurs between vibration-rotation energy
levels of the molecules. It operates in the middle IR re-
gion. it is a four level LASER producing both continuous
and pulsed output wave-forms. It has very high efficiency
of upto 30%. it is widely used in industry and medical
applications.
Figure 5.5: Population inversion, 𝐸 2 is meta-stable state
𝐶𝑂 2 molecule has one carbon atom about which two
oxygen atoms are symmetrically located. 𝐶𝑂 2 molecule
can vibrate in 3 different modes. In each mode, the centre
5.6 Requisites of a LASER system of gravity remains same.
The three requisites of a LASER system are,

1. Excitation source for pumping action

2. Active medium that supports meta-stable states

3. LASER cavity
Figure 5.6: Mode of vibration
5.6.1 Energy Source or Pumping Mecha-
nism
In order to achieve population inversion more and more
atoms are to be moved to higher energy state and is called
pumping. This is achieved by supplying suitable energy
using an energy source. If optical energy is used then the
pumping is called optical pumping and if electrical energy
is used then the pumping is called electrical pumping.

5.6.2 Active medium

Population inversion occurs at certain stage in the ac-
tive medium due to the absorption of energy. The active
Figure 5.7: Carbon Dioxide LASER
medium supports meta-stable states. After this stage the
active medium is capable of emitting LASER light.
Construction: A typical 𝐶𝑂 2 gas LASER is as shown in
5.6.3 Resonant cavity (or) LASER cavity figure. It consists of a long narrow discharge tube of diam-
eter 2.5 cm and length about 5m made of fused quartz. The
The LASER Cavity consists of an active medium bound
tube is maintained cool & is filled with active medium, a
between two highly parallel mirrors. The reflection of
mixture of 𝐶𝑂 2 , 𝑁2 & 𝐻𝑒 gas in the ratio 1:2:3. Some-
photons from the mirrors results in multiple traverse of
times, water vapor is added to reoxidise. Depending on
photons through the active medium inducing more and
the usage either AC or DC voltage is applied between the
more stimulated emissions. Thus amplification of light is
electrode to provide Electrical discharge pumping. Brew-
achieved. This also helps to tap certain permissible part
ster windows polarize the LASER beam.
of LASER energy from the active medium.The cavity res-
onates and the output will be maximum when the distance
𝐿 between the mirrors is equal to an integral multiple of 𝜆2 . Working:
Here 𝜆 is the wavelength of incident suitable radiation.the
length of the LASER cavity is expressed as When a high DC voltage is supplied across th elec-
𝑛𝜆 trodes, discharge of gases takes place. During the dis-
𝐿= (5.12) charge electrons collide with 𝑁2 and 𝐶𝑂 2 molecules. Thus
2

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5.8.1 Application of LASER in defense -

LASER Range Finder
Ranging is finding the accurate distance of location of an
object from a reference place. During the war the ranging
has to be done with a very high accuracy so that shell hits
and destroys the enemy tank successfully. The laser beam
is ideally suited due to its high intensity and high direction-
ality, It can travel a few kilometer with very low losses in
intensity and very low divergence. The LASER range find-
Figure 5.8: 𝐶𝑂 2 LASER energy level diagram ers using neodymium and carbon dioxide LASERs have
become a standard item for artillery and tanks.

the molecules absorb energy and are excited to higher en-

ergy level. This is called Collision of First Kind.

𝑒 1 + 𝑁2 → 𝑁2∗ + 𝑒 2 (5.13)

𝑒 3 + 𝐶𝑂 2 → 𝐶𝑂 ∗2 + 𝑒 4 (5.14)

Since an higher energy level 𝑁2 of Nitrogen molecule

matches with one of the vibration – rotation level 𝐶5 of
𝐶𝑂 2 the resonance transfer of energy takes place. This is
referred to as Collision of Second Kind.
Figure 5.9: LASER Range Finder
𝑁2∗ + 𝐶𝑂 2 → 𝑁2 + 𝐶𝑂 ∗2 (5.15)

A schematic diagram of a typical LASER range finder

Due to continuous discharge population inversion is
is as shown in the figure 5.9. The LASER range finder
achieved between the level 𝐶5 and 𝐶4 also between the
works on the principle of a radar and is called LIDAR
levels 𝐶5 & 𝐶3 as shown in the energy level diagram. The
which stands for Light Detection and Ranging. It makes
transition from 𝐶5 to 𝐶4 and 𝐶3 results in the emission of
use of the characteristic properties of the LASER beam,
LASER of wavelengths 10.6𝜇𝑚 and 9.6𝜇𝑚 respectively in
namely, monochromaticity, high intensity, coherency, and
the IR region of the EM spectrum. The system gets heated
directionality. A collimated pulse of the LASER beam is
due to non-radiative transitions during the LASER action.
directed towards a target and the reflected 1ight from the
target is received by an optical system and detected. The
Advantages time taken by the LASER beam for the to and fro travel
1. It generates both continuous and pulsed LASER out- from the transmitter to the target is measured. When half
put. of the time thus recorded is multiplied by the velocity of
light, the product gives the range.
2. It has High efficiency compared to other LASER de-
vices 5.8.2 Advantages
Applications: The advantages of LASER range finders over conven-
tional range finders.
1. It is used in industrial applications like welding, cut-
ting, drilling , etc. 1. They are light weight.

2. It is used in LIDAR due to minimum atmospheric at- 2. They posses high reliability.
tenuation. 3. They possess superior range.
3. It finds application in communication systems.
5.8.3 LASER Printer
5.8 Applications of LASER Laser printers ware invented at XEROX in 1969 by by re-
searcher Gary Starkweather.Laser Printers are digital print-
LASER has wide range of applications pertaining all ing devices that are used to create high quality text and
disciplines of engineering. Here in the syllabus only two graphics on plain printer. A Diode Laser is used in the
applications are discussed relavant to computing. process of printing in LASER Printer.

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Construction 3. Explain the terms, (i) Induced absorption, (ii) Sponta-

neous emission, (iii) Stimulated emission, (iv) Popu-
lation inversion, (v) Meta-stable state & (vi) Resonant
cavity.
4. Explain the rates of absorption and emission and
hence derive an expression for energy density using
Einstein’s A and B coefficients.
5. Explain requisites of LASER system.
6. What is Semiconductor LASER? Describe with en-
ergy band diagram the construction & working of
Semiconductor diode LASER along with applica-
tions.
Figure 5.10: Laser Printer Schematic
7. Discuss the working of LASER barcode reader.
8. With the help of a sketch describe the principle, con-
Working Principle struction and working of the LASER Printer.
1. A laser beam projects an image of the page to be 9. Explain LASER Cooling and its application.
printed onto an electrically charged rotating Photo
sensitive drum coated with selenium.
5.10 Numerical Problems
2. Photo conductivity allows charge to leak away from
the areas which are exposed to light and the area gets 1. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a
positively charged. LASER if the transition between them produces light
of wavelength 6493 Å, assuming the ambient temper-
3. Toner particles are then electrostatically picked up by ature at 27°C.
the drum’s charged areas, which have been exposed
to light. 2. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a
medium at thermal equilibrium, if the wavelength of
4. The drum then prints the image onto paper by direct light emitted at 291 K is 6928 Å.
contact and heat, which fuses the ink to the paper.
3. The ratio of population of two energy levels out of
which one corresponds to metastable state is 1.059 ×
Advantages 10−30 . Find the wavelength of light emitted at 330 K.
1. Laser printers are generally quiet and fast.
4. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a
2. Laser printers can produce high quality output on or- medium at thermal equilibrium, if the wavelength of
dinary papers. light emitted at 300 K is 10𝜇𝑚. Also find the effec-
tive temperature when energy levels are equally pop-
3. The cost per page of toner cartridges is lower than ulated.
other printers.
5. The average power output of a LASER beam of wave-
length 6500 Å is 10 mW. Find the number of photons
Disadvantages emitted per second by the LASER source.
1. The initial cost of laser printers can be high. 6. The average power of a LASER beam of wavelength
6328 Å is 5 mW. Find the number of photons emitted
2. Laser printers are more expensive than dot-matrix per second by the LASER source.
printers and ink-jet printers
7. A pulsed LASER has an average power output 1.5
mW per pulse and pulse duration is 20 ns. The
5.9 Model Questions number of photons emitted per pulse is estimated to
be 1.047 ×108 . Find the wavelength of the emitted
1. What is LASER? Enumerate the Characteristics of a LASER.
LASER Beam.
8. A pulsed LASER with power 1 mW lasts for 10 ns.
2. Discuss the three possible ways through which radia- If the number of photons emitted per pulse is 5 ×107 .
tion and matter interaction can take place. Calculate the wavelength of LASER.

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9. A Ruby LASER emits a pulse of 20 ns duration with

average power per pulse being 100 kW. If the number
of photons in each pulse is 6.981 × 1015 , calculate the
wavelength of photons.
10. In a LASER system when the energy difference be-
tween two energy levels is 2 × 10−19 J, the average
power output of LASER beam is found to be 4 mW.
Calculate number of photons emitted per second.

