Department of Computer Systems Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology

Peshawar Pakistan

Circuits and Systems II

Lab Manual

Prepared By
Engr. Arbab Masood Ahmad
Fall 2015
 Lab 1

The Oscilloscope

Objective
This exercise is of a particularly practical nature, namely, introducing the use of the oscilloscope. The
various input scaling, coupling, and triggering settings are examined along with a few specialty features.

Theory Overview
The oscilloscope (or simply scope, for short) is arguably the single most useful piece of test equipment in
an electronics laboratory. The primary purpose of the oscilloscope is to plot a voltage versus time,
although it can also be used to plot one voltage versus another voltage, and in some cases, to plot
voltage versus frequency. Oscilloscopes are capable of measuring both AC and DC waveforms, and
unlike typical DMMs, can measure AC waveforms of very high frequency (typically 100 MHz or more
versus an upper limit of around 1 kHz for a general purpose DMM). It is also worth noting that a DMM
will measure the RMS value of an AC sinusoidal voltage, not its peak value.
While the modern digital oscilloscope on the surface appears much like its analog ancestors, the internal
circuitry is far more complicated and the instrument affords much greater flexibility in measurement.
At a minimum, modern oscilloscopes offer two input measurement channels although four and eight
channel instruments are increasing in popularity.
Unlike handheld DMMs, most oscilloscopes measure voltages with respect to ground, that is, the inputs
are not floating and thus the black, or ground, lead is always connected to the circuit ground or common
node. This is an extremely important point as failure to remember this may lead to the inadvertent short
circuiting of components during measurement. The standard accepted method of measuring a non-
ground referenced potential is to use two probes, one tied to each node of interest, and then setting the
oscilloscope to subtract the two channels rather than display each separately. Note that this technique
is not required if the oscilloscope has floating inputs (for example, in a handheld oscilloscope). Further,
while it is possible to measure non-ground referenced signals by floating the oscilloscope itself through
defeating the ground pin on the power cord, this is a safety violation and should not be done.

Equipment
(1) DC Power Supply
(2) AC Function Generator
(3) Digital Multimeter
(4) Oscilloscope

Components
(1) 10 kΩ actual:__________________
(2) 33 kΩ actual:__________________
Figure 1

Procedure
(1) Find the following elements on your oscilloscope:
 Channel-1 and Channel-2 BNC input connectors.
 Trigger BNC input connector.
  Channel-1 and Channel-2 select buttons.
 Horizontal Sensitivity (or Scale) and Position knobs.
 Vertical Sensitivity (or Scale) and Position knobs.
 Trigger Level knob.
(2) Note that the main display is similar to a sheet of graph paper. Each square will have an
appropriate scaling factor or weighting, for example, 1 volt per division vertically or 2
milliseconds per division horizontally. Waveform voltages and timings may be determined
directly from the display by using these scales.
(3) Select the channel-1 and 2 buttons. There should now be two horizontal lines on the display.
They may be moved via the Position knob.
(4) One of the more important fundamental settings on an oscilloscope is the Input Coupling. This is
controlled via one of the bottom row buttons. There are three choices: Ground removes the
input thus showing a zero reference, AC allows only AC signals through thus blocking DC, and DC
allows all signals through (it does not prevent AC).
(5) Set the channel-1 Vertical Scale to 5 volts per division. Set the channel-2 Scale to 2 volts per
division. Set the Time (Horizontal) Scale to 1 millisecond per division. Finally, set the input
coupling to Ground for both input channels and align the two lines to the center line of the
display via the Vertical Position knob.
(6) Build the circuit shown in the figure using E=10V, R1=10kΩ and R2= 33kΩ. Connect a probe from
the channel-1 input to the power supply (tip to plus, black clip to ground). Connect a second
probe from channel-2 to R2 (again, tip to the high side of the resistor and the black clip to
ground).
(7) Switch both inputs to DC coupling. The two lines should have deflected upward. Channel-1
should be raised two divisions (2 divisions at 5 volts per division yields the 10 volt source). Using
this method, determine the voltage across R2 (remember, input-2 should have been set for 2
volts per division). Calculate the expected voltage across R2 using measured resistor values and
compare the two in Table 1. Note that it is not possible to achieve extremely high precision
using this method (e.g., four or more digits). Indeed, a DMM is often more useful for direct
measurement of DC potentials. Double check the results using a DMM and the final column of
Table 1.
(8) Select AC Coupling for the two inputs. The flat DC lines should drop back to zero. This is because
AC Coupling blocks DC. This will be useful for measuring the AC component of a combined
AC/DC signal, such as might be seen in an audio amplifier. Set the input coupling for both
channels back to DC.
(9) Replace the DC power supply with the function generator. Set the function generator for a 1 volt
peak sine wave at 1 kHz and apply it to the resistor network. The display should now show two
small sine waves. Adjust the Vertical Scale settings for the two inputs so that the waves take up
the majority of the display. If the display is very blurry with the sine waves appearing to jump
about side to side, the Trigger Level may need to be adjusted. Also, adjust the Time Scale so that
only one or two cycles of the wave may be seen. Using the Scale settings, determine the two
voltages (following the method of step 7) as well as the waveform’s period and compare them
 to the values expected via theory, recording the results in Tables 2 and 3. Also crosscheck the
results using a DMM to measure the RMS voltages.
(10) To find the voltage across R1, the channel-2 voltage (VR2) may be subtracted from channel-1 (E
source).
(11)One of the more useful aspects of the oscilloscope is the ability to show the actual wave shape.
This may be used, for example, as a means of determining distortion in an amplifier. Change the
wave shape on the function generator to a square wave, triangle, or other shape and note how
the oscilloscope responds. Note that the oscilloscope will also show a DC component, if any, as
the AC signal being offset or “riding on the DC”. Adjust the function generator to add a DC offset
to the signal and note how the oscilloscope display shifts. Return the function generator back to
a sine wave and remove any DC offset.

Data Tables

Table 1

Table 2

Table 3
 Lab 2

Capacitive Reactance

Objective
Capacitive reactance will be examined in this exercise. In particular, its relationship to capacitance and
frequency will be investigated, including a plot of capacitive reactance versus frequency.

Theory Overview
The current – voltage characteristic of a capacitor is unlike that of typical resistors. While resistors show
a constant resistance value over a wide range of frequencies, the equivalent ohmic value for a capacitor,
known as capacitive reactance, is inversely proportional to frequency. The capacitive reactance may be
computed via the formula:

The magnitude of capacitive reactance may be determined experimentally by feeding a capacitor a

known current, measuring the resulting voltage, and dividing the two, following Ohm’s Law. This process
may be repeated across a range of frequencies in order to obtain a plot of capacitive reactance versus
frequency. An AC current source may be approximated by placing a large resistance in series with an AC
voltage, the resistance being considerably larger than the maximum reactance expected.

Equipment
1. AC Function Generator
2. Oscilloscope

Components
(1) 1 µF actual:__________________

(1) 2.2 µF actual:__________________

(1) 10 kΩ actual:__________________

Figure 1

Procedure
Current Source
1. Using Figure 1 with Vin=10Vp-p and R=10kΩ, and assuming that the reactance of the capacitor is
much smaller than 10k and can be ignored, determine the circulating current using measured
component values and record in Table 1.
Measuring Reactance
2. Build the circuit of Figure 1 using R=10kΩ, and C=1 µF. Place one probe across the generator and
another across the capacitor. Set the generator to a 200 Hz sine wave and 10Vp-p. Make sure
that the Bandwidth Limit of the oscilloscope is engaged for both channels. This will reduce the
signal noise and make for more accurate readings.
3. Calculate the theoretical value of Xc using the measured capacitor value and record in Table 2.
4. Record the peak-to-peak capacitor voltage and record in Table 2.
5. Using the source current from Table 1 and the measured capacitor voltage, determine the
experimental reactance and record it in Table 2. Also compute and record the deviation.
6. Repeat steps three through five for the remaining frequencies of Table 2.
7. Replace the 1 µF capacitor with the 2.2 µF unit and repeat steps two through six, recording
results in Table 3.
8. Using the data of Tables 2 and 3, create plots of capacitive reactance versus frequency.

Table 1

Table 2
 Table 3

Questions
1. What is the relationship between capacitive reactance and frequency?
2. What is the relationship between capacitive reactance and capacitance?
3. If the experiment had been repeated with frequencies 10 times higher than those in Table 2,
what would the resulting plots look like?
4. If the experiment had been repeated with frequencies 10 times lower than that in Table 2, what
effect would that have on the experiment?
 Lab 3

Inductive Reactance

Objective
Inductive reactance will be examined in this exercise. In particular, its relationship to inductance and
frequency will be investigated, including a plot of inductive reactance versus frequency.

Theory Overview
The current – voltage characteristic of an inductor is unlike that of typical resistors. While resistors show
a constant resistance value over a wide range of frequencies, the equivalent ohmic value for an
inductor, known as inductive reactance, is directly proportional to frequency. The inductive reactance
may be computed via the formula:
XL= j 2πfL
The magnitude of inductive reactance may be determined experimentally by feeding an inductor a
known current, measuring the resulting voltage, and dividing the two, following Ohm’s Law. This process
may be repeated across a range of frequencies in order to obtain a plot of inductive reactance versus
frequency. An AC current source may be approximated by placing a large resistance in series with an AC
voltage, the resistance being considerably larger than the maximum reactance expected.

Equipment
(1) AC Function Generator
(2) Oscilloscope
(3) DMM

Components
(1) 1 mH actual:__________________
(2) 10 mH actual:__________________
(3) 10 kΩ actual:__________________ Figure 1

Procedure
1. Current Source
Using Figure 1 with Vin=10 Vp-p and R=10 kΩ, and assuming that the reactance of the
inductor is much smaller than 10k and can be ignored, determine the circulating current
using measured component values and record in Table 1. Also, measure the DC coil
resistances of the inductors using an ohmmeter or DMM and record in Table 5.1.
2. Measuring Reactance
Build the circuit of Figure 1 using R=10 kΩ, and L=10 mH. Place one probe across the
generator and another across the inductor. Set the generator to a 1000 Hz sine wave and
10Vp-p. Make sure that the Bandwidth Limit of the oscilloscope is engaged for both
channels. This will reduce the signal noise and make for more accurate readings.
3. Calculate the theoretical value of XL using the measured inductor value and record in
Table2.
4. Record the peak-to-peak inductor voltage and record in Table 2.
5. Using the source current from Table 1 and the measured inductor voltage, determine the
experimental reactance and record it in Table 2. Also compute and record the deviation.
6. Repeat steps three through five for the remaining frequencies of Table 2.
7. Replace the 10 mH inductor with the 1mH unit and repeat steps two through six, recording
results in Table 3.
8. Using the data of Tables 2 and 3, create plots of inductive reactance versus frequency.

Table 1

Table 2
 Table 3

Questions
(1) What is the relationship between inductive reactance and frequency?
(2) What is the relationship between inductive reactance and inductance?
(3) If the 10mH trial had been repeated with frequencies 10 times higher than those in Table 2,
what effect would that have on the experiment?
(4) Do the coil resistances have any effect on the plots?
 Lab 4

Series R, L, C Circuits

Objective
This exercise examines the voltage and current relationships in series R, L, C networks. Of particular
importance is the phase of the various components and how Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is extended for AC
circuits. Both time domain and phasor plots of the voltages are generated.

Theory Overview
Each element has a unique phase response: for resistors, the voltage is always in phase with the current,
for capacitors the voltage always lags the current by 90 degrees, and for inductors the voltage
always leads the current by 90 degrees. Consequently, a series combination of R, L, and C components
will yield a complex impedance with a phase angle between +90 and -90 degrees. Due to the
phase response, Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law must be computed using vector (phasor) sums rather than
simply relying on the magnitudes. Indeed, all computations of this nature, such as a voltage divider,
must be computed using vectors.