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Applied Physics for EE Stream BPHYE102/202

Department of Physics 36 A T M E College of Engineering, Mysuru

Chapter 6

Optical Fibers

6.1 Introduction 6.2 Total Internal Reflection

Optical fibers are the wires and strands made of trans- Consider a ray of light moving from a denser medium to
parent dielectrics which guide light over longer distances rarer medium. As a result the incident ray of light bends
using the phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection. Many away from the normal. Hence the angle of refraction is
optical fibers are bundled together and are given a protec- greater than the angle of incidence. As the angle of inci-
tive layer of covering using an insulating material. This dence increases the angle of refraction also increases. For
bundle is called Optical Fiber Cable or Fiber Bundle (Bun- a particular angle of incidence 𝜃 𝑐 the refracted ray grazes
dle Fiber). the interface separating the two media. The corresponding
angle of incidence 𝜃 𝑐 is called Critical Angle. If the an-
gle of incidence is greater than the critical angle then all
Construction: The sectional view of a typical optical the light is turned back into the same medium and is called
fiber is as shown in the figure. It has three regions named Total Internal Reflection.
Core, Cladding and Sheath.

1. The innermost light guiding region is called Core.

2. The layer covering core and helps in total internal re-

flection of light is called Cladding or Clad.

3. The outermost protective layer is called Sheath (Coat-

Figure 6.2: Total Internal Reflection
ing). The sheath protects the fiber from mechanical
stress and chemical reactions.

The optical fiber is designed to support total internal re- According to Snell’s law
flection and hence the RI of core𝑛1 is made greater than
the RI of cladding 𝑛2 . A typical fiber will be of the order 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
of few microns.
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 1 = 𝜃 𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝜃 2 = 900
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛900
𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐 =
𝑛1
 
−1 𝑛2
𝜃 𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (6.1)
𝑛1

6.3 Angle of acceptance and Numer-

Figure 6.1: Optical fiber construction
ical aperture
Acceptance angle (𝜃 0 ) is the maximum angle of incidence
with which the ray is sent into the fiber core which allows

37
Applied Physics for EE Stream BPHYE102/202

the incident light to be guided by the core. It is also called 1 √︁ 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (6.4)
as waveguide acceptance angle or acceptance cone half an- 𝑛1
gle. use equation (1.26) in equation (1.24) we have,
𝑛1 1 √︁ 2
In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical fiber 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2
𝑛0 𝑛1
is a dimensionless number that characterizes the range of
angles over which the fiber can accept light. Numerical 1 √︁ 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (6.5)
aperture represents the light gathering capability of optical 𝑛0
fiber and it is given by 𝑁 𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 . Numerical aperture 𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0
1 √︁ 2
𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (6.6)
6.3.1 Condition for propagation 𝑛0
If the fiber is in air 𝑛0 = 1 then,
√︁
𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 (6.7)
Light is transmitted through the fiber only when
𝜃𝑖 ≤ 𝜃0 (6.8)

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 ≤ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 (6.9)

√︁
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 (6.10)
Figure 6.3: Ray propagation in the fiber
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 ≤ 𝑁.𝐴 (6.11)
Consider an optical fiber with core made of refractive This is the condition for propagation. Light will be trans-
index 𝑛1 & cladding made of material refractive index 𝑛2 . mitted through the optical fiber with multiple total internal
Let 𝑛0 be the refractive index of the surrounding medium. reflections when the above condition is satisfied.
Let a ray of light 𝐴𝑂 entering into core at an angle of in-
cidence 𝜃 0 w.r.t fiber axis. Then it is refracted along 𝑂𝐵 at 6.3.2 Fractional RI Change
an angle 𝜃 1 & meet core-cladding interface at critical angle
of incidence (𝜃 𝑐 = 90 − 𝜃 1 ). Then the refracted ray grazes Fractional index change (Δ) is defined as the ratio of
along 𝐵𝐶. On applying Snell’s law at O, we get difference in refractive indices of core & cladding to the
refractive index of the core.
𝑛0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
Δ= (6.12)
𝑛1 𝑛1
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 (6.2)
𝑛0
On applying Snell’s law at point B, we get 𝑛1 Δ = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 (6.13)

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(900 − 𝜃 1 ) = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛900 6.3.3 Relation between NA and Δ

𝑛1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 = 𝑛2 consider the equation
𝑛2
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 = (6.3) √︁
𝑛1 𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
From trigonometric identity √︁
𝑁.𝐴 = (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ) (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) (6.14)
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 1 = 1 For small difference of 𝑛1 & 𝑛2 , we can have,
√︁
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 1 𝑛1 ≈ 𝑛2 (6.15)
using equation 1.25 ∴ 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ≈ 2𝑛1
√︁
√︄
 2 ∴ 𝑁.𝐴 = (2 𝑛1 ) (𝑛1 Δ)
𝑛2 √︁
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 1− 𝑁.𝐴 = 2 𝑛1 2 Δ
𝑛1 √
√︄ 𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑛1 2 Δ (6.16)
2
𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 Thus the Numerical aperture can be increased by in-
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 =
𝑛1 2 creasing the fractional index change.

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6.4 Modes of propagation Step index single mode fiber

Though optical fiber should support any numbers of rays A single mode step index fiber consists of a very fine thin
for propagation practically. But it is found that the opti- core of uniform RI surrounded by Cladding of RI lower
cal fiber allows only a certain restricted number of rays for than that of Core. Since there is abrupt change in the RI
propagation. The maximum number of rays or paths sup- of Core and Cladding at the interface it is called step index
ported by the fiber for the propagation of light is called fiber. Since the Core size is small the Numerical aperture
Modes of propagation. is also small and hence support single mode. They accept
light from LASER source. Splicing is difficult. They are
used in submarine cables.
V-number (Normalised Frequency of the fiber) An
Optical fiber may be characterized by one more parameter
called V-number. This determines the Number of modes
supported by an optical fiber for the propagation.

𝜋 𝑑 √︁ 2
𝑉= 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (6.17)
𝜆

𝜋𝑑
𝑉= 𝑁.𝐴 (6.18) Figure 6.4: Step index single mode fiber
𝜆
here 𝑑 is the diameter of the core, 𝜆 is wavelength, 𝑛1
is the refractive index of the core and 𝑛2 is the refractive
index of the cladding. N.A is numerical Aperture. If the
fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index 𝑛0 , Step index multimode fiber
then √︁ This is similar to single mode step index fiber with the ex-
𝜋 𝑑 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 ception that it has a larger core diameter. The core diameter
𝑉= (6.19)
𝜆 𝑛0 is very large as compared to single mode optical fiber. A
If 𝑉 ≫ 1, the number of modes supported by fiber can typical multimode step index fiber is as shown in figure.
be determined using the formula The numerical aperture is large because of large core size
and thus support multimodes. They accept light from both
𝑉2 LASER as well as from LED. They are used in data links.
𝑁
2
!
𝜋2 𝑑 2 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
𝑁 (6.20)
2 𝜆2 𝑛20

6.4.1 Types of optical fibers

In any optical fiber, the whole material of the cladding has Figure 6.5: Step index multimode fiber
a uniform refractive index value. But the refractive index
of the core material may either remain constant or sub-
jected to variation in a particular pattern. The curve which
represents the variation of refractive index with respect the
radial distance from the axis of the fiber is called the refrac- Graded index multimode fiber
tive index profile. The optical fibers are classified under 3 A multimode fiber has concentric layers of RI is called
categories, GRIN fiber. It means the R I of the Core varies with
distance from the fiber axis. The RI is maximum at the
1. Step index single mode fiber
center and decreases with radial distance towards to core-
2. Step index multi-mode fiber cladding interface. The R I profile is as shown in fig. In
GRIN fibers the acceptance angle and numerical aperture
3. Graded index multimode fiber diminish with radial distance. The light transmission is as
shown above. They accept light from both LASER as well
This classification is done depending on the refractive as from LED. They are used for medium distance com-
index profile, and the number of modes that the fiber can munication for example telephone link between central of-
guide. fices.