Equipment
1. AC Function Generator
2. Oscilloscope

Components
1. 10 nF actual:_________
2. 10 mH actual:_________
3. 1 kΩ actual:_________

Figure 1

Procedure
1. Using Figure 1 with Vin=2Vp-p sine at 10 kHz, R=1kΩ, L=10mH and C=10nF, determine the
theoretical inductive and capacitive reactance and circuit impedance, and record the results in
Table 1 (the experimental portion of this table will be filled out in step 4). Using the voltage
divider rule, compute the resistor, inductor and capacitor voltages and record them in Table 2.
2. Build the circuit of Figure 1 using R=1kΩ, L=10mH and C=10nF. Set the generator to a 10 kHz sine
wave and 2 Vp-p. Using oscilloscope measure the signals. Unfortunately it is impossible to see the
voltages of all the three components simultaneously using only two probes of the oscilloscope.
To obtain the proper readings, place one probe on the function generator to see the input signal
and the second probe across the last element. This step is repeated three times. The first time
the components are so arranged that capacitor is the last component, the second time inductor
is connected as the last component and finally resistor is made the last component. The peak to
peak voltages and phase angles of each one of the three components, relative to the source are
thus determined in turn. Thus Vin, VC, VL and VR are measured. The phase angle of the last
component relative to the source is determined by measuring the time difference‘t’ between the
 zero crossings of the two waveforms. Thus if ‘T’ is the time period of the signal then the phase
difference can be calculated using the formula: Ɵo=360 x t/T. Record this information in Table 2.
3. Compute the deviations between the theoretical and experimental values of Table 2 and record
the results in the final columns of this table.
4. Based on the experimental values, determine the experimental Z, XL and XC values via Ohm’s Law
(i=VR/R, XL=VL/i, XC=VC/i, Z=Vin/i) and record back in Table 1 along with the deviations.
5. Create a phasor plot showing Vin, VL, VC, and VR.

Data Tables

Table 1

Table 2

Questions
1. What is the phase relationship between R, L, and C components in a series AC circuit?
2. Based on measurements, does Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law apply to the tested circuits?
3. In general, how would the phasor diagram of Figure 1 change if the frequency was raised?
4. In general, how would the phasor diagram of Figure 1 change if the frequency was lowered?
 Lab 5

Parallel R, L, C Circuits

Objective
This exercise examines the voltage and current relationships in parallel R, L, C networks. Of particular
importance is the phase of the various components and how Kirchhoff’s Current Law is extended for AC
circuits. Both time domain and phasor plots of the currents are generated. A technique to measure
current using a current sense resistor will also be explored.

Theory Overview
Recall that for resistors, the voltage is always in phase with the current, for capacitors the voltage
always lags the current by 90 degrees, and for inductors the voltage always leads the current by
90 degrees. Because each element has a unique phase response between +90 and -90 degrees, a
parallel combination of R, L and C components will yield a complex impedance with a phase angle
between +90 and -90 degrees. Due to the phase response, Kirchhoff’s Current law must be computed
using vector (phasor) sums rather than simply relying on the magnitudes. Indeed, all computations of
this nature, such as a current divider, must be computed using vectors.

Equipment
1. AC Function Generator
2. Oscilloscope

Components
1. 10 nF actual:__________________
2. 10 mH actual:__________________
3. 1 kΩ actual:__________________ Figure 1
4. 10 Ω actual:__________________

Procedure
1. Using Figure 1 with a 10 V p-p 10 kHz source, R=1kΩ, C=10nF and L=10mH, determine the
theoretical capacitive reactance, inductive reactance and circuit impedance, and record the
results in Table 1 (the experimental portion of this table will be filled out in step 5). Using the
current divider rule, compute the currents in resistor(iR), inductor(iL) and capacitor(iC) and record
them in Table 2.
2. Build the circuit of Figure 1 using R=1kΩ, L=10mH and C=10nF. A common method to measure
current using the oscilloscope is to place a small current sense resistor in line with the current of
interest. If the resistor is much smaller than the surrounding reactance it will have a minimal
effect on the current. Because the voltage and current of the resistor are always in phase with
each other, the relative phase of the current in question must be the same as that of the sensing
resistor’s voltage. Each of the three circuit currents will be measured separately and with
respect to the source in order to determine relative phase.
To measure the total current, place a 10Ω resistor between ground and the bottom connection
of the parallel components. Set the generator to a 10 V p-p sine wave at 10 kHz.
3. Place probe1 across the generator and probe2 across the sense resistor. Measure the voltage
across the sense resistor; calculate the corresponding total current via Ohm’s Law and record in
Table 2. Along with the magnitude, be sure to record the time deviation between the sense
waveform and the input signal (from which the phase may be determined eventually).
4. Remove the sense resistor and place one 10Ω resistor between the capacitor and ground to
serve as the capacitor current sense. Place a second 10Ω resistor between the resistor and
ground to sense the resistor current, and a third 10Ω resistor between the inductor and ground
for the inductor current. Leave probe one at the generator and move probe two across the
sense resistor in the resistor branch. Repeat the process to obtain its current, recording the
magnitude and phase angle in Table 2. In a similar way move probe2 so that it is first across the
capacitor’s sense resistor and then across the inductor sense resistor. Measure and record the
appropriate values in Table 2.
5. Compute the deviations between the theoretical and experimental values of Table 2 and record
the results in the final columns of Table 2. Based on the experimental values, determine the
experimental Z, XL and XC values via Ohm’s Law (XC =VC/IC, XL=VL/IL and XZ=Vin/iin) and record back
in Table 1 along with the deviations.
6. Create a phasor plot showing iin, iC, iL and iR. Include both the time domain display and the
phasor plot with the technical report.

Table 1

Table 2
 Lab 6

AC Superposition

Objective
This exercise examines the analysis of multi-source AC circuits using the Superposition Theorem. In
particular, sources with differing frequencies will be used to illustrate the contributions of each source
to the combined result.

Theory Overview
The Superposition Theorem can be used to analyze multi-source AC linear bilateral networks. Each
source is considered in turn, with the remaining sources replaced by their internal impedance, and
appropriate series-parallel analysis techniques employed. The resulting signals are then summed to
produce the combined output signal. To see this process more clearly, the exercise will utilize two
sources operating at different frequencies. Note that as each source has a different frequency, the
inductor and capacitor appear as different reactances to the two sources.

Equipment
1. AC Function Generators
2. Oscilloscope

Components
1. 0 .1 µF actual:________
2. 10mH actual:________
3. 1kΩ actual:________
4. 50Ω actual:________

Figure 1

Procedure
1. Typical function generators have a 50Ω internal impedance. These are not shown in the circuit
of Figure 1. To test the Superposition Theorem, sources E1 and E2 will be examined separately
and then together.

Source One Only

2. Consider the circuit of Figure 1 with C=0.1 µF, L=10mH, R=1kΩ, using only source E1=2 V p-p at 1
kHz and with source E2 replaced by its internal impedance of 50 Ω. Using standard series-
parallel techniques; calculate the voltages across E1, R, and E2. Remember to include the 50 Ω
internal impedances in the calculations. Record the results in Table 10.1.
3. Build the circuit of Figure 10.1 using C=0.1 µF, L=10mH, and R=1kΩ. Replace E2 with a 50 Ω
resistor to represent its internal impedance. Set E1 to 2V p-p at 1 kHz, unloaded. Place probe
one across E1 and probe two across R. Measure the voltages across E1 and R, and record in
Table 1. Record a copy of the scope image. Move probe two across E2 (the 50 Ω), measure and
record this voltage in Table 1.
Source Two Only
4. Consider the circuit of Figure 10.1 using only source E2=2 V p-p at 10 kHz and with source E1
replaced by its internal impedance of 50 Ω. Using standard series-parallel techniques; calculate
the voltages across E1, R, and E2. Remember to include the 50 Ω internal impedances in the
calculations. Record the results in Table 2.
5. Replace the 50 Ω with source E2 and set it to 2Vp-p at 10 kHz, unloaded. Replace E1 with a 50 Ω
resistor to represent its internal impedance. Place probe one across E2 and probe two across R.
Measure the voltages across E2 and R, and record in Table 10.2. Record a copy of the scope
image. Move probe two across E1 (the 50 Ω), measure and record this voltage in Table 2.

Sources One and Two

6. Consider the circuit of Figure 1 using both sources, E1=2Vp-p at 1 kHz and E2=2Vp-p at 10 kHz. Add
the calculated voltages across E1, R, and E2 from Tables 1 and 2. Record the results in Table 3.
Make a note of the expected maxima and minima of these waves and sketch how the
combination should appear on the scope.
7. Replace the 50 Ω with source E1 and set it to 2Vp-p at 1 kHz, unloaded. Both sources should now
be active. Place probe one across E1 and probe two across R. Measure the voltages across E1
and R, and record in Table 3. Record a copy of the scope image. Move probe two across E2,
measure and record this voltage in Table 3

Data Tables
Source One Only

Table 1
Source Two Only

Table 2

Sources One and Two

Table 3

Questions

1. Why must the sources be replaced with a 50 Ω resistor instead of being shorted?
2. Do the expected maxima and minima from step 6 match what is measured in step 7?
3. Does one source tend to dominate the 1kΩ resistor voltage or do both sources contribute in
nearly equal amounts? Will this always be the case?
 Lab 7

Operational Amplifiers – Basic Characteristics and Applications

Objective
The objective of this lab experiment is to learn how to use the operational amplifier (op-amp). In this
experiment some of the basic characteristics of the op-amp would be examined and then some of its
applications like the Inverting amplifier, Non inverting amplifier will be experimented.

Theory Overview
The Operational Amplifier (Op Amp) is an extremely useful device, as we will see in this lab. With the
addition of a few external components, an extraordinary variety of functions can be implemented. The
Op Amp is an active element that needs to be supplied with power to operate. A common way to supply
this power is shown in Figure 1(a). Two power supply voltages are used, with equal values denoted by
Vcc and VDD (or ±VCC) (often in the range of 5 V to15 V). The common node between the supplies is the
ground node. The op amp’s output voltage is taken between the output terminal and the ground node.
The remaining two terminals are the input of the op amp. An interesting property of the op-amp is that
the output voltage is only a function of the difference of the two input Terminals. Figure 1(b) shows the
top view of widely used OpAmp type known as the 741. It comes in a package, with metal pins.

Figure 1 (a) and (b)

The most basic function of the op amp is the voltage amplification. However, the output voltage of a
real op amp is limited to the range between certain limits that depend on the internal design of the op
amp. As shown in Figure 2, when the output voltage tries to exceed these limits, clipping occurs.
 Figure 2

Equipment:
1. Digital multimeter
2. Variable DC power supply
3. Protoboard

Components
1. 100kΩ
2. 10kΩ
3. 741 op-amp

Procedure
Inverting amplifier

Figure 3

1. The input offset voltage of op-amps can introduce significant output errors. Many op-amps (351,
741) have additional pins for adjusting the offset to zero. Wire the circuit shown with Rf = 100 kΩ
and Rin= 10kΩ (gain ≃ 10); connect input to common, and adjust the balance potentiometer
until the op-amp output is nearly zero (≤ 1mV). Set DMM to an appropriate scale. Prior to every
other experiment in this lab, check in the same manner whether the op-amp remains balanced
(it should!)
2. For five or more values of Vin, in the range ±0.7V calculate the value of Vout using the following
formula for voltage gain of Inverting amplifier and write them in Table 1:
 Av=Vout /Vin= -Rf / Rin.
3. Measure the value of Vout for each value of Vin as mentioned above, using a DC voltmeter and
write the results in Table 1. Find the % age error.

Table 1

4. Set the Function generator at a frequency of 1 kHz and apply as input Vin to the inverting
amplifier. Use the two channels of the scope to monitor the inverting input Vin of the op-amp
and the output Vout. Slowly increase the amplitude of the input signal, starting near zero.
Observe the phase difference between the input and output. Keeping the amplitude of the input
low and constant, vary its frequency. Observe the reduction in output amplitude as frequency
increases.

Non – Inverting Amplifier:

1. Set up the non-inverting amplifier circuit of Figure 4 with R1 = 10 k. With a 1 kHz sinusoidal input
having different amplitudes, calculate the output with R2 = 100k and with R2= 10k using the
formula and write the results in front of each input in Table 2:

Av =Vout/Vin=1+R2/R1
2. Measure the output with an oscilloscope and write them in front of each input in the table. Find
the % age error.

Figure 4 Table 2
 Lab 8

Operational Amplifier Applications-Inverting Summing Amplifier and

Difference Amplifier
OBJECTIVES:
To demonstrate the use of Operational Amplifier for performing mathematical operations of summation
and difference.