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6.5.2 Scattering loss

Light traveling through the core can get scattered by im-
purities or small regions with sudden change in refractive
index. Rayleigh scattering varies as 𝛼 = 𝜆14 and leads to
significant power loss at smaller wavelengths. The scat-
tering results in loss of photons. Rayleigh scattering is re-
sponsible for maximum losses in optical fibers.
Figure 6.6: Graded index multimode fiber

6.5.3 Geometric effects

6.5 Attenuation These may occur due to manufacturing defects like irregu-
larities in fibre dimensions during drawing process or dur-
The optical energy (signal) passing through the optical ing coating, cabling or insulation processes. The micro-
fiber gets reduced progressively. This is due to attenuation. scopic bends are the bends with radii greater than fiber di-
It is also called the fiber loss or significant loss. The atten- ameter. The microscopic bends couple light between the
uation is measured in terms of attenuation co-efficient. The various guided modes of the fiber and some of them then
attenuation co-efficient 𝛼 is defined as the ratio of optical leak through the fiber.
power output to the optical power input for a fiber of length
L and for a given wavelength of propagating light. It is ex-
pressed in 𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚. Attenuation co-efficient is given by 6.6 Applications of Optical Fibers
6.6.1 Point to point communication using
 
−10 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝛼= log10 𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚 (6.21)
𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛 Optical Fibers
Here 𝐿 is the length of the cable in 𝑘𝑚, 𝑃𝑖𝑛 is Power In an optical fiber communication system, the input sig-
of optical signal at launching end (input power) & 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 is nals (audio, video or other digital data) are used to mod-
Power of optical signal at receiving end (output power) ulate light from a source like a LED or a semiconductor
LASER and is transmitted through optical fiber. At the
receiving end the signal is demodulated to reproduce the
The attenuation in fibers gives is due to the following input signal. If data transfer takes place between only two
three losses devices then, it is called point to point communication.

1. Absorption losses

2. Scattering loss (due to Rayleigh Scattering)

3. Geometric Effects (Radiation losses)

6.5.1 Absorption loss

In this type of loss, the loss of signal power occurs due
to absorption of photons associated with the signal. Pho- Figure 6.7: Point to point fiber optic communication sys-
tons are absorbed either by impurities in the glass fiber tem
or by pure glass material itself. Absorption loss is wave-
length dependent.Thus absorption loss is classified in to
two types.
Optical fiber communication process : The communi-
Extrinsic absorption : Extrinsic loss in an optical fiber cation using Optical fiber is as follows. First voice is con-
is due to the absorption of light by the impurities such verted into electrical signal using a transducer. It is digi-
as hydroxide ions and transition metal ions such as iron, tized using a Coder. The digitized signal, which carries the
chromium, cobalt and copper. voice information, is fed to an optical transmitter. The light
source in optical transmitter (LED or LASER Diode) emits
modulated light, which is transmitted through the optical
Intrinsic absorption Intrinsic loss in fiber is due to the fiber. At the other end the modulated light signal is de-
absorption of light by the material of the fiber glass itself. tected by a photo detector and is decoded using a decoder.
The intrinsic losses are insignificant. Finally the information is converted into analog electrical

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signal and is fed to a loud speaker, which converts the sig- Working: Light from the source is transmitted through
nal to voice (sound). the transmitting fiber and is made to fall on the moving
target. The light reflected from the target is made to pas
Advantages through the receiving fiber and the same is detected by the
detector.Based on the intensity of the light received, the
1. Optical fibers can carry very large amounts of infor- displacement of the target can be measured, (i.e.) if the
mation in either digital or analog form. received intensity is more than we can say that the target is
moving towards the sensor and if the intensity is less, we
2. The raw material for optical fiber is of low cost and
can say that the target is moving away from the sensor.
abundant.

3. It has low cost /meter/ channel 6.6.3 Merits and Demerits of Fiber Optic
4. Cables are very compact Sensors
5. Signals are protected from radiation from lightning or Merits
sparking 1. It is immune from nearby EM (electromagnetic) and
6. There is no energy radiation from fiber stray radiation.

7. No sparks are generated 2. It can be used in environments where high levels of

electrical interference exists or where intrinsic safety
is a concern.
Disadvantages
1. The optical connectors are very costly 3. It is light in weight and compact in size.

2. Maintenance cost is high 4. It is cheaper due to low manufacturing cost.

3. They cannot be bent too sharply 5. It offers high sensitivity and hence very small changes
can also be measured.
4. They under go structural changes with temperature
6. It offers wide dynamic range and large bandwidth.
6.6.2 Fiber Optic Displacement Sensor 7. It offers multiplexing and remote sensing capabilities
Principle: Light is sent through a transmitting fiber and 8. It is tolerent against high temperature (i.e. >1450 deg
is made to fall on a moving target. The reflected light from centigrade ) and corrosive environments.
the target is sensed by a detector. With respect to inten-
sity of light reflected from its displacement of the target is 9. It is safe and suitable to be used in extreme vibration
measured. and harse environments.

Construction: It consists of a bundle of transmitting Demerits

fibers coupled to the laser source and a bundle of receiving
fibers coupled to the detector as shown in the figure. The 1. It is very expensive.
axis of the transmitting fiber and the receiving fiber with 2. Detection systems may be complex.
respect to the moving target can be adjusted to increase the
sensitivity of the sensor. 3. The users require training before they start using such
sensor types.

4. Some fiber optic temperature sensors are expensive.

5. It requires precise installation methods or procedures.

6.7 Model Questions

1. Define the terms: (i) angle of acceptance, (ii) numer-
ical aperture, (iii) fractional index change (iv) modes
of propagation & (v) refractive index profile.
Figure 6.8: Fiber Optic Displacement Sensor
2. Obtain an expression for numerical aperture and ar-
rive at the condition for propagation.

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3. Give the relation between Numerical aperture and 9. Calculate NA, V-number and number of modes in
Fractional index change. an optical fiber of core diameter 50𝜇𝑚, core and
cladding refractive indices 1.41 and 1.4 respectively
4. What is refractive index profile? Discuss different at wavelength 820 nm.
types of optical fibers with suitable diagrams.
10. For a step index optical fiber RI of core is 1.45 and
5. What is attenuation? Explain the factors contributing RI of cladding is 1.40 and its core diameter is 45𝜇𝑚.
to the fiber loss. Calculate its relative refractive index difference, V-
number at wavelength 1000 nm and the number of
6. What is attenuation coefficient? Mention the expres- modes.
sion for the attenuation coefficient.
11. Calculate the number of modes of an optical fiber
7. What are the advantages of optical communications will transmit using the following data 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟 𝑒 = 1.50,
over other conventional types of communication? 𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑 = 1.48, core radius = 50𝜇𝑚, 𝜆 = 1𝜇𝑚.

8. Discuss point to point optical fiber communication 12. An optical fiber of 600 m long has input power of 120
system and mention its advantages over the conven- mW which emerges out with power of 90 mW. Find
tional communication system. attenuation in fiber.

9. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of an opti- 13. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 3.6
cal communication. dB/km. What fraction of its initial intensity is remains
after i) 1 km and ii) 3 km ?

14. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 2.2

6.8 Numerical Problems dB/km. What fraction of its initial intensity is remains
after i) 2 km and ii) 6 km ?
1. Calculate the numerical aperture and angle of accep-
tance for an optical fiber having refractive indices
1.563 and 1.498 for core and cladding respectively.

2. The refractive indices of the core and cladding of a

step index optical fiber are 1.45 and 1.4 respectively
and its core diameter is 45𝜇𝑚. Calculate its fractional
refractive index change and numerical aperture.

3. Calculate numerical aperture, acceptance angle and

critical angle of a fiber having a core RI 1.50 and
cladding RI 1.45.

4. An optical fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.32. The

refractive index of cladding is 1.48. Calculate the re-
fractive index of the core, the acceptance angle of the
fiber and the fractional index change.

5. An optical signal propagating in a fiber retains 85%

of input power after traveling a distance of 500 m in
the fiber. Calculate the attenuation coefficient.

6. An optical fiber has core RI 1.5 and RI of cladding is

3% less than the core index. Calculate the numerical
aperture, angle of acceptance critical angle.

7. The numerical aperture of an optical fiber is 0.2 when

surround by air. Determine the RI of its core, given
the RI of the cladding is 1.59. Also find the accep-
tance angle when the fiber is in water of RI 1.33.

8. The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 300

when kept in air. Find the angle of acceptance when
it is in medium of refractive index 1.33.

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 Part IV

Module - 4 - Maxwell’s equations and EM

Waves

43
Chapter 7

Maxwell’s Equations

7.1 Fundamentals of vector calculus linear momentum is the angular momentum. The angu-
lar momentum acts in a direction perpendicular to momen-
7.1.1 Dot product or Scalar product tum and the radius vector. Thus angular momentum ( 𝐿) ® is
given by the cross product of radius vector (®
𝑟 ) and linear
The dot product of two vectors is defined as follows momentum ( 𝑝)® and hence 𝐿® = 𝑟® × 𝑝.
®
® 𝑏® = 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑎. (7.1)
7.1.3 Scalar field
here 𝜃 is the angle between two vectors. 𝑎 and 𝑏 are the
® If 𝑎® = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑖ˆ + 𝑎 𝑦 𝑗ˆ + 𝑎 𝑧 𝑧ˆ and 𝑏® = It is a function of a space whose value at each point is a
magnitudes of 𝑎® and 𝑏.
scalar quantity. For example potential setup by a charge in
𝑏 𝑥 𝑖ˆ + 𝑏 𝑦 𝑗ˆ + 𝑏 𝑧 𝑧ˆ then the dot product or scalar product is
space.
given by

® 𝑏® = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑦 𝑏 𝑦 + 𝑎 𝑧 𝑏 𝑧
𝑎. (7.2) 7.1.4 Vector field
The dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity. It is a function of a space whose value at each point is
a vector quantity. Consider a region in the flowing water.
Each and every point can be associated with a vector whose
Physical Significance The dot product is mathemati-
magnitude represents the speed of flow and direction gives
cally put forward and could be applied in physics under
the direction of flow. Thus the whole region could be imag-
suitable circumstances. For example the work done is
ined filled with vectors and is an example of vector field.
maximum when the displacement is along the force. Thus
® and Consider a region surrounding a point charge. The electric
work done is defined as the dot product of force ( 𝐹)
® and is a scalar quantity. Hence 𝑊 = 𝐹. ®
® 𝑑. field at each and every point surrounding the charge could
displacement( 𝑑)
be represented by vectors and hence is a vector field.