EQUIPMENT:
1. DC Power Supply
2. Oscilloscope
3. Function Generator

Components
1. LM 741 Op-amp
2. 47kΩ
3. 100kΩ

Part A

Inverting Summing Amplifier

Theory Overview
Figure 1 shows an example of how an operational amplifier is connected to perform voltage summation.
In this figure, an ac and a dc voltage are
summed. In general,

Figure 1

Procedure
1. To demonstrate the use of an operational amplifier as a summing amplifier, connect the circuit
of Figure 1.
 2. With VS adjusted to produce a 1 V peak sine wave at 1 kHz, observe the output voltage VO (and
VS to note the phase relationship) on an oscilloscope set to dc input coupling.
3. Sketch the output voltage waveform. Be sure to note the dc level in the output.
4. Interchange the 5 V dc power supply and the 1 V peak signal generator.
5. Repeat procedure step 2 and observe the change in output waveform.

Part B

Difference Amplifier

Theory Overview
A difference amplifier has two inputs and the output
voltage is proportional to the voltage difference of
the input voltages. In fact, the (open-loop) Op-Amp
itself is a difference amplifier, except that the gain is
ideally infinity. Here we want a difference amplifier
with finite gain. One such circuit using a single Op-
Amp is shown in Figure 4. It can be shown that the
gain of the difference amplifier can be calculated
using the following:

Figure 2

This equation can be simplified by making R3= Rf= R1= R2, yielding a simple differential amplifier with
unity gain:
V0=V2-V1
Procedure
1. To investigate the use of an operational amplifier in a difference amplifier configuration,
connect the circuit of Figure 2.
2. With V S adjusted to produce a 1 V peak sine wave at 1 kHz, observe the output voltage VO(and
VS to note the phase relationship) on an oscilloscope set to dc input coupling.
3. Sketch the output voltage waveform. Be sure to note the dc level in the output.
4. Interchange the 5 V dc power supply and the 1 V peak signal generator.
5. Repeat procedure step 2 and observe the change in output waveform.
 Lab 9

Series Resonance Circuit

Objectives:
The response of a circuit containing both inductors and capacitors in series or in parallel depends on the
frequency of the driving voltage or current. This laboratory will explore one of the more dramatic effects
of the interplay of capacitance and inductance, namely, resonance, when the inductive and capacitive
reactances cancel each other. Resonance is the fundamental principle upon which most filters are based
— filters that allow us to tune radios, televisions, cell phones, and a myriad of other devices deemed
essential for modern living.

EQUIPMENT:
1. Function generator
2. Oscilloscope
3. Digital Multimeter

Components:
1. Resistor, 100 Ω
2. Resistor, 10 Ω
3. Inductor, 100mH
4. Capacitor, 0.01 µF

Background
The reactance of inductors increases with frequency:
The reactance of capacitors decreases with frequency:
In an LC circuit, whether series or parallel, there is some frequency at which the magnitudes of these
two reactances are equal. That point is called resonance. Setting XL = XC, and solving for f, we find that
the resonant frequency f0 of an LC circuit is:
√
The frequency f has units cycles/second or sec-1. The
frequency may also be expressed as angular frequency,
ω, where ω=2πf and has units radians/sec. Thus, the
resonant frequency may also be written as:

√
The resonant frequency is generally the highest point of a
peak (or the deepest point of a valley) with bandwidth
BW (cycles/sec) or β (radians/sec). The resonant
frequency is also called the center frequency, because it
is at the mid-point of the peak frequency response.
The lowest frequency (f1 or ω1) and the highest frequency
(f2 or ω2) of the band are the “half-power points” at which the power is ½ that at the peak frequency.
Since power goes like the square of the current, the current at the half-power points is ⁄ (= 0.707)
√
times the current at the maximum. Thus, the bandwidth of a resonant circuit is the frequency range
over which the current is at least 70.7% of the maximum.
BW = f2 – f1 or β = ω2 – ω1
As the bandwidth narrows, the circuit becomes more highly selective, responding to a narrow range of
frequencies close to the center frequency. The sharpness (narrowness) of that resonant peak is
measured by the quality factor Q. The quality factor is a unitless quantity that is defined as

In more practical terms,

Series Resonance
For a series LC circuit, the current is the same throughout. What about the voltages? To visualize the
concept of resonance, consider the simple series RLC circuit in Figure 1 operating at resonance, and its
associated reactance diagram.

Figure 1
The phase shift caused by the capacitor is directly opposite the phase shift caused by the inductor; that
is, they are 180° out of phase. Therefore, in the reactance phasor diagram (b) for the circuit, the two
phasors point in opposite directions. At resonance, the magnitudes of the capacitor reactance and the
inductor reactance are equal, so the sum of the two phasors is zero, and the only remaining impedance
is due to the resistor. Notice in the voltage phasor diagram (c) that the voltage drop across the inductor
and the capacitor may be quite large — bigger even than the source voltage — but those voltages are
opposite in phase and so cancel each other out as voltages are summed around the circuit. Kirchhoff’s
voltage law remains valid, and the generator’s voltage output is dropped entirely over the resistor R.
Since at resonance the only impedance is the resistance R, the impedance of the series circuit is at a
minimum, and so the current is a maximum. That current is VS /R. The source voltage and the current are
in phase with each other, so the power factor = 1, and maximum power is delivered to the resistor. But
what happens at neighboring frequencies? At lower frequencies, the inductor’s reactance decreases,
and the capacitor has greater effect. At higher frequencies, the inductor dominates, and the circuit will
take on inductive characteristics. How sharply defined is the resonance? How selective is it? We have
said that for a resonant circuit, the quality factor Q is the ratio of the resonant frequency to the
bandwidth. Thus, Q gives a measure of the bandwidth normalized to the frequency, thereby describing
the shape of the circuit's response independent of the actual resonant frequency.

We list here two other useful relationships for Q in a series resonant circuit. The first relates Q to the
circuit’s capacitance, inductance, and total series resistance.
 √

The value of R in this equation is the total equivalent series resistance in the circuit. This form of the
equation makes it easy to see ways to optimize the Q for the desired circuit. Decreasing R, increasing
inductance, or decreasing capacitance will all tend to make Q larger and increase the circuit's selectivity.
The second useful relationship for Q can be derived from the previous equation. Recall that
and . Then the previous equation can be rewritten as √ .
Since at resonance the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal, this equation can be reduced to
or
Where R is again the total equivalent series resistance of the circuit. Usually the XL form is used because
the resistance of the inductor frequently is the dominant resistance in the circuit. An equivalent form of
this last equation is or

Summary of the Characteristics of RLC Series circuit

Table 1

PROCEDURE
1. Using DMM, measure the values of the following components: 0.01µF capacitor; 100 Ω resistor;
10 Ω resistor. Also measure the winding resistance RW of the 100mH inductor. Record the
nominal and measured values in Table 2
 Table 2

2. For the circuit shown in Figure 2, calculate predictions for f0, Q, BW, f1, and f2. Don’t forget to
include the impedance of the function generator (RS≈50Ω) and RW as part of the total resistance
in the circuit. Record the results in the first “predicted” column in a table such as Table 3.

Figure 2

3. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 2. Adjust the function generator to generate a sine wave
with voltage 1.0 VPP. Initially set the frequency to 1 kHz.
4. Connect oscilloscope CHANNEL 1 across the function generator (FGEN and GND) and confirm
that the voltage is 1.0 VPP.
5. Connect oscilloscope CHANNEL 2 across the resistor R and observe the voltage.
6. Using your predicted values as a guide, adjust the frequency of the function generator to tune
for resonance, as observed on CHANNEL 2 of the oscilloscope. Measure the resonant frequency
fo on the oscilloscope, and record the value in the first “measured” column of Table 3.
 Experimental Values

Table 3.

7. Confirm that the voltage on CHANNEL 1 of the scope is 1.0 VPP, and adjust it if necessary. The
current through the circuit and resistor R is proportional to the voltage across R. Record the
voltage across resistor R

For steps 8 and 9, DO NOT adjust the voltage output of the function generator.

8. Reduce the frequency on the function generator until the voltage across R is 70.7% of the initial
value. This is the lower half-power point f1. Record the measured frequency f1 in the first
“measured” column of Table 3.
9. Increase the frequency through resonance and continue to increase it until the voltage across R
is 70.7% of the value at resonance. This is the upper half-power point f2. Record the measured
frequency f2 in the first “measured” column of Table 3.
10. Calculate the bandwidth BW = f2–f1. Record the result in the first “measured” column of Table 3.
11. Stop the function generator. Remove the 100Ω resistor from the circuit and replace it with the
10 Ω resistor measured earlier.
12. Calculate predictions for f0, Q, BW, f1, and f2 and record the results in the second “predicted”
column in Table 3.
13. Start the function generator and, as before, adjust the function generator to create a sine wave
with voltage 1.0 VPP.
14. Repeat steps 5 through 10, recording the measured values in the second “measured” column.
15. Fill out Table 4, calculating the percent differences between predicted and measured values.
Percent difference

Table 4
 Lab 10

Filters: High-pass, Low-pass, Band-pass, and Notch

INTRODUCTION:
This laboratory studies the use of passive components to create filters to separate portions of time-
dependent waveforms. Filters are an essential tool in our complex world of mixed signals — both
electronic and otherwise. Passive components (resistors, capacitors, and inductors) have long served as
filter components for everything from selecting radio stations to filtering out electrical noise.

OBJECTIVES:
1. Learn the four general filter types: High-pass, Low-pass, Band-pass, and Notch
2. Learn to alter filter type by changing contacts for output voltage.
3. Learn phase angle at cutoff for simple RC and RL filters.
4. Learn to draw Bode Plots.

Equipment:
1. Function generator
2. Oscilloscope
3. Digital Multimeter

Components:
1. Resistors: 10kΩ, 100 Ω
2. Inductor: 100mH
3. Capacitor: 0.005 µF, 0.01 µF

BACKGROUND
In many circuits, a wide range of different frequencies are present, some of which are desired, while
others are not. The frequency response of capacitors and inductors allows us to construct filters that will
pass or reject certain ranges of the electrical frequencies that are applied to them.
"Passive filters" created from “passive” components (inductors, capacitors, and resistors) have served us
well for a long time for such purposes as selecting radio and television stations and filtering noise out of
various signals. Indeed, much of the electronics we take for granted today would not be possible
without the use of such filters.
The four typical types of filter behaviors are illustrated in Figure 1, along with schematics of simple
filters that exhibit the indicated behavior.
 Types of Filters

Figure 1

The filter types are low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and notch (or band-reject) filters. In Figure 1, the
grayed area is the pass-band, that is, the part of the signal that is passed to the output of the filter. The
rejected portions are called the stop-band. The frequency that separates the pass-band from the stop-
band is called the cutoff frequency. The cutoff frequency is equivalent to the half-power points. The
cutoff frequency is also sometimes called the corner frequency.
A low-pass filter would allow extracting a low frequency, such as an audio signal, that is mixed with a
high frequency radio wave. A high-pass filter would do the opposite. A resonant circuit can be tuned as a
band-pass filter to retain signals in a narrow range of frequencies, while rejecting frequencies outside
that range. Such is the case with a radio tuner. A notch filter generally keeps all frequencies except
those in a narrow band. Notch filters are widely used to block interfering signals from noise sources.
Band-pass and notch filters require resonant circuits.
Notice that the components making the low-pass and high-pass filters in Figure 1 are the same. Whether
the circuit is low-pass or high-pass depends only upon which voltage we look at: the voltage across the
capacitor or the voltage across the resistor. (Equivalent circuits could have been made using an inductor
and a resistor.) Similarly, the notch filter is identical to the RLC series resonant circuit. RC and RL filters
are simple, inexpensive, and often used effectively as filters. Their major problem is their generally slow
(in frequency) transition from pass-band to stop-band. The addition of a few simple components in filter
“stages” can increase the transition rate, giving the filter a sharper cutoff. The ratio of an output
response to an input signal is referred to as a transfer function. The input signal and the output response
do not need to be the same entity type. For example, a transfer function may prescribe an output
voltage resulting from an input current. Transfer functions are often used as a tool to characterize the
effect of a filter regardless of the details of the filter’s structure. It can make the analysis of complex
circuits easier. In this lab, however, we will mostly be studying the filter itself.