7.1.2 Vector product or Cross product 7.1.5 The ∇ Operator

The vector product of two vectors is defined as follows In mathematics the following operator is used called ∇ op-
erator. When this operator acts on a scalar quantity it in-
𝑎® × 𝑏® = 𝑎 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛ˆ (7.3)
structs to differentiate the scalar quantity. The operation of
∇ on a scalar quantity results in a vector quantity. The ∇
here 𝜃 is the angle between two vectors. 𝑎 and 𝑏 are the
® 𝑛ˆ is a unit vector perpendicular to operator is given by
magnitudes of 𝑎® and 𝑏.
® If 𝑎® = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑖ˆ+ 𝑎 𝑦 𝑗ˆ + 𝑎 𝑧 𝑧ˆ and 𝑏® = 𝑏 𝑥 𝑖ˆ+ 𝑏 𝑦 𝑗ˆ + 𝑏 𝑧 𝑧ˆ
both 𝑎® and 𝑏. 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
then their cross product is given by ∇ = 𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ (7.5)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑖ˆ 𝑗ˆ 𝑘ˆ Let 𝑇 be a scalar function. Then ∇𝑇 states that the ∇
®
𝑎® × 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 (7.4) acts on 𝑇. There are three ways in which ∇ can act.
𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑧
1. On a scalar function ∇𝑇 called the Gradient.
The cross product of two vectors is a vector quantity.
2. On a vector function via the dot product ∇. 𝐴® called
the Divergence.
Physical Significance The cross product is put forward
in mathematics an could be applied in physics under suit- 3. On a vector function via the cross product ∇× 𝐴® called
able circumstances. For a rotating body the moment of the Curl.

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7.1.6 The Gradient

Consider a scalar function 𝑉. The operator ∇ acting on the
scalar function 𝑉 is given by

𝜕𝑉 ˆ 𝜕𝑉 ˆ 𝜕𝑉
∇𝑉 = 𝑖ˆ +𝑗 +𝑘 (7.6)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

The gradient ∇𝑉 points along the maximum variation of

the function 𝑉 and the magnitude of ∇𝑉 gives the rate of
Figure 7.1: Positive, Negative and Zero Divergence
change in the maximal direction.

Physical significance: Let us consider a positive point

charge in space. Let the potential set up by the charge in 7.1.8 The Curl
the surrounding be 𝑉 and is a scalar quantity. The potential
decreases as the distance from the charge increases. Thus
The curl of a vector field is could be constructed as follows
the gradient of potential results in the electric field strength
which is a vector quantity. This could be written as   
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 
∇ × 𝐻® = 𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ × 𝐻 𝑥 𝑖ˆ + 𝐻 𝑦 𝑗ˆ + 𝐻 𝑧 𝑘ˆ
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐸® = − 𝑟ˆ (7.7)
𝜕𝑟
Here 𝑟 is the position vector and 𝑟ˆ is the unit vector along
position vector. The negative sign indicates the decrease in
𝑖ˆ 𝑗ˆ 𝑘ˆ
potential. Thus the above equation could be written as
∇ × 𝐻® = 𝜕
𝜕𝑥
𝜕
𝜕𝑦
𝜕
𝜕𝑧 (7.10)
  𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧
𝜕𝑉 ˆ 𝜕𝑉 ˆ 𝜕𝑉 ˆ
𝐸® = −∇𝑉 = − 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘 (7.8)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Thus the Electric field strength is defined as negative of The equation 7.10 represents curl of 𝐻® and also it is evident
gradient of potential also known as 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑉. that curl of a vector is a vector quantity.

7.1.7 The Divergence

Physical significance : The curl of a vector function is
The divergence of a vector field is mathematically written
® The vector field 𝐸 is represented by 𝐸® = 𝐸 𝑥 𝑖ˆ + a measure how much field swirls (curls) around the point
as ∇. 𝐸.
ˆ From the definition of the ∇ we can construct of consideration. Consider a wire carrying electric current.
𝐸 𝑦 𝑗ˆ + 𝐸 𝑧 𝑘.
This sets magnetic field surrounding the wire. Consider a
divergence as
point on the wire. The magnetic field lines curl or swirl
around the point. Higher the value of 𝐻® around the point
stronger will be the curl. If the field lines purely parallel
   
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. 𝐸® = 𝑖ˆ + 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ . 𝐸 𝑥 𝑖ˆ + 𝐸 𝑦 𝑗ˆ + 𝐸 𝑧 𝑘ˆ then it represents zero curl around the point. See fig 7.2.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝐸 𝑥 𝜕𝐸 𝑦 𝜕𝐸 𝑧
∇. 𝐸® = + + (7.9)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
From the equation 7.9 we observe that the divergence of a
vector field is a scalar quantity.

Physical significance : The physical significance of the

divergence of a vector function is it measures how much
the vector E spreads out (diverges) from a point of con-
sideration. For example if we consider a positive charge
in space the field lines diverge and hence it is positive di-
vergence. For a negative charge the field lines converge Figure 7.2: Curl of a magnetic field
and hence it is negative divergence. If the field lines or
parallel then it iszero divergence. See fig. 7.1.

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7.2 Line, Surface and Volume inte- as in the figure. Consider 𝑛ˆ a unit vector normal to 𝑑𝑆 and
® The surface integral over
𝑑𝑆 𝑛ˆ represents area vector 𝑑𝑆.
grals the entire surface 𝑆 is given by
7.2.1 Line integral ∫
® 𝑑𝑆
𝐴. ® (7.13)
Line integral is an expression of the form 𝑠
∫ 𝑄 ∫
® 𝑑𝑙
® Here is the symbol used for surface integral. The sur-
𝐴. (7.11) 𝑠
𝑃

here 𝐴® represents the vector field and 𝑑𝑙

® represents a in-

Figure 7.5: Surface Integral

Figure 7.3: Line Integral
face integral gives the net outward flux of the vector field
finitesimally small length at a point 𝑀 along the path 𝑃𝑄 through the surface. For a closed surface the surface inte-
gral is given by
in the field. The dot product of 𝐴® and 𝑑𝑙 ® is given by
® 𝑑𝑙
𝐴. ® = 𝐴 𝑑𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃, Here 𝜃 is the angle made 𝑑𝑙 ® with 𝐴.
® ∮
For a closed path the integral is written as ® 𝑑𝑆
𝐴. ® (7.14)
∮ 𝑠
® 𝑑𝑙
𝐴. ® (7.12) In case of surface integral for a closed surface the 𝑛ˆ chosen
∮ outwards. The surface integral could be applied to calcu-
is the symbol used for closed contour integral. This is late the net flux of the electric field through a surface in the
also called as circulation of 𝐴® around the closed path. The electric field.

7.2.3 Volume integral

Figure 7.4: Circulation of vector

Figure 7.6: Volume Integral

line integral concept can be applied to calculate the poten-
tial difference between to points in an electric field.
Consider a volume charge distribution in which charges
7.2.2 Surface integral are continuously distributed. Let 𝑣 be the volume through
which the charges are distributed. Consider a point 𝑀 in-
® consider a
Consider a surface of area 𝑆 in a vector field 𝐴. side the charge distribution. Let 𝑑𝑣 be a small volume
small infinitesimal area 𝑑𝑆 on the surface around point 𝑀 around a point 𝑀. let 𝜌 𝑣 be the density of charges at 𝑀

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and is a scalar quantity. The net charge in the volume is

given by volume integral of the form
∮
𝜌 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 (7.15)
𝑣
∮
here 𝑣
is the symbol for volume integral.

Figure 7.8: Gauss divergence theorem

7.3 Some Theorems of Electrostat-
ics, Electricity, Magnetism and
Statement: The Gauss divergence theorem states that
Electromagnetic induction the integral of the normal component of the flux density
over a closed surface of any shape in an electric field is
7.3.1 Gauss flux theorem - Gauss’ law in equal to the volume integral of the divergence of the flux
electrostatics throughout the space enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
Mathematically
Consider a region in space consisting of charges. Let a ∮ ∮
surface of any shape enclose these charges and is called a 𝐷. ® = (∇. 𝐷)
® 𝑑𝑆 ® 𝑑𝑣 (7.18)
Gaussian surface. Let 𝑄 be the net charge enclosed by the 𝑠 𝑣

Gaussian surface 𝑆. The closed surface could be consid-

ered to be made up of number of elementary surfaces 𝑑𝑆. Proof
If 𝐷® is the electric flux density at 𝑑𝑆 then the surface inte- Consider a volume 𝑣 enclosed by a Gaussian surface 𝑆 as
gral gives the total electric flux over the surface 𝑆 could be show in the fig. 7.8. Let a charge 𝑑𝑄 be enclosed by a
obtained as small volume 𝑑𝑣 inside the Gaussian surface. If 𝜌 is the
density of charges and may vary inside the volume 𝑣 then
the charge density associated with volume 𝑑𝑣 is given by
𝑑𝑄
𝜌𝑣 =
𝑑𝑣
Thus
𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌 𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Thus the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is
give by ∮ ∮
𝑄= 𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌 𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Figure 7.7: Gauss’ Flux Theorem - Electrostatics 𝑣 𝑣
Substituting for 𝜌 𝑣 from Maxwell’s First equation 7.18 we
get
∮ ∑︁
𝜙= 𝐷. ® =
® 𝑑𝑆 𝑞=𝑄 (7.16)
∮
𝑠
® 𝑑𝑣
𝑄 = (∇. 𝐷)
𝑣
Í
here 𝜙 is the total flux and 𝑞 = (𝑞 1 + 𝑞 2 + ...) is the total According to Gauss’ law of electrostatics we have
charge enclosed by the surface. ∮
𝑄= 𝐷. ®
® 𝑑𝑆
𝑠

7.3.2 Gauss Divergence Theorem Thus equating the equations for 𝑄 we get
∮ ∮
Divergence of 𝐷® ® ®
𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = (∇. 𝐷) ® 𝑑𝑣 (7.19)
𝑠 𝑣
Consider a vector field 𝐷. ® Consider a point 𝑃 in the Thus Gauss divergence theorem. Divergence theorem re-
vector field. Let 𝜌 𝑣 be the density of charges at the point lates the surface integral with volume integral.
𝑃. It can be shown that the divergence of the 𝐷® is given by

∇. 𝐷® = 𝜌 𝑣 (7.17)
7.3.3 Stokes’ Theorem
Stokes, theorem relates surface integral with line integral
This is also the Maxwell’s first equation. (Circulation of a vector field around a closed path).

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7.3.5 Amperes Law

Statement: The circulation of magnetic field strength
𝐻® along a closed path is equal to the net current enclosed
(𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 ) by the loop. Mathematically
∮
𝐻. ® = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
® 𝑑𝑙 (7.23)

By applying stokes’ theorem we get

∫
® 𝑑𝑆
(∇ × 𝐻). ® = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 (7.24)
Figure 7.9: Stokes’ theorem 𝑠

The equation for 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 could be obtained as

∮
Statement: The surface integral of curl of 𝐹® throughout 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐽. ®
® 𝑑𝑆 (7.25)
a chosen surface is equal to the circulation of the 𝐹® around 𝑠
the boundary of the chosen surface.
Mathematically Equating equations 7.24 and 7.25 we get
∫ ∮ ∫ ∮
® ®
(∇ × 𝐹). 𝑑𝑆 = ®
® 𝑑𝑙
𝐹. (7.20) ® 𝑑𝑆
(∇ × 𝐻). ® = 𝐽. ®
® 𝑑𝑆
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
Thus we get the amperes law as
7.3.4 Gauss’ law of Magnetostatics
∇ × 𝐻® = 𝐽® (7.26)
Consider a closed Gaussian surface of any shape in a
magnetic field. The magnetic fields lines exist in closed Thus Amperes circuital law and another Maxwell’s equa-
loops. Hence for every flux line that enters the closed sur- tion.
face a flux line emerges out else where. Thus for a closed
surface in a magnetic field the total inward flux(Positive)
is equal to total outward flux(Negative). Thus the net flux
7.3.6 Biot-Savart Law
through the Gaussian surface is zero. Thus it could be writ- Consider a portion of a conductor carrying current 𝐼. Let
ten ∮ 𝑑𝑙 be infinitesimally small elemental length of the conduc-
® =0
® 𝑑𝑆
𝐵. (7.21) tor at 𝑀. Consider a point 𝑃 near The conductor. Let 𝑀®𝑃
𝑠 be the the vector joining the element with the point and of
Here 𝐵® magnetic flux density. Applying Gauss divergence length 𝑟 with 𝑟ˆ being the unit vector. 𝜃 is the angle made
theorem we get by 𝑀 𝑃 with the element. Biot-Savart law states the mag-
nitude and direction of the small magnetic field at 𝑃 due to
the elemental length 𝑑𝑙 of the current carrying conductor.

Figure 7.10: Gauss’ Flux Theorem - Magnetostatics

∮ ∮
𝐵. ® =
® 𝑑𝑆 ® 𝑑𝑣 = 0
(∇. 𝐵)
𝑠 𝑣 Figure 7.11: Biot-Savart Law
Hence it could be written
® is
The magnitude of the magnetic field 𝑑𝐻
∇. 𝐵® = 0 (7.22)
This is one of the Maxwell’s equations. 1. Proporitonal to the length of the element 𝑑𝑙

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2. Proportional to the current through the element 𝐼.

𝜕 𝐵® ®
∮ ∫
3. Proportional to the Sine of the angle 𝜃, 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃). ® =−
𝐸® . 𝑑𝐿 . 𝑑𝑆 (7.34)
𝑠 𝜕𝑡
4. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance 𝑟. Using the Stokes’ theorem
The direction of the magnetic field 𝑑𝐻® is perpendicular ∮ ∫
® = (∇ × 𝐸).
𝐸® . 𝑑𝐿 ® 𝑑𝑆® (7.35)
to the plane containing both the element and the vector 𝑟®.
𝑠
Mathematically we get
and hence we can write
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
𝑑𝐻 ∝ ∫ ∫ ®
𝑟2 ® ® 𝜕𝐵 ®
(∇ × 𝐸). 𝑑𝑆 = − . 𝑑𝑆 (7.36)
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃) 𝑠 𝑠 𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝐻 = (7.27)
4𝜋 𝑟2 Thus finally it reduces to
1
Here 4𝜋 is the proportionality constant. the above equation
could be expressed in the vector form as 𝜕 𝐵®
∇ × 𝐸® = − (7.37)
𝜕𝑡
®
® = 𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟ˆ
𝑑𝐻 (7.28) Thus Faraday’s law in differential (Point form) and one of
4𝜋 𝑟 2 the Maxwell’s equations.
Thus the Biot-Savart Law. It could also be written as
®
® = 𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟®
7.4 Equation of continuity
𝑑𝐻 (7.29)
4𝜋 𝑟 3
In all processes involving motion of charge carriers the
7.3.7 Faraday’s Laws of electro-magnetic in- net charge is always conserved and is called the law of
conservation of charges.
duction
Statement Let us consider a volume 𝑉. Let the charges flow into
and out of the volume 𝑉. Then the equation for the law of
1. When ever there is a change in magnetic flux linked
conservation could be written in the integral form as
with the circuit an emf (𝑒) is induced and is equal to
rate of change of magnetic flux. ∮
𝜕
∫
® ®
𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 = − 𝜌 𝑣 𝑑𝑉 (7.38)
2. The 𝑒𝑚 𝑓 induced is in such a direction that it apposes 𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝑣
the cause. 𝜌 𝑣 is the volume density of charges and 𝐽® = 𝑁𝑒®𝑣 = 𝜌 𝑣 𝑣®
Mathematically the induced 𝑒𝑚 𝑓 is given by is the current density.The negative sign indicates that the
current density is due to the decrease in positive charge
𝑑𝜙 density inside the volume. Using the Gauss divergence
𝑒=− (7.30)
𝑑𝑡 theorem we can write
Here 𝜙 is magnetic flux linked with the circuit. For a coil
∮ ∮
® ® ®
𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 = (∇. 𝐽).𝑑𝑉
of 𝑁 turns the induced 𝑒𝑚 𝑓 due to rate of change of flux is 𝑠 𝑣
given by
𝑑𝜙 Thus the equation 7.38 could be written as
𝑒 = −𝑁 (7.31)
𝑑𝑡 ∮ ∫
® 𝜕
(∇. 𝐽).𝑑𝑉 =− 𝜌 𝑣 𝑑𝑉
Faraday’s law in integral and differential forms 𝑣 𝜕𝑡 𝑣

For a conducting loop linked with changing magnetic flux, The above equation could be reduced to
the rate of change flux is ∮ ∫
® 𝜕 𝜌𝑣
(∇. 𝐽).𝑑𝑉 =− 𝑑𝑉
𝜕 𝐵® ®
∫
𝑑𝜙 𝑣 𝑣 𝜕𝑡
= . 𝑑𝑆 (7.32)
𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝜕𝑡
Thus the equation of continuity could be written as
The induced 𝑒𝑚 𝑓 in the the circuit is given by
𝜕 𝜌𝑣
∮ ∇. 𝐽® = − (7.39)
𝑒= ®
𝐸® . 𝑑𝐿 (7.33) 𝜕𝑡
Equation 7.39 represents the law of conservation of
Substituting the above in the equation 7.30 we get charges.

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Discussion on equation of continuity : Differentiating the above equation with respect to time

𝜕  ®  𝜕 𝜌𝑣
In case of DC circuits for steady currents the inward flow ∇. 𝐷 =
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
of charges is equal to the outward flow through a closed
surface and hence 𝜕𝜌
𝜕𝑡 = 0. Thus the equation of continuity
𝑣
𝜕 𝐷® 𝜕 𝜌𝑣
becomes ∇. 𝐽® = 0. ∇. = (7.40)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
The equation of continuity is given by

𝜕 𝜌𝑣
∇. 𝐽® = −
𝜕𝑡
Hence equation 7.40 could be written as
!
® 𝜕 𝐷®
∇. 𝐽 = −∇.
𝜕𝑡
!
® 𝜕 𝐷®
∇. 𝐽 + =0
𝜕𝑡

Hence for time varying

 circuits
 ∇. 𝐽® = 0 does not hold good
®
and instead ∇. 𝐽® + 𝜕𝑡 = 0 has to be used. Also 𝐽® in
𝜕 𝐷

® ®
Figure 7.12: DC and AC circuits - Continuity equation
Amperes
  Circuital law ∇ × 𝐻 = 𝐽 has to be replace with
® ®
𝜕𝐷
𝐽 + 𝜕𝑡 Thus the Maxwell-Ampere law is given by

𝜕 𝐷®
∇ × 𝐻® = 𝐽® + (7.41)
𝜕𝑡
In case of AC circuits containing capacitors the equa-
tion ∇. 𝐽® = 0 fails as follows. During the positive half In the above equation
®
𝜕𝐷
is called displacement current.
cycle, say, the capacitor charges. If we imagine a closed 𝜕𝑡

surface enclosing the capacitor plate and the attached con-

ductor there will be inward flow of charges into the closed 7.5.3 Expression for Displacement current
surface but no outward flow. Thus in order to rescue the
Consider an AC circuit containing a capacitor as shown in
equation of continuity Maxwell introduced the concept of
the figure 7.13
displacement current density.

7.5 Displacement Current

7.5.1 Definition
Displacement current density is a correction factor intro-
duced by Maxwell in order to explain the continuity of
electric current in time-varying circuits. It has the same Figure 7.13: Displacement current
unit as electric current density. Displacement current is as-
sociated with magnetic field but it does not describe the
flow of charge. The displacement current in terms of displacement cur-
rent density is given by
7.5.2 Maxwell-Ampere Law 𝜕 𝐷®
!
𝐼𝐷 = .𝐴 (7.42)
Introducing the concept of displacement current for time 𝜕𝑡
varying circuits, Maxwell suggested corrections to the
Amperes law. According to Gauss’ Law Here 𝐴 is the area of the capacitor plates.The elecric flux
density 𝐷 is give by
∇. 𝐷® = 𝜌 𝑣 𝐷 = 𝜖𝐸 (7.43)

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Here 𝐸 is the electric field strength which is given by

𝑉
𝐸= (7.44)
𝑑
Here 𝑑 is the separation between the capacitor plates. 𝑉
the applied potential is given by

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡 (7.45)
Using equations 7.43, 7.44 and 7.45 we get
𝜖
𝐷= 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡 (7.46)
𝑑
Substituting for 𝐷 in equation 7.42 from equation 7.46,
we get
𝜕 𝜖 
𝐼𝐷 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡 .𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝑑
Executing differentiation the displacement current is given
by
𝑗𝜔𝜖 𝐴
𝐼𝐷 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡 (7.47)
𝑑

7.6 Maxwell’s Equations

Using the laws and theorems discussed in this chapter
Four Maxwell’s equations for time-varying fields could be
written as

1. Gauss’ Law of Electrostatics ∇. 𝐷® = 𝜌 𝑣

®
2. Faraday’s Law ∇ × 𝐸® = − 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝐵

3. Gauss’ Law of Magnetic fields ∇. 𝐵® = 0

®
4. Maxwell - Ampere Law ∇ × 𝐻® = 𝐽® + 𝜕𝐷
𝜕𝑡

The Four Maxwell’s equations for static fields could be

written as

1. ∇. 𝐷® = 𝜌 𝑣
2. ∇ × 𝐸® = 0

3. ∇. 𝐵® = 0
4. ∇ × 𝐻® = 𝐽®

The above equations are used to study the electromag-

netic waves.

Department of Physics 52 A T M E College of Engineering, Mysuru

Chapter 8

Electromagnetic waves

8.1 Introduction As per the Maxwells equation ∇. 𝐷® = 𝜌 𝑣 . Since 𝐷 = 𝜖 𝐸

it could be written as ∇. 𝐸® = 𝜌𝜖𝑣 . Substituting in the above
The existence of EM waves was predicted by Maxwell the- equation we get
oretically using the point form of Faraday’s Law of electro- 𝜌 
∇ × ∇ × 𝐸® = ∇ − ∇2 𝐸®
𝑣
magnetic induction. As per Faraday’s law a time varying (8.6)
magnetic field induces electric field which varies with re- 𝜖
spect to space and time. The reverse is also evident from Substituting equation 8.6 in equation 8.5 we get
the equations. Thus Electromagnetic wave is the propaga- 𝜌  𝜕  
− ∇2 𝐸® = −𝜇∇ × 𝐻®
𝑣
tion of energy in terms of varying electric and magnetic ∇ (8.7)
fields which are in mutually perpendicular directions and 𝜖 𝜕𝑡
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Substituting equation 8.4 in 8.7 we have
!
𝜌  𝜕 ® 𝜕 𝐸®
− ∇2 𝐸® = −𝜇
𝑣
∇ 𝐽+𝜖 (8.8)
8.2 Wave equation for EM waves in 𝜖 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
vacuum in terms of electric field the above equation could be rewritten as
using Maxwell’s Equations
𝜕 2 𝐸® 𝜕 𝑗® 𝜌 
∇2 𝐸® − 𝜇𝜖
𝑣
= 𝜇 + ∇ (8.9)
Consider the Maxwell’s equations 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜖
The LHS in equation 8.9 represents a propagating wave
𝜕 𝐵®
∇ × 𝐸® = − (8.1) and the RHS the source of origin of the wave. Here 𝜇
𝜕𝑡 and 𝜖 are respectively Absolute permeability and Absolute
permittivity of isotropic homogeneous medium. In case of
𝜕 𝐷®
∇ × 𝐻® = 𝐽® + (8.2) propagation of EM wave in free space ( 𝐽® = 0, 𝜌 𝑣 = 0)
𝜕𝑡 equation 8.9 reduces to
Substituting 𝐷 = 𝜖 𝐸 and 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 in the above equations
we get 𝜕 2 𝐸®
∇2 𝐸® − 𝜇𝜖 =0 (8.10)
𝜕 𝐻® 𝜕𝑡 2
∇ × 𝐸® = −𝜇 (8.3)
𝜕𝑡 Hence the electromagnetic wave equation in free space.
𝜕 𝐸® Comparing the above equation with the general wave equa-
∇ × 𝐻® = 𝐽® + 𝜖 (8.4) tion we get the velocity of the EM wave
𝜕𝑡
To derive wave equation in terms of electric field, the term 1
= 𝜇𝜖 (8.11)
𝐻® has to be eliminated. Taking curl on both sides the equa- 𝑣2
tion 8.3 we get
hence velocity of the EM wave
𝜕  
∇ × ∇ × 𝐸® = −𝜇 ∇ × 𝐻® (8.5) 1
𝜕𝑡 𝑣=√ (8.12)
𝜇𝜖
According to vector analysis 𝐴 × (𝐵 × 𝐶) = 𝐵( 𝐴.𝐶) −
𝐶 ( 𝐴.𝐵). Thus The velocity of propagation of EM Wave in vacuum

1
≈ 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
 
∇ × ∇ × 𝐸® = ∇ ∇. 𝐸® − ∇2 𝐸® 𝑐=√ (8.13)
𝜇0 𝜖 0

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Applied Physics for EE Stream BPHYE102/202

8.3 Plane electromagnetic waves in electric field vector of this electromagnetic wave makes an
angle 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑡𝑎 with respect to x-axis, say. This electric vec-
vacuum tor could be resolved into two perpendicular components
Electromagnetic waves that travels in one direction and 𝐸®𝑥 and 𝐸®𝑦 along x and y axes respectively. Based on the
uniform in the other two orthogonal directions is called magnitudes of the components and the phase difference be-
plane electromagnetic waves. For example consider a tween the components there are three kinds of polarization
plane electromagnetic wave traveling along z axis the elec- of electromagnetic waves. They are
tric and magnetic vibrations are uniform and confined to 1. Linearly Polarized EM waves
x-y plane.
2. Circularly Polarized EM waves
3. Electrically Polarized EM waves

Linear polarization In case of linear polarization the

amplitudes of 𝐸®𝑥 and 𝐸®𝑦 may or may not be equal and they
are in phase(in unison). Thus the projection of the resul-
tant 𝐸® on a plane (x-y plane) perpendicular to the direction
of propagation is a straight line. Thus linear polarization.

Circular polarization In case of circular polarization

the amplitudes of 𝐸®𝑥 and 𝐸®𝑦 are equal in magnitude and
the phase difference is 90°. Thus the projection of the re-
sultant traces a circle on the plane perpendicular to the di-
rection of propagation. Thus Circular polarization.
Figure 8.1: Plane Electromagnetic Waves
Elliptical polarization In case of circular polarization
the amplitudes of 𝐸®𝑥 and 𝐸®𝑦 are unequal in magnitude and
the phase difference is 90°. Thus the projection of the re-
Consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating sultant traces an ellipse on the plane perpendicular to the
along +ve x-axis. If the time varying electric and mag- direction of propagation. Thus Circular polarization.
netic fields are along y and z axes respectively then we can
write  
® 2𝜋
𝐸 = 𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡) 𝑖ˆ (8.14)
𝜆
 
® 1 2𝜋
𝐵 = 𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡) 𝑗ˆ (8.15)
𝑐 𝜆
The ratio of the amplitudes of Electric and Magnetic fields
from equations 8.14 and 8.15 is given by Figure 8.2: Polarization of Electromagnetic Waves
𝐸𝑦
=𝑐 (8.16)
𝐵𝑧
Here ’c’ is the velocity of light. The linear, circular and elliptical polarization are as
shown in the figure 8.2.

8.4 Polarization of Elecromagnetic

waves
8.4.1 Transverse nature of electromagnetic
waves
The electric and magnetic variations are mutually perpen-
dicular and perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Thus electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. Elec-
tromagnetic waves also exhibit polarization. Consider an
electromagnetic wave propagating along z-axis. The the

Department of Physics 54 A T M E College of Engineering, Mysuru

 Part V

Module - 5 - Semiconductor and Devices

55
Chapter 9

Semiconductors

9.1 Introduction ergy and move to conduction band. But electrons cannot
spend more time there and hence they return to a lower en-
Semiconductors are the materials which posses nega- ergy level in valence band. Thus electrons will be under
tive temperature co-efficient of resistance. Their electrical constant excitation and de-excitation process. Thus the av-
properties are different from that conductors and insula- erage energy of the electron lies at the center of the energy
tors. The pure form of semiconductors are known as in- gap and called Fermi energy.
trinsic semiconductors. The conductivity in intrinsic semi-
conductors is due to both the motion of electrons in the
conduction band and the motion of holes in the valence
band. The electrons in the valence band of intrinsic semi-
conductors need more energy to move to conduction band.
This energy could be reduced by doping a pure semicon-
ductor with certain impurities. The process of adding im-
purity is called doping. Such semiconductors are called
extrinsic semiconductors. Based on the type of dopant ex-
trinsic semiconductors are classified into n-type semicon-
ductors and p-type semiconductors. The conductivity of
extrinsic semiconductors is due to the motion of majority
charge carries electrons in n-type and holes in p-type. Figure 9.1: Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductors

Doping of pentavalent impurity atoms to pure semicon-

ductor results in the fifth electron which does not partici-
pate in bonding and loosely bound to the impurity atoms.
The energy of these electrons lie in the energy gap of semi-
conductor.Thus donor level is created near the lower edge
of the conduction band. Given a small amount of energy
electrons move from donor level to conduction band. Thus
there will be large number of free electrons in the conduc-
tion band. Thus electrons are the majority charge carri-
ers in n-type semiconductors. Similarly doping of trivalent
impurity atoms to pure semiconductor results in the forma-
tion of the acceptor level near the upper edge of the valence
band. Holes are the majority carriers in p-type semicon- Figure 9.2: Fermi Level in Extrinsic semiconductors
ductors.

9.2 Significance of Fermi level

Fermi level acts as a distinguishing energy position be-
tween filled and unfilled energy states in metals and semi-
conductors. In case of pure semiconductors, at normal In case of extrinsic semiconductors the Fermi energy lies
temperatures, electrons are most probably found either in towards conduction band in n-type and towards valence
conduction band or in valence band. This is because of band in p-type semiconductors. Fermi level depends on
electrons in the top most levels of valence band absorb en- temperature and changes with temperature.

57
Applied Physics for EE Stream BPHYE102/202

9.3 Carrier Concentration in intrin- √  𝐸 −𝐸 

4 2 ∗ 3 𝐹 𝑔
sic semiconductors 𝑁𝑒 =
ℎ 3
(𝜋𝑚 𝑒 𝑘𝑇) 2𝑒 𝑘𝑇
(9.3)

Intrinsic semiconductor is the pure form of semiconduc- √  

−𝐸𝐹
4 2 3
tor. When sufficient energy is supplied to electrons in the 𝑁 ℎ = 3 (𝜋𝑚 ∗ℎ 𝑘𝑇) 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (9.4)
ℎ
valence band they absorb energy and move to conduction
band leaving behind a hole. Thus the number of electrons Both electron concentration and hole concentration de-
in the conduction band is equal to number of holes in the pend on fermi energy 𝐸 𝐹 . In case of intrinsic semiconduc-
valence band. The total number of electrons in the conduc- tor 𝑁𝑒 = 𝑁 ℎ and hence equating the equations 9.1 and 9.2
tion band per unit volume of the semiconductor is known we get
as electron concentration. Similarly number of holes in
the valance band per unit volume of the semiconductor is
𝐸   
3 𝐹 −𝐸𝑔 3 −𝐸𝐹

known as hole concentration. The total number of charge (𝑚 ∗𝑒 ) 2 𝑒 = (𝑚 ∗ℎ ) 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

𝑘𝑇
(9.5)
carriers per unit volume in the semiconductor is called car-  2𝐸 −𝐸 
𝐹 𝑔
 ∗  32
𝑚ℎ
rier concentration. In case of pure semiconductors electron 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = (9.6)
concentration and hole concentration are same. 𝑚 ∗𝑒
 ∗
2𝐸 𝐹 − 𝐸 𝑔 3 𝑚
= 𝑙𝑛 ℎ∗ (9.7)
9.3.1 Expression for Electron concentration 𝑘𝑇 2 𝑚𝑒
 ∗
(𝑁 𝑒 ) 3
2𝐸 𝐹 − 𝐸 𝑔 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 ℎ∗
𝑚
(9.8)
2 𝑚𝑒
The following equation 9.1 determines the electron con-  ∗
centration in intrinsic semiconductors. 𝐸𝑔 3 𝑚
𝐸𝐹 = + 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 ℎ∗ (9.9)
√  𝐸 −𝐸  2 4 𝑚𝑒
4 2 ∗ 3 𝐹 𝑔
𝑁𝑒 = 3 (𝜋𝑚 𝑒 𝑘𝑇) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
2 (9.1) Thus the expression for Fermi energy in intrinsic semicon-
ℎ ductors. If we consider that 𝑚 ∗ℎ = 𝑚 ∗𝑒 then equation 9.9
Here becomes
𝐸𝑔
ℎ is Planck’s constant 𝐸𝐹 = (9.10)
𝑚 ∗𝑒 is the effective mass of the electron 2
𝑘 is Boltzmann constant
𝑇 is absolute temperature 9.4 Expression for electrical conduc-
𝐸 𝐹 is Fermi energy tivity in semiconductors
𝐸 𝑔 is the energy gap of the semiconductor.
The conductivity in semiconductors is due two kinds of
9.3.2 Expression for Hole concentration (𝑁 𝑒 ) charge carries electrons and holes. Let us calculate the con-
tribution of electrons for conduction.
The following equation 9.2 determines the electron con-
centration in intrinsic semiconductors. Consider a semiconductor of area of cross section 𝐴 and
√   carrying current 𝐼. Let us assume that the current is only
−𝐸𝐹
4 2 3
due to electrons. let 𝑣 be the drift velocity of the electrons.
𝑁 ℎ = 3 (𝜋𝑚 ∗ℎ 𝑘𝑇) 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (9.2)
ℎ Let 𝑁𝑒 is the electron concentration. The current through
Here the semi conductor is given by
ℎ is Planck’s constant 𝑞
𝑚 ∗ℎ is the effective mass of the electron 𝐼=
𝑇
𝑘 is Boltzmann constant
𝑇 is absolute temperature Here 𝑞 is the amount of charge crossing the given cross
𝐸 𝐹 is Fermi energy section in 𝑇 second.
𝐸 𝑔 is the energy gap of the semiconductor.
In unit time the distance 𝑙 traveled by the electron will
be numerically equal to drift velocity (𝑣). Thus the number
9.3.3 Expression relating Fermi energy and of electrons in the volume swept by the electrons in one
Energy gap for an intrinsic semicon- second is the rate of flow of charge. The volume swept by
ductor the electrons in one second is given by 𝐴𝑣. Since 𝑒 is the
charge on electron then, rate of flow of charge is given by
The expressions for electron and hole concentrations in
a pure semiconductor are given by equations 9.1 and 9.2 𝐼 = 𝑁𝑒 𝑒 𝐴𝑣 (9.11)

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Applied Physics for EE Stream BPHYE102/202

We know that the expression for the current density is Explanation Consider a conductor carrying current
given by 𝑗 = 𝐴𝐼 . Thus the expression for current density is along +ve X axis. Magnetic field is applied along +ve Z
given by axis. Thus electrons experience Lorentz force along the -
ve Y axis. Thus electrons accumulate on the lower surface
𝑗 = 𝑁𝑒 𝑒𝑣 (9.12) which results in the accumulation of +ve charges on the
The drift velocity 𝑣 is related to the mobility of the elec- upper surface. This results in an electric field developed
trons by the equation 𝑣 = 𝜇𝑒 𝐸. Here 𝜇𝑒 is the mobility of between the two surfaces. The force on the electrons due
electrons in semiconductor. 𝐸 is the applied electric field to electric field further apposes the force due to magnetic
strength. Thus substituting for 𝑣 in equation 9.12 we get field. A stage is reached where in both the forces are equal
and an equilibrium state is reached. The electric field de-
𝑗 = 𝑁𝑒 𝑒𝜇𝑒 𝐸 (9.13) veloped across the material at equilibrium is called Hall
Field.
It is also known that
𝑗 = 𝜎𝑒 𝐸 (9.14)
Here 𝜎𝑒 conductivity due to electrons. Comparing equa-
tions 9.13 and 9.14 we get
𝜎𝑒 = 𝑁𝑒 𝑒𝜇𝑒 (9.15)
Extending the same treatment for the conduction of
holes we get an expression for electrical conductivity due
to holes as
𝜎ℎ = 𝑁 ℎ 𝑒𝜇 ℎ (9.16)
Here 𝜇 ℎ is the mobility of holes.

Thus the electrical conductivity of the semiconductor 𝜎 Figure 9.3: Hall effect in conductors
is given
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑒 + 𝜎ℎ

𝜎 = 𝑁𝑒 𝑒𝜇𝑒 + 𝑁 ℎ 𝑒𝜇 ℎ Expression for Hall Co-efficient Under equilibrium the

Lorentz force on electrons is equal to force due to hall field
𝜎 = 𝑒(𝑁𝑒 𝜇𝑒 + 𝑁 ℎ 𝜇 ℎ ) (9.17) 𝑒𝐸 𝐻 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣 (9.19)
The equation 9.17 determines the electrical conductivity of Here 𝑒 is electronic charge, 𝐸 𝐻 is Hall Field, 𝐵 is Magnetic
semiconductors in general. field, 𝑣 is the velocity of electrons. The current density 𝐽
is given by
For an intrinsic semiconductors, we know that 𝑁𝑒 = 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣 (9.20)
𝑁 ℎ = 𝑛𝑖 . Thus the expressions for electrical conductivity
Here 𝑛 is the numbmer density of charges. Dividing equa-
of intrinsic semiconductor is given by
tion 9.19 by 9.20 we get
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇 ℎ ) (9.18) 𝑒𝐸 𝐻 𝐵𝑒𝑣
= (9.21)
𝐽 𝑛𝑒𝑣
Thus the expression for electrical conductivity in extrinsic
and intrinsic semiconductors. 𝑒𝐸 𝐻 𝐵
= (9.22)
𝐽 𝑛
𝐵𝐽
𝐸𝐻 = (9.23)
9.5 Hall Effect 𝑛𝑒
𝐸 𝐻 = 𝑅 𝐻 𝐵𝐽 (9.24)
Introduction This was observed first by E. H. Hall in
Here 𝑅 𝐻 is called Hall coefficient and is given by
the year 1879. When electric current is passed through a
conductor or semiconductor placed in a magnetic field, a 1
𝑅𝐻 = (9.25)
potential difference proportional to the current and to the 𝑛𝑒
magnetic field is developed across the material in a direc- The Hall voltage is given by the equation
tion perpendicular to both the current and to the magnetic
𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸 𝐻 𝑑 = 𝑅 𝐻 𝐵𝐽𝑑 (9.26)
field. This effect is known as the Hall effect. The potential
difference developed in a direction perpendicular to both Here 𝑑 is the thickness of the material along y-axis.
current and magnetic field is called Hall voltage and the Note: In case of n-type semiconductors 𝑅 𝐻 is negative
corresponding electric field is called Hall field. and for p-type semiconductors 𝑅 𝐻 is positive.

Department of Physics 59 A T M E College of Engineering, Mysuru

Applied Physics for EE Stream BPHYE102/202

Applications 5. The conductivity and Hall co-efficient of an n-

type silicon specimen are 112/ohm-m and 1.25 ×
1. This effect is the basis of many practical applications 10−3 𝑚 3 /𝐶, respectively. Calculate the charge car-
and devices such as magnetic field measurements, and rier concentration and electron mobility.Ans. 𝑁𝑒 =
position and motion detectors. 5 × 1021 𝑚 −3 , 𝜇𝑒 = 0.14.

2. Hall effect is also used in the determination of type of 6. The hall co-efficient of a material is −3.68 ×
extrinsic semiconductor (P-Type and N-Type). 10−5 𝑚 3 /𝐶. What is the type of charge carriers? Also
calculate the carrier concentration.Ans. 𝑅 𝐻 is - Ve,
3. Hall effect is also used to find semiconductor proper- electrons, 1.7 × 1023 /𝑚 3
ties like carrier concentration and mobility of carriers.
7. The hall co-efficient of a specimen of a doped silicon
is found to be 3.66 × 10−4 /𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏. The resistiv-
Model Questions ity of the specimen is 9.93 × 10−3 𝑜ℎ𝑚 − 𝑚. Find the
mobility and density of charge carrier, Assuming sin-
1. Explain the significance of Fermi level in intrinsic and gle carrier concentration. Ans. 1.7055 × 1022 /𝑚 3 and
extrinsic semiconductors. 0.041𝑚 2𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1
8. A rectangular plane sheet of semiconductor mate-
2. Write a note on carrier concentration in semiconduc-
rial has dimensions 2cm along Y-direction and 1mm
tors.
along Z-direction. Hall probes are attached on
its surfaces parallel to X-Y plane and a magnetic
3. Derive the relation between Fermi energy and energy
field of flux density 1𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟/𝑚 2 is applied along Z-
gap for an intrinsic semiconductor.
direction. A current of 3 mA is flowing in it in the
4. Derive and expression for electrical conductivity in X-direction. Calculate the hall voltage measured by
intrinsic and semiconductors. the probe, if the hall co-efficient of the material is
3.66 × 10−4 /𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏. Also calculate the charge car-
5. Describe hall effect. Derive an expression for hall co- rier concentration. Ans. 𝐸 𝐻 = 0.0549𝑉 𝑚 −1 , 𝑉𝐻 =
efficient. 1.1𝑚𝑉, 𝑛 = 1.71 × 1022 /𝑚 3 .

Numerical Problems
1. The electron and hole mobilities of silicon are
0.14𝑚 2𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1 and 0.05𝑚 2𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1 respectively at a
certain temperature. If the electron concentration in
silicon is 1.5 × 1016 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑚 3 calculate the resis-
tivity of silicon. Ans. 2193Ω𝑚.

2. The resistivity of silicon at 27𝐶 is 3000Ω𝑚. As-

suming electron and hole mobilities of 0.17 and
0.35 𝑚 2𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1 respectively, calculate the intrin-
sic carrier concentration at 27𝐶. Ans. 1.016 ×
1016 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑚 3

3. The mobilities of holes and electrons in an extrin-

sic germanium at 300K is given by 0.2 𝑚 2𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1
and 0.36 𝑚 2𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1 . If the electron concentration
and hole concentrations are 1.8 × 1020 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑐𝑚 3
and 1.6 × 105 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑐𝑚 3 estimate the resistivity
of germanium at room temperature.Is it p-type or n-
type? Ans. 9.645 × 10−5 Ω𝑚, n-type.

4. Calculate the concentrations at which the acceptor

atoms must be added to a germanium sample to get
a p-type semiconductor with conductivity 0.15 per
ohm-m. Given the mobility of holes 0.17𝑚 2𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1 .
Ans. 𝑁 ℎ = 5.5 × 1018 𝑚 −3

Department of Physics 60 A T M E College of Engineering, Mysuru