Cutoff Frequency for series RC and RL circuits

As mentioned, the cutoff frequency, sometimes called the corner frequency, is equivalent to the half-
power points. Since the power is half that at the peak, the voltage (or current) will be the peak
voltage (or current) multiplied by 1/√2 = 0.707. For a simple 2-component RC or RL circuit, the half-
power point will occur when half the power is dropped on the resistor and half on the capacitor or
inductor. Thus, the cutoff frequency will occur when the reactance of the capacitor or inductor equals
the total series resistance in the circuit. That is, and = R and so,
⁄
and
⁄
decibels (dB)
As discussed in your textbook, the decibel (dB) is commonly used for the magnitude of voltages
and currents in making Bode plots. Keep in mind that a decibel is a unit created to measure the
transfer function for power gain (or loss) through a circuit module or stage:

[ ]

Since power is proportional to the square of the voltage or the current, we have equivalently,

[ ] and [ ]

Procedure:
Low-pass filter.
1. Obtain a 10kΩ resistor and a 0.005 µF capacitor. Measure and record the actual values of the
components.
2. Using the measured components, set up the circuit as shown in Figure 2. Use the function
generator FGEN for the supply voltage.

Low Pass Filter

Figure 2

3. Calculate the cutoff frequency for the circuit, assuming the output is at Vo. At the
Cutoff frequency, what, theoretically, will be the voltage V0?
4. Connect CHANNEL 1 of the oscilloscope to measure the Vin (i.e., FGEN).
5. Connect CHANNEL 2 of the oscilloscope to measure the filter’s output voltage Vo. Vary the
frequency from 500 Hz to 10 kHz in steps indicated in Table 1, and record the indicated values.
6. Measure the phase shift Δt and then calculate the phase angle φ between Vin and Vo at 500
Hz, at 10000 Hz, and at the cutoff frequency.
7. Using the data of Table 1, sketch a Bode plot of the of the filter’s output voltage.
 Table 1

Band-Pass Filter

Figure 3

8. Set up the series RLC circuit shown in Figure 3, using the function generator to provide the
sinusoidal input voltage.
9. Calculate the resonant frequency f0 of the circuit. (See Laboratory 9.)
10. Set the “peak amplitude” to 1.0 V (that is, 2.0 VPP).
11. What is the measured resonant frequency? ____________
12. What is the measured bandwidth? __________________
13. What is the phase angle at resonance? _______________
14. What is the phase angle at the two cutoff frequencies?__________________
15. Sketch the Magnitude and Phase angle Bode plots, marking key reference points.
Notch Filter
16. Switch the positions of the resistor with inductor and capacitor to get the series RLC circuit
shown in Figure 4.

Notch Filter

Figure 4

17. Calculate the resonant frequency f0 of the circuit.______________________

18. What is the measured resonant frequency fc? ________________
19. What are the lower and upper half-power points, f1 _______and f2?___________
20. What is the measured bandwidth? ______________
21. What is the phase angle φ at resonance?____________________
22. Draw the Bode plot.
 Lab 11

INTEGRATOR USING IC741 OP-AMP

Objective
To study the operation of the Integrator using op-amp and trace the output wave forms for sine and
square wave inputs.

THEORY:

Figure 1

A circuit in which the output voltage is the integration of the input voltage is called an integrator.

In the practical integrator shown in Figure 1, to reduce the error voltage at the output, a resistor RF is
connected across the feedback capacitor CF. Thus, RF limits the low-frequency gain and hence minimizes
the variations in the output voltage.

Figure 2
The frequency response of the integrator is shown in Figure 2. fb is the frequency at which the gain is 0
dB and is given by:

fb = 1/2πR1CF

In this figure there is some relative operating frequency, and for frequencies from f to fa the gain RF/R1 is
constant. However, after fa the gain decreases at a rate of 20 dB/decade. In other words, between fa and
fb the circuit of fig. 2.1 acts as an integrator. The gain limiting frequency fa is given by

fa=1/2πRFCF.

Normally fa<fb. From the above equation, we can calculate RF by assuming fa & CF. This is very important
frequency. It tells us where the useful integration range starts.

 If fin < fa - circuit acts like a simple inverting amplifier and no integration results,
 If fin = fa - integration takes place with only 50% accuracy results,
 If fin = 10fa - integration takes place with 99% accuracy results.

In the circuit diagram of Integrator, the values are calculated by assuming fa as 50 Hz. Hence the input
frequency is to be taken as 500Hz to get 99% accuracy results. Integrator has wide applications in

1. Analog computers used for solving differential equations in simulation arrangements.

2. A/D Converters.
3. Signal wave shaping.
4. Function Generators.

Equipment:
1. Oscilloscope
2. AC Function Generator
3. Digital Multimeter

Components:
1. Resistors: 10kΩ, 22kΩ
2. Capacitor 0.1µF
3. Op-amp 741
 Figure 3

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the components/equipment as shown in the circuit diagram Figure 3.
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Apply sine wave at the input terminals of the circuit using function Generator.
4. Connect channel-1 of CRO at the input terminals and channel-2 at the output terminals.
5. Observe the output of the circuit on the CRO which is a cosine wave (90o phase shifted from the
sine wave input) and note down the position, the amplitude and the time period of Vin & Vo.
6. Now apply the square wave as input signal.
7. Observe the output of the circuit on the CRO which is a triangular wave and note down the
position, the amplitude and the time period of Vin & Vo.
8. Plot the output voltages corresponding to sine and square wave inputs as shown in the Figure 4
below.

Figure 4
 Active Filters

Theory
An electric filter is a frequency-selecting circuit designed to pass a specified band of frequencies
while attenuating signals of frequencies outside this band. Filters may be either active or passive
depending on the type of elements used in their circuitry. Passive filters contain only resistors,
capacitors, and inductors. Active filters employ transistors or op-amps in addition to resistors and
capacitors. Active filters offer several advantages over passive filters. Since the op-amp is
capable of providing a gain, the input signal is not attenuated as it is in a passive filter. Because
of the high input and low output resistance of the op-amp, the active filter does not cause loading
of the source or load. There are four types of filters: low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and band-
reject filters. A low-pass filter has a constant gain (=Vout/Vin) from 0 Hz to a high cut off
frequency fH. This cut off frequency is defined as the frequency where the voltage gain is
reduced to 0.707, that is at fH the gain is down by 3 dB; after that (f > fH) it decreases as f
increases. The frequencies between 0 Hz and fH are called pass band frequencies, whereas the
frequencies beyond fH are the so-called stop band frequencies. A common use of a low-pass filter
is to remove noise or other unwanted high-frequency components in a signal for which you are
only interested in the dc or low frequency components. Low-pass filters are also used to avoid
aliasing in analog-digital conversion correspondingly, a high-pass filter has a stop band for 0 < f
< fL and where fL is the low cut off frequency. A common use for a high-pass filter is to remove
the dc component of a signal for which you are only interested in the ac components (such as an
audio signal). A band pass filter has a pass band between two cut off frequencies fH and fL, (fH >
fL), and two stop bands 0 < f < fL and f > fH. The bandwidth of a band pass filter is equal to fH–fL.
The actual response curves of the filters in the stop band either steadily decrease or increase with
increase of frequency. The roll-off rate, measured at [dB/decade] or [dB/octave] is defined as
rate change of power at 10 times (decade) or 2 times (octave) change of frequency in the stop
band. The “First-order” filters attenuate voltages in the stop band 20 dB/decade (for example, a
first-order low pass filter would attenuate a signal at a frequency 100 times (2 decades) higher
than fH by 40 dB. The second-order filters attenuate by about 40 dB/decade.
 Lab 12

Low Pass Filter

Objectives :
To study the Active Low pass filter and to evaluate :

 High cutoff frequency of Low pass filter.

 Pass band gain of Low pass filter.
 Plot the frequency response of Low pass filter.

Equipment:

1. DC power supplies +15V, −15V from external source

2. Function generator
3. Oscilloscope
4. Digital Multimeter

Components:
1. Resistance 10kΩ
2. Resistance 22kΩ
3. Capacitor 0.01µF
4. LM 741

Figure 1

Equation of low pass filter

 1

√ ( )

Vin =Input signal Voltage

Vout = Output signal Voltage
| ⁄ = Gain of filter as a function of frequency
AF =1+RF/R1 = pass band gain of filter
f = frequency of input signal
fH =1/2πRC =high cut off frequency, 3-dB frequency, corner frequency
Operation of low pass filter using equation 2
a. At low frequencies f < fH; |= AF

b. At f=fH = 0.707*AF(Approx)

c. At f > fH < AF

The ideal low pass filter has a constant gain AF from 0 to high cut off frequency (fH) at fH the
gain is 0.707 * AF, and after fH it decreases at a constant rate with an increase in frequency i.e.
when input frequency is increased tenfold (one decade), the voltage gain is divided by 10.
Gain (db) = 20 log | Vout / Vin | i.e. Gain Roll off rate is −20db / decade.

Figure 2 Table 1

Procedure :
 1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.
2. Switch ON the power supply
3. Connect a sinusoidal signal of amplitude 1V (p-p) of frequency 1KHz to Vin of Low pass
filter from function generator
4. Connect Ch-1 of oscilloscope to the signal source
5. Observe output on Ch-2 of oscilloscope
6. Increase the frequency of input signal step by step and observe the effect on output Vout
on oscilloscope
7. Tabulate values of Vout, gain, gain (db) at different values of input frequency shown in
observation Table 1.
8. Plot the frequency response of low pass filter using the data obtained at different input
frequencies.

Theoretical Calculations :

Calculate all the following values

1. Pass band gain of Low pass filter AF = 1 + RF / R1

2. Pass band gain (db) = 20 log |Vout / Vin|
3. 3 db frequency fH = 1/2πRC
4. Gain at 3 db frequency fH = 0.707 * AF
5. Roll off rate = −20db/decade

Results :
 Lab 13

High Pass Filter

It is a frequency selective circuit, which passes signals of frequencies above it's low cut off
frequency (fL) and attenuates signals of frequencies below fL.

Objectives :
To study the Active High pass filter and to evaluate :

 Low cutoff frequency of High pass filter.

 Pass band gain of High pass filter.
 Plot the frequency response of High pass filter.

Equipment:

1. DC power supplies +15V, −15V from external source

2. Function generator
3. Oscilloscope
4. Digital Multimeter

Components:
5. Resistance 10kΩ
6. Resistance 22kΩ
7. Capacitor 0.01µF
8. LM 741

Equation of High pass filter

1

√ ( )

Vin =Input signal Voltage

Vout = Output signal Voltage
| ⁄ = Gain of filter as a function of frequency
AF =1+RF/R1 = pass band gain of filter
f = frequency of input signal
fL =1/2πRC =Low cut off frequency, 3-dB frequency, corner frequency
Operation of high pass filter using equation 2
d. At low frequencies f < fL; | < AF

e. At f=fL = 0.707*AF(Approx)

f. At f > fL = AF

In ideal high pass filter, when f < fL gain is increased at a constant rate with an increase in
frequency. At fL the gain is 0.707*AF, and above fL it has constant gain of AF. Below fL when
input frequency is increased tenfold (one decade), the voltage gain is multiplied by 10.
Gain (db) = 20 log | Vout / Vin |
i.e. Gain Roll off rate is −20db / decade.

Figure 2 Table 1

Procedure :
 9. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.
10. Switch ON the power supply.
11. Connect a sinusoidal signal of amplitude 1V (p-p) of frequency 1KHz to Vin of High
pass filter from function generator.
12. Connect Ch-1 of oscilloscope to the signal source.
13. Observe output on Ch-2 of oscilloscope.
14. Increase the frequency of input signal step by step and observe the effect on output Vout
on oscilloscope.
15. Tabulate values of Vout, gain, gain (db) at different values of input frequency shown in
observation Table 1.
16. Plot the frequency response of High pass filter using the data obtained at different input
frequencies.

Theoretical Calculations :

Calculate all the following values

6. Pass band gain of High pass filter AF = 1 + RF / R1

7. Pass band gain (db) = 20 log |Vout / Vin|
8. Low cutoff frequency fL = 1/2πRC
9. Gain at Low cutoff frequency fL = 0.707 * AF
10. Roll off rate = −20db/decade

Results: