UNIT - I

FUNDAMENTALS OF IOT

Definition and Characteristics of IoT, Sensors, Actuators, Physical Design

of IoT – IoT Protocols, IoT communication models, IoT Communication APIs,
IoT enabled Technologies – Wireless Sensor Networks, Cloud Computing,
Embedded Systems, IoT Levels and Templates, Domain Specific IoTs –
Home, City, Environment, Energy, Agriculture and Industry.

DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF IOT

DEFINITION

The Internet of Things (IoT) describes the network of physical objects things
that are embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies for the
purpose of connecting and exchanging data with other devices and systems over
the internet.

[ OR ]

A dynamic global network infrastructure with self – configuring based on

standard and interoperable communication protocols where physical and virtual
“things” have identified, physical attributes, and virtual personalities and use
intelligent interfaces, often communicate data associated with users and their
environment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IoT

 Dynamic and self-Adapting:

IoT devices and systems may have the capability to dynamically adapt with the
changing contexts and take actions based on their operating condition. Ex:
Surveillance cameras can adapt their modes based on whether it is day or night.
 Self – Configuring:
IoT devices may have self-Configuring capability allowing a large number of
devices to work together to provide certain functionality.
 Interoperable communication protocols:
IoT Devices may support a number of interoperable communication protocols
and can communicate with other devices and also with the infrastructure.
 Unique Identity:
Each IoT devices has a unique identity and a unique identifier. IPaddress, URI).
IoT systems may have intelligent interfaces which adapt based on the context,
allow communication with users and the environment contexts.
 Integrated into information network:
IoT devices are usually integrated into the information network that allows them
to communicate and exchange data with other devices and systems

SENSORS

Sensors are devices that detect external information, replacing it with a signal
that humans and machines can distinguish.

TRANSDUCER :
A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.
 It converts one type of energy into another type.
 It might be used as actuators in various systems.

SENSORS CHARACTERISTICS :

 Static
 Dynamic

1. STATIC CHARACTERISTICS :

It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change after
steady state condition.
ACCURACY

Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result close to the

true value of the measured quantity. It measures errors. It is measured by
absolute and relative errors. Express the correctness of the output compared to a
higher prior system.

Absolute error = Measured value – True

value Relative error = Measured value/True
value RANGE

Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which the
sensor can actually sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense or no kind of
response.

e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to

800`c. RESOLUTION
Resolution is an important specification towards selection of sensors. The
higher the resolution, better the precision. When the accretion is zero to, it is
called threshold.

Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.
PRECISION
It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same
reading when repetitively measuring the same quantity
under the same prescribed conditions. It implies agreement
between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value.

It is related to the variance of a set of measurements.

It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.

SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response of the
system with respect to incremental change in input parameters. It can be found
from the slope of the output characteristics curve of a sensor. It is the smallest
amount of difference in quantity that will change the instrument’s reading.

LINEARITY
The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particular straight line. Linearity
is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration curve plots the
output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static conditions.

A curve’s slope resemblance to a straight line describes the

linearity.

DRIFT
The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when
kept at that value for a long period of time.

REPEATABILITY

The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the same

conditions. The measurements have to be made under a short enough time
duration so as not to allow significant long-term drift.

2. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS :

PROPERTIES OF
THESYSTEMS
ZERO-ORDER
SYSTEM
The output shows a response to the input signal with no delay. It does not
include energy-storing elements. Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary
displacements.
FIRST-ORDER SYSTEM

When the output approaches its final value gradually. Consists of an

energy storage and dissipation element.

SECOND-ORDER SYSTEM
Complex output response. The output response of the sensor oscillates before
steady state.

SENSOR CLASSIFICATION :
  Passive & Active
 Analog & digital
 Scalar & vector
 Passive Sensor

Cannot independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil moisture, water
level and temperature sensors.

Active Sensor

Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser altimeter
sensors.

Analog Sensor

The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input
parameter. Ex- Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog
hall effect.

Digital sensor

Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog

sensors. Along with the analog sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit
conversion. Example – Passive infrared (PIR) sensor and digital temperature
sensor(DS1620).

Scalar sensor

Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer for the
sensor is a function of magnitude of some input parameter. Not affected by the
direction of input parameters.
Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.

Vector sensor

The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and
orientation of input parameter. Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic
field and motion detector sensors.

ACTUATORS
Actuator is a device that converts energy into motion. It does this by taking an
electrical signal and combining it with an energy source.

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a
source of energy and a control signal. When it receives a control signal, it
converts the source of energy to a mechanical operation. On this basis, on which
form of energy it uses, it has different types given below.

TYPES OF ACTUATORS :

1. Hydraulic Actuators

 A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical

operation. They are actuated by a cylinder or fluid motor.
 The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory
motion, according to the need of the IoT device.
 Ex- construction equipment uses hydraulic actuators because hydraulic
actuators can generate a large amount of force.

ADVANTAGES :

 Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
 Used in welding, clamping, etc.
 Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport
carriers.

DISADVANTAGES :
 Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
 It is expensive.
 It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and
high maintenance systems.

2. Pneumatic Actuators

A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high

pressure to convert into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in
robotics, use sensors that work like human fingers by using compressed air.

ADVANTAGES :

 They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where
using air is a safer option than chemicals.
 They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
 It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.
DISADVANTAGES :

 Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.

 The air compressor should be running continuously.
 Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.

3. Electrical Actuators

An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that

converts electrical energy into mechanical torque. An example of an electric
actuator is a solenoid based electric bell.

ADVANTAGES :

 It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial

valves.
 It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
 It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision
positioning.

DISADVANTAGES :
 It is expensive.
 It depends a lot on environmental conditions.

PHYSICAL DESIGN OF IoT

 The “Things” in IoT usually refers to IoT devices which have unique
identities and can perform remote sensing, Actuating and monitoring
capabilities.

 IoT devices can exchange data with other connected devices and applications
directly or indirectly.

 It collect data from other devices and process the data locally or send the data
to Centralized servers or cloud based applications back ends for processing the
data i.e : Memory, processing calibrators, communication latencies and speed
and deadlines.

Generic Block diagram of IoT device

An IoT device may consist of several interfaces connections to other devices,

both wired and wireless. These include
I) IoT interfaces for sensors
II) interfaces for internet connectivity
III) memory and storage interfaces
IV) audio video interfaces.

 An IoT Device can collect various types of data from the onboard or attached
sensors, such as temperature e , humidity, light intensity.

 IoT devices can also be varied types, for instance, wearable sensors, smart
watches, LED light automobiles and industrial machines.

 Almost all I would advise generate data in Some form or the other which
when processed by Data Analytics systems leads to Useful information to guide
further actions locally or remotely.

IoT PROTOCOLS

IoT protocols help to establish Communication between IoT Device (Node

Device) and Cloud based Server over the Internet. It help to sent commands to
IoT Device and received data from an IoT device over the Internet.

LINK LAYER:
Link layer protocols determine how data is physically sent over the network’s
physical layer or medium (Coaxial cable or other or radio wave). This Layer
determines how the packets are coded and signalled by the hardware device
over the medium to which the host is attached (e.g. coaxial cable).

802.3 – ETHERNET :

 Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in

LANs. It was first standardized in 1980s by IEEE 802.3 standard.

 IEEE 802.3 defines the physical layer and the medium access control (MAC)
sub-layer of the data link layer for wired Ethernet networks.

 Ethernet is classified into two categories:

 Classic Ethernet and
 Switched Ethernet.

802.11 - WI-FI: Wireless Fidelity

IEEE 802.3 is a collections of wireless Local area

network.(WLAN) communication standards, including extensive
descriptions of the link layer.

For example :

802.11a operate in the 5 GHz band,

802.11b and 802.11g operate in the 2.4 GHz

band. 802.11ac operates in the 5G hertz band.

802.16 wiMAX: Wireless Inter-operability for Microwave Access

 IEEE 802.16 is a collection of wirless broadband and Standards, for

Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMANs) that has been
developed by working group number 16 of IEEE 802 including
extensive descriptions for the link layer als


  o called WiMAX.
 Wimax standard provides a data rates from from 1.5 Mb/s to 1Gb/s the
recent update provides data rates of hundred megabits per second for
mobile station.
802.15.4 LR-WPAN: Low rate Wireless Personal Area Network.

IEEE 802.1 5.4 is a collections of standard for low rate wireless personal area
network(LRWPAN).These standard form the basis of specifications for high
level communication.

Zigbee- LR-WPAN standards provide data rates from 40 kb/ s. These standards
provide low cost and low speed Communications for power constrained devices.

2G/ 3G/ 4G/ 5G - These are different generations of mobile communication

standards. IoT based on these standards range from 9.6 Kb/s for 2G. and upto
20 GB/s for 5G.

NETWORK LAYER:

Responsible for sending of IP datagram from the source network to the

destination network. Network layer performs the host addressing and packet
routing. We used IPv4 and IPv6 for Host identification. IPv4 and IPv6 are
hierarchical IP addressing schemes.

IPV4:

 Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each

device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for
communication.
 An IP address serves two main functions:
 Host or network interface identification and
 Location addressing.
 Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number.
However, because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available
IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address,
was standardized in 1998.

IPv6:

It is the newest versions of internet protocol and successor to IPv4. IPv6 uses 128
bit address schemes that are lost total of 2 128 are 3.4* 10 38 address.
6LoWPAN:

IPv6 over low power wireless personal area networks brings IP protocol to the
low power device which have limited processing capability it operate in the 2.4
GHz frequency range and provide the data transfer rate off to 50 kb/s.

TRANSPORT LAYER
This layer provides functions such as error control, segmentation, flow control
and congestion control. So this layer protocols provide end-to-end message
transfer capability independent of the underlying network.

TCP : TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

 It is a standard that defines how to establish and maintain a network

conversation through which application programs can exchange data.

 TCP works with the Internet Protocol (IP), which defines how computers
send packets of data to each other.

UDP : User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

 It is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part of Internet Protocol

suite, referred as UDP/IP suite.

 Unlike TCP, it is unreliable and connectionless protocol. So, there is no need

to establish connection prior to data transfer.

APPLICATION LAYER
Application layer protocols define how the applications interface with the
lower layer protocols to send over the network.

HTTP : Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

 It is an application-layer protocol for transmitting hypermedia documents,

such as HTML.
 It was designed for communication between web browsers and web servers,
but it can also be used for other purposes.
 HTTP follows a classical client-server model, with a client opening a
connection to make a request, then waiting until it receives a response.

CoAP : CoAP-Constrained Application Protocol

 It is a specialized Internet Application Protocol for constrained devices, as

defined in RFC 7252.

 It enables devices to communicate over the Internet.

 The protocol is especially targeted for constrained hardware such as 8-bits
microcontrollers, low power sensors and similar devices that can’t run on
HTTP.
 It is designed to easily interface with http like http, CoAP supports method
such as GET, PUT, DELETE .

WEBSOCKET:

 Web socket protocol allows full duplex communication over a single socket
connections for sending message between client and server.
 Web socket is based on TCP and Allows streams of messages to be sent back
and forth between the client and server while keeping the TCP connection open.
 The client can be a browser, a mobile application and IoT
device. MQTT: Message Queue Telemetry Transport

It is a machine-to-machine(M2M)”Internet of Things” connectivity protocol. It

was designed as an extremely lightweight publish/subscribe messaging transport
and useful for connections with remote locations where a small code footprint is
required.

XMPP: Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol

 It is a protocol for real-time communication and streaming XML

data between network entities
 XMPP powers wide range of applications including messaging, presence,
data syndication, gaming multiparty chat and voice / voice calls.
 XMPP Allows sending small chunks of XML data from one network entity
to another in real time.
 XMPP supports both client to server and server –client communication path.
DDS : The Data Distribution Service (DDS)

 It is a middleware protocol and API standard for data-centric

connectivity from the Object Management Group® (OMG).

 It integrates the components of a system together, providing low-latency

data connectivity, extreme reliability, and a scalable architecture.

DDS : The Data Distribution Service (DDS)

 It is a middleware protocol and API standard for data-centric connectivity

from the Object Management Group (OMG). It integrates the components of a
system together, providing low-latency data connectivity.

 AMQP: Advanced Message Queuing protocols. it is an open application

layer protocol for business messaging.

 AMQP support point to point and publish subscribe model routing and
queuing.

 AMQP broker receive message from publishers example devices or

applications that generate data and about them over connections to consumers
publishers publish the message to exchange which then distribute message
copies to queues.

LOGICAL DESIGN OF IOT:

Logical design of an IoT system refers to an abstract representation of the

entities and process without going into low level specification of the
implementations .

IOT FUNCTIONAL BLOCK:

An IoT system comprises of a number of functional blocks that provide the
system the capabilities for identification , sensing, actuation ,communication
and Management.
The function blocks are described as follows,

Devices: An IoT system comprises of the devices that provide sensing,

actuation, monitoring and control function

Communication: communication block handle the communication systems.

Services : An IoT system uses various types of IoT services such as services for
device monitoring ,device control services ,data publishing services and services
for device Discovery.

Management: Functional blocks provide various functions to govern the IoT

system

Security: Security functional block security IoT system and by providing

functions such as application authorization message and content integrity and
data security.

Application: IoT application provides and interface that the user can used to
control and monitor various aspects of the IoT system. Application also allow
users to view the system status and view or analyze the processed to data.

IoT COMMUNICATION MODEL

IoT devices communicate with each other

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION MODEL

1. REQUEST & RESPONSE MODEL :

 This model follows a client-server architecture.

 The client, when required, requests the information from the server. This
request is usually in the encoded format.

 This model is stateless since the data between the requests is not retained
and each request is independently handled.

 The server Categories the request, and fetches the data from the database and
its resource representation.
 This data is converted to response and is transferred in an encoded format to
the client. The client, in turn, receives the response.

 On the other hand — In Request-Response communication model client

sends a request to the server and the server responds to the request.

 When the server receives the request it decides how to respond, fetches the
data retrieves resources, and prepares the response, and sends it to the client.

2. PUBLISHER-SUBSCRIBER MODEL

 This model comprises three entities: Publishers, Brokers, and Consumers.

 Publishers are the source of data. It sends the data to the topic which are
managed by the broker. They are not aware of consumers.

 Consumers subscribe to the topics which are managed by the broker.

 Hence, Brokers responsibility is to accept data from publishers and send it to

the appropriate consumers.
PUSH-PULL MODEL

 The push-pull model constitutes data publishers, data consumers, and data
queues.

 Publishers and Consumers are not aware of each other.

 Publishers publish the message/data and push it into the queue. The
consumers, present on the other side, pull the data out of the queue.

 Thus, the queue acts as the buffer for the message when the difference occurs
in the rate of push or pull of data on the side of a publisher and consumer.

 Queues help in decoupling the messaging between the producer and

consumer.

 Queues also act as a buffer which helps in situations where there is a

mismatch between the rate at which the producers push the data and consumers
pull the data.
EXCLUSIVE PAIR
 Exclusive Pair is the bi-directional model, including
full-duplex communication among client and server.

 The connection is constant and remains open till the client sends a request to
close the connection.

 The Server has the record of all the connections which has been opened.

 This is a state-full connection model and the server is aware of all open
connections.

 Web Socket based communication API is fully based on this model.

IoT COMMUNICATION API

REST-basedCommunicationAPIs:
REPRESENTATIONALSTATE TRANSFER (REST)
 It is a set of architectural principles by which you can design Web services
the Web APIs that focus on systems’s resources and how resource states are
addressed and transferred.

 REST APIs that follow the request response communication model, the rest
architectural constraint apply to the components, connector and data elements,
within a distributed hypermedia system.

 The rest architectural constraint are as follows:

Client-server: The principle behind the client-server constraint is

the separation of concerns.
 For example clients should not be concerned with the storage of data which
is concern of the serve.
 Similarly the server should not be concerned about the user interface, which
is concern of the client.
 Separation allows client and server to be independently developed and
updated.

Stateless: Each request from client to server must contain all the information
necessary to understand the request, and cannot take advantage of any stored
context on the server.

 The session state is kept entirely on the client.

Cache-able : Cache constraints requires that the data within a response to a

request be implicitly or explicitly levelled as cache-able or non cache-able.

 If a response is cache-able, then a client cache is given the right to reuse that
response data for later, equivalent requests. caching can partially or completely
eliminate some instructions and improve efficiency and scalability.
Layered system: layered system constraints, constrains the behavior of
components such that each component cannot see beyond the immediate layer
with they are interacting.

 For example, the client cannot tell whether it is connected directly to the end
server or two an intermediary along the way.

 System scalability can be improved by allowing intermediaries to respond to

requests instead of the end server, without the client having to do anything
different.

Uniform interface : uniform interface constraints requires that the method of

communication between client and server must be uniform.

 Resources are identified in the requests (by URIsin web based systems) and
are themselves is separate from the representations of the resources data
returned to the client.
 When a client holds a representation of resources it has all the information
required to update or delete the resource you (provided the client has required
permissions).

 Each message includes enough information to describe how to process the

message.

Code on demand – Servers can provide executable code or scripts for clients to
execute in their context. this constraint is the only one that is optional.

 A RESTful web service is a ” Web API ” implemented using HTTP and

REST principles. REST is most popular IoT Communication APIs.
WEB SOCKET BASED COMMUNICATION API

Web Socket APIs allow bi- directional, full duplex communication between
clients and servers. WebSocket APIs follow the exclusive pair communication
model.

EXCLUSIVE PAIR COMMUNICATION MODEL

 Exclusive Pair is a bidirectional, fully duplex communication model

that uses a persistent connection between the client and server.

 Once the connection is setup it remains open until the client sends a
request to close the connection.

 Client and server can send messages to each other after connection setup.
IoT ENABLED TECHNOLOGIES

IoT is enabled by several technologies including wireless sensor network, cloud

computing, big data Analytics, embedded systems, security protocols and
architecture.

IoT(internet of things) enabling technologies are,

 Wireless Sensor Network

 Cloud Computing
 Big Data Analytics
 Communications Protocols
 Embedded System

WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK(WSN)

A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to monitor
the environmental and physical conditions. A wireless sensor network consists
of end nodes, routers and coordinators. End nodes have several sensors attached
to them where the data is passed to a coordinator with the help of routers. The
coordinator also acts as the gateway that connects WSN to the internet.

Example :

 Weather monitoring system

 Indoor air quality monitoring system
 Soil moisture monitoring system
 Surveillance system
 Health monitoring system
CLOUD COMPUTING

It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities over

the internet. Cloud means something which is present in remote locations.

With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like
databases, webservers, storage, any device, and any software over the internet.

Characteristics :

 Broad network access

 On demand self-services
 Rapid scalability
 Measured service
 Pay-per-use

Provides different services such

(Infrastructure as a service)
Infrastructure as a service provides online services such as physical machines,
virtual machines, servers, networking, storage and data center space on a pay
per use basis. Major IaaS providers are Google Compute Engine, Amazon Web
Services and Microsoft Azure etc.

Ex : Web Hosting, Virtual Machine etc.

PaaS (Platform as a service)

Provides a cloud-based environment with a very thing required to support the

complete life cycle of building and delivering West web based (cloud)
applications – without the cost and complexity of buying and managing
underlying hardware, software provisioning and hosting. Computing platforms
such as hardware, operating systems and libraries etc. Basically, it provides a
platform to develop applications.
Ex : App Cloud, Google app engine

SaaS (Software as a service)

It is a way of delivering applications over the internet as a service. Instead of
installing and maintaining software, you simply access it via the internet,
freeing yourself from complex software and hardware management.
SaaS Applications are sometimes called web-based software on demand
software or hosted software.

SaaS applications run on a SaaS provider’s service and they manage security
availability and performance.

Ex : Google Docs, Gmail, office etc.

BIG DATA ANALYTICS

It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big data.

Collection of data whose volume, velocity or variety is simply too massive and
tough to store, control, process and examine the data using traditional databases.

Big data is gathered from a variety of sources including social network videos,
digital images, sensors and sales transaction records.

Several steps involved in analyzing big data ,

 Data cleaning
 Munging
 Processing
 Visualization

Examples :

 Bank transactions
 Data generated by IoT systems for location and tracking of vehicles
 E-commerce and in Big-Basket
 Health and fitness data generated by IoT system such as a fitness bands

COMMUNICATIONS PROTOCOLS

They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity and
linking to applications. Communication protocols allow devices to exchange
data over the network. Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a
single communication. A group of protocols designed to work together is
known as a protocol suite; when implemented in software they are a protocol
stack.
They are used in

 Data encoding
 Addressing schemes

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special tasks.

It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units

(Ethernet Wi-Fi adapters), input output units (display keyword etc. ) and storage
devices (flash memory).

It collects the data and sends it to the

internet. Embedded systems used in

Examples :

 Digital camera
 DVD player, music player
 Industrial robots
 Wireless Routers etc.

IOT LEVELS AND TEMPLATES

An IoT system comprises of the following components:

 Device: An IoT device allows identification, remote sensing, actuating and
remote monitoring capabilities.

 Resource: Resources are software components on the IoT device for

accessing, processing, and storing sensor information, or controlling actuators
connected to the device. Resources also include the software components that
enable network access for the device.

 Controller Service: Controller service is a native service that runs on the

device and interacts with the web services. Controller services ends data from
the device to the web service and receives commands from the application (via
web services) for controlling the device.

 Database: Database can be either local or in the cloud and stores the data
generated by the IoT device.
 Web Service: Web services serve as a link between the IoT device,
application, database and analysis components.

 Web service can be either implemented using HTTP and REST principles
(REST service) or using WebSocket protocol (WebSocket service).

 Analysis Component: The Analysis Component is responsible for analyzing

the IoT data and generate results in a form which are easy for the user to
understand.

 Application: IoT applications provide an interface that the users can use to
control and monitor various aspects of the IoT system. Applications also allow
users to view the system status and view the processed data.

IoT Level 1:

 A level-1 IoT system has a single node/device that performs sensing and/or
actuation, stores data, performs analysis and hosts the application.

 Level-1 IoT systems are suitable for modeling low- cost and low-complexity
solutions where the data involved is not big and the analysis requirements are
not computationally intensive.
IoT Level 2:

 A level-2 IoT system has a single node that performs sensing and/or
actuation and local analysis.
 Data is stored in the cloud and application is usually cloud- based.
 Level-2 IoT systems are suitable for solutions where the data involved is
big, however, the primary analysis requirement is not computationally intensive
and can be done locally itself.
IoT Level 3:

 A level-3 IoT system has a single node. Data is stored and analyzed in the
cloud and application is cloud- based.
 Level-3 IoT systems are suitable for solutions where the data involved is big
and the analysis requirements are computationally intensive.

IoT Level 4:

 A level-4 IoT system has multiple nodes that perform local analysis. Data is
stored in the cloud and application is cloud-based.
 Level-4 contains local and cloud- based observer nodes which can subscribe
to and receive information collected in the cloud from IoT devices.
 Level-4 IoT systems are suitable for solutions where multiple nodes are
required, the data involved is big and the analysis requirements are
computationally intensive.
IoT Level 5:

 A level-5 IoT system has multiple end nodes and one coordinator node.
 The end nodes that perform sensing and/or actuation.
 Coordinator node collects data from the end nodes and sends to the cloud.
 Data is stored and analyzed in the cloud and application is cloud-based.
 Level-5 IoT systems are suitable for solutions based on wireless sensor
networks, in which the data involved is big and the analysis requirements are
computationally intensive.
IoT Level 6:

 A level-6 IoT system has multiple independent end nodes that perform
sensing and/or actuation and send data to the cloud.
 Data is stored in the cloud and application is cloud-based.
 The analytics component analyzes the data and stores the results in the
cloud database.
 The results are visualized with the cloud-based application.
 The centralized controller is aware of the status of all the end nodes and
sends control commands to the nodes.

DOMAIN SPECIFIC IoTs

HOME AUTOMATION

a) Smart Lighting: It helps in saving energy by adapting the lighting

to the ambient conditions and switching on/off or diming the light when
needed.

b) Smart Appliances: make the management easier and also provide status
information to the users remotely.

c) Intrusion Detection: use security cameras and sensors(PIR sensors and door
sensors) to detect intrusion and raise alerts. Alerts can be in the form of SMS or
email sent to the user.

d) Smoke/Gas Detectors: Smoke detectors are installed in homes and buildings

to detect smoke that is typically an early sign of fire. Alerts raised by smoke
detectors can be in the form of signals to a fire alarm system. Gas detectors can
detect the presence of harmful gases such as CO, LPGetc.,

CITIES

a) Smart Parking: It make the search for parking space easier and convenient
for drivers. Smart parking are powered by IoT systems that detect the no. of
empty parking slots and send information over internet to smart application
backends.

b) Smart Lighting: for roads, parks and buildings can help in saving energy.

c) Smart Roads: Equipped with sensors can provide information on driving

condition, travel time estimating and alert in case of poor driving conditions,
traffic condition and accidents.
d) Structural Health Monitoring: It uses a network of sensors to monitor the
vibration levels in the structures such as bridges and buildings.

e) Surveillance: The video feeds from surveillance cameras can be aggregated

in cloud based scalable storage solution.
f) Emergency Response: IoT systems for fire detection, gas and water leakage
detection can help in generating alerts and minimizing their effects on the
critical infrastructures.

ENVIRONMENT

a) Weather Monitoring: Systems collect data from a no. of sensors attached

and send the data to cloud based applications and storage back ends. The data
collected in cloud can then be analyzed and visualized by cloud based
applications.

b) Air Pollution Monitoring: System can monitor emission of harmful

gases(CO2, CO, NO, NO2 etc.,) by factories and automobiles using gaseous and
meteorological sensors. The collected data can be analyzed to make informed
decisions on pollutions control approaches.

c) Noise Pollution Monitoring: Due to growing urban development, noise

levels in cities have increased and even become alarmingly high in some
cities. IoT based noise pollution monitoring systems use a no. of noise
monitoring systems that are deployed at different places in a city. The data on
noise levels from the station is collected on servers or in the cloud. The
collected data is then aggregated to generate noise maps.

d) Forest Fire Detection: Forest fire can cause damage to natural resources,
property and human life. Early detection of forest fire can help in minimizing
damage.

e) River Flood Detection: River floods can cause damage to natural and
human resources and human life. Early warnings of floods can be given by
monitoring the water level and flow rate. IoT based river flood monitoring
system uses a no. of sensor nodes that monitor the water level and flow rate
sensors.
ENERGY

a) Smart Grids: It is a data communication network integrated with the

electrical grids that collects and analyze data captured in near-real-time about
power transmission, distribution and consumption. Smart grid technology
provides predictive information and recommendations to utilities, their
suppliers, and their customers on how best to manage power. By using IoT
based sensing and measurement technologies, the health of equipment and
integrity of the grid can be evaluated.

b) Renewable Energy Systems: IoT based systems integrated with the

transformers at the point of interconnection measure the electrical variables and
how much power is fed into the grid. For wind energy systems, closed-loop
controls can be used to regulate the voltage at point of interconnection which
coordinate wind turbine outputs and provides power support.

c) Prognostics: In systems such as power grids, real-time information is

collected using specialized electrical sensors called Phasor Measurement
Units(PMUs) at the substations. The information received from PMUs must be
monitored in real-time for estimating the state of the system and for predicting
failures.

RETAIL

a) Inventory Management: IoT systems enable remote monitoring of

inventory using data collected by RFID readers.

b) Smart Payments: Solutions such as contact-less payments powered by

technologies such as Near Field Communication(NFC) and Bluetooth.

c) Smart Vending Machines: Sensors in a smart vending machines

monitors its operations and send the data to cloud which can be used for
predictive maintenance.

LOGISTICS

a) Route generation & scheduling: IoT based system backed by cloud can
provide first response to the route generation queries and can be scaled upto
serve a large transportation network.
b) Fleet Tracking: Use GPS to track locations of vehicles in real-time.
c) Shipment Monitoring: IoT based shipment monitoring systems use sensors
such as temp, humidity, to monitor the conditions and send data to
cloud, where it can be analyzed to detect food spoilage.

d) Remote Vehicle Diagnostics: Systems use on-board IoT devices for

collecting data on Vehicle operations (speed, RPMetc.,) and status of various
vehicle subsystems.

AGRICULTURE

a) Smart Irrigation: It is to determine moisture amount in soil.

b) Green House Control: It is to improve productivity.

INDUSTRY

a) Machine diagnosis and prognosis

b) Indoor Air Quality Monitoring

HEALTH AND LIFESTYLE

a) Health & Fitness Monitoring

b) Wearable Electronics
 UNIT II

IOT PROTOCOLS

Protocol Standardization for IoT – Efforts – M2M and WSN Protocols –

SCADA and RFID Protocols – Issues with IoT Standardization – Unified
Data Standards – Protocols – IEEE802.15.4–BACNet Protocol– Modbus –
KNX – Zigbee– Network layer – APS layer – Security.

DEFINE PROTOCOL:

It is a set of rules that need to be followed by the communicating parties in

order to have successful and reliable data communication.

PROTOCOL STANDARDIZATION FOR IoT

It define the rules and formats for setting up and managing IoT networks,
along with how data are transmitted across these networks.

Standardizing the IoT

Smart objects produce large volumes of data. This data needs to be
managed, processed, transferred and stored securely. Standardization is
key to achieving universally accepted specifications and protocols for
true interoperability between devices and applications.

The use of standards

 ensures interoperable and cost-effective solutions
 opens up opportunities in new areas
 allows the market to reach its full potential
The more things are connected, the greater the security risk. So security
standards are also needed to protect the individuals, businesses and
governments which will use the IoT.

The current status of IoT standardization as follows:

 Fragmented architectures, no coherent unifying concepts, solutions
exist only for application silos.
 No holistic approach to implement the IoT has yet been proposed.
 Many island solutions do exist (RFID, sensor nets, etc.).
 Little cross-sector reuse of technology and exchange of knowledge.

The key objectives of the IoT-A consortium are as follows:

  Create the architectural foundations of an interoperable Internet of
Things as a key dimension of the larger future Internet
 Architectural reference model together with an initial set of key
building blocks:
o Not reinventing the wheel but federating already existing
technologies
o Demonstrating the applicability in a set of use cases
o Removing the barriers of deployment and wide-scale
acceptance of the IoT by establishing a strongly involved
stakeholder group
 Federating heterogeneous IoT technologies into an interoperable
IoT fabric

The emerging application space for smart objects requires scalable

and interoperable communication mechanisms that support future
innovation as the application space grows. IP has proven itself a long-
lived, stable, and highly scalable communication technology that supports
a wide range of applications, devices, and underlying communication
technologies. The IP stack is open, lightweight, versatile, ubiquitous,
scalable, manageable, stable, and end-to-end. It can run on tiny, battery-
operated embedded devices. IP therefore has all the qualities to make the
Internet of Things a reality, connecting billions of communicating
devices.

A smart object is defined by IPSO as

 An intelligent (RFID) tag
 A sensor: device that measures a physical quantity and converts it
to an analog or digital signal, such as power consumption and
quality, vibration of an engine, pollution, motion detection,
temperature
 An actuator: device that controls a set of equipment, such as
controls and/or modulates the flow of a gas or liquid, controls
electricity distribution, performs a mechanical operation
 An embedded device: a purpose-built connected device that
performs a specific function, such as a factory robotic arm, vending
machine, smart grid analyzer
 Any combination of the above features to form a more complex
entity

M2M and WSN Protocols

• Most M2M applications are developed today in a highly customized

fashion
• High-level M2M architecture from M2M Standardization Task Force
(MSTF) does include
 fixed & other non cellular wireless networks
• Means it’s generic, holistic IoT architecture even though it is M2M
architecture
• M2M and IoT sometimes are used interchangeably in the United States

M2M:
 Machine-to-Machine (M2M) refers to networking of machines (or devices)
for the purpose of remote monitoring and control and data exchange.
Fig. Shows the end-to-end architecture of M2M systems comprises of M2M area
networks, communication networks and application domain.

 An M2M area network comprises of machines( or M2M nodes) which have

embedded network modules for sensing, actuation and communicating
various communication protocols can be used for M2M LAN such as ZigBee,
Bluetooth, M-bus, Wireless M-Bus etc.,

 These protocols provide connectivity between M2M nodes within an M2M

area network. The communication network provides connectivity to
remote M2M area networks. The communication network provides
connectivity to remote M2M area network.
 The communication network can use either wired or wireless network(IP
based). While the M2M are networks use either properietorary or non-IP
based communication protocols, the communication network uses IP-based
network.

 Since non-IP based protocols are used within M2M area network, the M2M
nodes within one network cannot communicate with nodes in an external
network

 To enable the communication between remote M2M are network, M2M

gateways are used.
 The above figure shows the block diagram of an M2M gateway. The
communication between M2M nodes and the M2M gateway is based on the
communication protocols which are naive to the M2M are network.

 M2M gateway performs protocol translations to enable Ip-connectivity for

M2M are networks. M2M gateway acts as a proxy performing translations
from/to native protocols to/from Internet Protocol(IP).

 With an M2M gateway, each mode in an M2M area network appears as a

virtualized node for external M2M area networks.

Other M2M standards activities include:

• Data transport protocol standards - M2MXML, JavaScript Object
Notation (JSON),
BiTXML, WMMP, MDMP
• Extend OMA DM to support M2M devices protocol management
objects
• M2M device management, standardize M2M gateway
• M2M security and fraud detection
• Network API’s M2M service capabilities
• Remote management of device behind gateway/firewall
• Open REST-based API for M2M applications
WSN PROTOCOLS
WSNs stand for Wireless Sensor Networks.

A network that contains distributed independent sensor devices that are

meant to monitor physical or environmental conditions. A WSN consists of
a set of connected tiny sensor nodes, which communicate with each other
and exchange information and data.
A Wireless sensor network can be defined as a network of devices that can
communicate the information gathered from a monitored field through
wireless links. The data is forwarded through multiple nodes, and with a
gateway, the data is connected to other networks like wireless Ethernet.

WSN is a wireless network that consists of base stations and numbers of

nodes (wireless sensors). These networks are used to monitor physical or
environmental conditions like sound, pressure, temperature, and co-
operatively pass data through the network to the main location as shown in
the figure.

Types of Wireless Sensor Networks

Depending on the environment, the types of networks are decided so that those
can be deployed underwater, underground, on land, and so on. Different types of
WSNs include:

1. Terrestrial WSNs
2. Underground WSNs
3. Underwater WSNs
4. Multimedia WSNs
5. Mobile WSNs
  Terrestrial WSNs

Terrestrial WSNs are capable of communicating base stations efficiently,

and consist of hundreds to thousands of wireless sensor nodes deployed
either in an unstructured or structured (Pre-planned) manner.

In an unstructured mode, the sensor nodes are randomly distributed within

the target area that is dropped from a fixed plane. The preplanned or
structured mode considers optimal placement, grid placement, and 2D, 3D
placement models.

In this WSN, the battery power is limited; however, the battery is

equipped with solar cells as a secondary power source. The Energy
conservation of these WSNs is achieved by using low duty cycle
operations, minimizing delays, and optimal routing, and so on.

 Underground WSNs

The underground wireless sensor networks are more expensive than the
terrestrial WSNs in terms of deployment, maintenance, and equipment
cost considerations and careful planning.

The WSNs networks consist of several sensor nodes that are hidden in the
ground to monitor underground conditions. To relay information from the
sensor nodes to the base station, additional sink nodes are located above
the ground.
The underground wireless sensor networks deployed into the ground are
difficult to recharge. The sensor battery nodes equipped with limited
battery power are difficult to recharge. In addition to this, the underground
environment makes wireless communication a challenge due to the high
level of attenuation and signal loss.

 Under Water WSNs

More than 70% of the earth is occupied with water. These networks
consist of several sensor nodes and vehicles deployed underwater.
Autonomous underwater vehicles are used for gathering data from these
sensor nodes. A challenge of underwater communication is a long
propagation delay, and bandwidth and sensor failures.

Underwater, WSNs are equipped with a limited battery that cannot be

recharged or replaced. The issue of energy conservation for underwater
WSNs involves the development of underwater communication and
networking techniques.

 Multimedia WSNs

Multimedia wireless sensor networks have been proposed to enable

tracking and monitoring of events in the form of multimedia, such as
imaging, video, and audio.

These networks consist of low-cost sensor nodes equipped with

microphones and cameras. These nodes are interconnected with each
other over a wireless connection for data compression, data retrieval, and
correlation.
The challenges with the multimedia WSN include high energy
consumption, high bandwidth requirements, data processing, and
compressing techniques. In addition to this, multimedia contents require
high bandwidth for the content to be delivered properly and easily.

 Mobile WSNs

These networks consist of a collection of sensor nodes that can be moved

on their own and can be interacted with the physical environment. The
mobile nodes can compute sense and communicate.

Mobile wireless sensor networks are much more versatile than static
sensor networks. The advantages of MWSN over static wireless sensor
networks include better and improved coverage, better energy efficiency,
superior channel capacity, and so on
IoT data is collected in the cloud and can be accessed by cloud applications such
as analytics applications, enterprise applications, remote diagnosis and
management applications, etc.

WSN Protocol
The data sensed by the sensor nodes in a wireless sensor network (WSN) is
typically forwarded to the base station that connects the sensor network with the
other networks (may be internet) where the data is collected, analyzed and some
action is taken accordingly.
LIST OF WSN PROTOCOLS:

SCADA and RFID Protocols

• Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
• One of the IoT pillars to represent the whole industrial automation arena
• IEEE created standard specification called Std C37.1™, for SCADA &
automation systems in 2007
• In recent years, network-based industrial automation has greatly evolved
• With the use of intelligent electronic devices (IEDs), or IoT devices in
our terms, in
substations and power stations
The processing is now distributed
• Functions that used to be done at control center can now be done by IED
i.e. M2M between devices
• Due to restructuring of electric industry, traditional vertically integrated
electric utilities are replaced by many entities such as
• GENCO (Generation Company),
• TRANSCO (Transmission Company),
• DISCO (Distribution Company),
• ISO (Independent System Operator), etc.

SCADA
SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) is a category of
software applications for controlling industrial processes, which is the
gathering of data in real time from remote locations in order to control
equipment and conditions. SCADA provides organizations with the tools
needed to make and deploy data-driven decisions regarding their
industrial processes.
One of the most commonly used types of industrial control system,
SCADA can be used to manage almost any type of industrial process.
SCADA systems include hardware and software components. The
hardware gathers and feeds data into field controller systems, which
forward the data to other systems that process and present it to a human-
machine interface (HMI) in a timely manner. SCADA systems also record
and log all events for reporting process status and issues. SCADA
applications warn when conditions become hazardous by sounding
alarms.
Components of a SCADA system
SCADA systems include components deployed in the field to gather real-
time data, as well as related systems to enable data collection and
enhance industrial automation.
SCADA components include the following:
 Sensors and actuators. A sensor is a feature of a device or
system that detects inputs from industrial processes.
An actuator is a feature of the device or system that controls the
mechanism of the process. In simple terms, a sensor functions
like a gauge or meter, which displays the status of a machine;
an actuator acts like a switch, dial or control valve that can be
used to control a device. Both sensors and actuators are
controlled and monitored by SCADA field controllers.
 SCADA field controllers. These interface directly with sensors
and actuators. There are two categories of field controllers:
1. Remote telemetry units, also called remote terminal
units (RTUs), interface with sensors to
collect telemetry data and forward it to a primary system for
 further action.
2. Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) interface with
actuators to control industrial processes, usually based on
current telemetry collected by RTUs and the standards set
for the processes.
 SCADA supervisory computers. These control all SCADA
processes and are used to gather data from field devices and to
send commands to those devices to control industrial processes.
 HMI software. This provides a system that consolidates and
presents data from SCADA field devices and enables operators
to understand and, if needed, modify the status of SCADA-
controlled processes.
 Communication infrastructure. This enables SCADA
supervisory systems to communicate with field devices and
field controllers. This infrastructure enables SCADA systems to
collect data from field devices and to control those devices.

Features of SCADA systems

Although SCADA systems may include special features for specific
industries or applications, most systems support the following features:
 Data acquisition is a foundation of SCADA systems; sensors
collect data and deliver it to field controllers, which, in turn, feed
data to the SCADA computers.
 Remote control is achieved through the control of field actuators,
based on the data acquired from field sensors.
 Networked data communication enables all SCADA functions.
Data collected from sensors must be transmitted to SCADA field
controllers, which, in turn, communicate with the SCADA
supervisory computers; remote control commands are transmitted
back to actuators from the SCADA supervisory computers.

 Data presentation is achieved through HMIs, which represent

current and historical data to the operators running the SCADA
system.
 Real-time and historical data are both important parts of the
SCADA system, as they enable users to track current performance
against historical trends.
 Alarms alert SCADA operators to potentially significant
conditions in the system. Alerts can be configured to notify
operators when processes are blocked, when systems are failing, or
when other aspects of SCADA processes need to be stopped,
started or adjusted.
 Reporting on SCADA system operations can include reports on
system status, process performance and reports customized to
specific uses.
SCADA architecture
SCADA systems operate at five of the six levels defined in the Purdue
Enterprise Reference Architecture for enterprise integration:
 Level 0. The field level includes field devices, such as sensors,
used to forward data relating to field processes and actuators used
to control processes.
 Level 1. The direct control level includes local controllers, such as
PLCs and RTUs, that interface directly with field devices,
including accepting data inputs from sensors and sending
commands to field device actuators.
 Level 2. The plant supervisory level includes local supervisory
systems that aggregate data from level controllers and issue
commands for those controllers to carry out.
 Level 3. The production control level includes systemwide
supervisory systems that aggregate data from Level 2 systems to
produce ongoing reporting to the production scheduling level, as
well as other site or regionwide functions, like alerts and reporting.
 Level 4. The production scheduling level includes business systems
used to manage ongoing processes.
Benefits of modern SCADA
The benefits of updating legacy SCADA systems include the following:
 Scalability. Modern SCADA systems are more scalable than
legacy systems for several reasons, including better availability of
supported hardware and software and use of cloud computing to
meet workload demand.
 Interoperability. Legacy SCADA systems rely on proprietary
hardware and software, resulting in vendor lock-in.
 Communications. Modern SCADA systems support more widely
supported and modern communications protocols, which enable
greater accessibility to SCADA data and controls.
 Support. Legacy SCADA systems may have limited options for
support, while modern systems are more likely to be well supported
by vendors. Use of commercial off-the-shelf hardware, open
networking standards and modern software development platforms
makes third-party support more accessible as well.

Radio-frequency identification (RFID)

RFID is a generic term for technologies that use radio waves to
automatically identify people or objects2. There are several methods of
identification, the most common of which is to associate the RFID tag
unique identifier with an object or person.

An RFID system will typically comprise:

 An RFID device (tag);
 A tag reader with an antenna and transceiver.
 A host system or connection to an enterprise system.

Tags
RFID devices fall into two broad categories, those with a power supply (a
battery) and those without. An RFID device that actively transmitted to a
reader is known as a transponder (TRANSmitter/resPONDER).
Unpowered passive devices are known as “tags”.

More recently, common usage has described transponders as “active tags”

and unpowered devices as “passive tags”.

Active tags are typically also read/write devices while passive tags are
generally read only. Active tags are larger and more expensive that
passive tags. The use of a battery places a limit on the life of the device,
although with current battery technology this may be as much as ten
years.
Passive tags have an unlimited life, are lighter, smaller and cheaper. The
trade-off is limited data storage capability, a shorter read range and they
require a higher-power reader. Performance is reduced in
electromagnetically “noisy” environments.
There are also semi-passive tags where the battery runs the chip’s
circuitry but the device communicates by drawing power from the reader.
Tags are available in a wide variety of shapes, sizes and protective
housings. Animal tracking tags, which are injected beneath the skin, are
approximately 10mm long and 1mm in diameter. Some tags are
encapsulated in credit card sized packages, typically building access
cards. Others are for use in harsh environments such as container tracking
applications and can measure 120x100x50mm. The smallest devices
commercially available measure 0.4x0.4mm and are thinner than a sheet
of paper.

Tag Data
Tags can incorporate read only memory (ROM), volatile read/write
random access memory (RAM) or write once/read many memory
(WORM). ROM is used to store security data, a unique device identifier
and operating system instructions. RAM is used for data storage during
transponder interrogation and response.
Data will comprise a unique identifier and may also include:
 An operating system;
 Data storage (volatile or non-volatile);
 An electronic product code (EPC - the successor to the bar-code).

Tag Operation
Passive tags draw their power from the transmission of the reader through
inductive coupling. The passive tags will then respond to the enquiry.
Inductive coupling usually requires close proximity.
Active tags usually communicate through propagation coupling and
respond to the reader’s transmission drawing on internal power to
transmit

The RFID reader acts like an access point for RFID tagged items so that
the tags' data can be made available to business applications

1. Electronic Lock/Electronic key for RFID based lock

2. RFID antenna for vehicular access control
3. Hospitals and healthcare
4. Libraries
5. Museums
Frequency Ranges

Issues with IoT Standardization

• It should be noted that not everything about standardization is positive
• Standardization is like a double-edged sword:
• Critical to market development
• But it may threaten innovation and inhibit change when standards are
accepted by the market
• Standardization and innovation are like yin & yang
• They could be contradictory to each other in some cases, even though
this observation is debatable
• Different consortia, forums and alliances have been doing
standardization in their own limited scope

For example, 3GPP covers only cellular wireless networks while

EPCglobal’s middleware covers only RFID events.
The following two issues for the IoT standardization in particular and the
ICT standardization in general may never have answers:
 ICT standardization is a highly decentralized activity. How can the
individual activities of the network of extremely heterogeneous
standards-setting bodies be coordinated?
 It will become essential to allow all interested stakeholders to
participate in the standardization process toward the IoT and to
voice their respective requirements and concerns. How can this be
achieved?
UNIFIED DATA STANDARDS – PROTOCOLS

Unified Data Standards: A Challenging task

 Many standardization efforts have been trying to define a unified data
representation and protocol for IoT.
 Before the Internet of Things, the Internet was actually an Internet of
documents or of multimedia documents. The two pillars of the Internet
including HTML/ HTTP turned the Internet into the World Wide Web.

 There are many different levels of protocols, but the ones that most directly
relate to business and social issues are the ones closest to the top, the so-
called application protocols such as HTML/ HTTP for the web.

 HTML developers were limited to CSS and JavaScript in order to produce

animations or visual effects for their websites, or they would have to rely on a
plug- in like Flash.

 With the addition of technologies like the canvas element, Web GL, and
scalable vector graphics (SVG) images in HTML5, this is no longer the case.
In fact, many new features deal with graphics on the web with HTML5.

 Using graphics to display real- world behaviour of things is a very important

feature of IoT systems.
 Mango it is an open- source software system for M2M applications. It enables
 users to access and control electronic sensors, devices, and machines over
multiple protocols simultaneously. It relies heavily on JavaScript to render its
graphical pages.

 SVG, supported by HTML5 as well as major browsers such as Internet

Explorer 9, Safari, and others, with embedded scripting capabilities can be a
very useful technology; however, enhancement to HTML/ HTTP and the
browsers is still required for MTC support.

 Human- oriented browsers may also have to be enhanced for processing

massive MGDs similar to the mobile browser on audio devices. Content
management is a big market sector of the Internet and web; future IoT
contents may also require similar technologies for sensor content
management.

 Resource Description Framework (RDF) is a family of W3C specifications

originally designed as a metadata model. It is used for modelling of
information that is implemented in web resources, using a variety of syntax
formats. It could be investigated and used as a metadata model for WoT
applications.

 An RDF browser is a piece of technology that enables you to browse RDF

data sources by way of data link traversal. The key difference between this
approach and traditional browsing is that data links are typed whereas
traditional links are not typed. There are a number of RDF browsers including
Tabulator, DISCO (Hyperdata Browser), and OpenLink RDF Browser.

 SOAP and RESTful protocol frameworks are extensions on top of HTTP for
web services.SOAP and REST frameworks can be used to provide data
exchange protocols for IoT applications.

 E- commerce comprises the B2B, business- to- consumer (B2C), and

consumer- to- consumer (C2C) business models, which describe who the
target buyer market the target seller market are.

 B2B application integration bridged the gap between legacy IT infrastructures

and emerging B2B collaboration frameworks and allows the IT infrastructure
to provide greater adaptability to the business of the enterprise and easier
management of constantly evolving business processes.

 There are two important enabling technologies: electronic data interchange

(EDI) and XML.

 EDI describes the rigorously standardized format of electronic documents.

 EDI can be transmitted using any methodology agreed to by the sender and
 recipient. This includes a variety of technologies, including modem
(asynchronous and synchronous), FTP, e- mail, HTTP, AS1, AS2, and so
forth.

 XML is a markup language used to create smart data and documents for
applications. A newer standard such as ebXML incorporates as part of its
design solution some borrowed ideas from both EDI and XML.

 It offers businesses the opportunity to build an interoperable e- commerce

infrastructure. In a computer system, ebXML specifies the business rules for
how two different systems talk to each other.

 To model B2B business processes, an abstract computer- modelling language

such as UML or the XML language–specific business process modelling
language (BPML) is used.

 BPML is an XML- based meta- language for modelling, deploying, and

managing business processes such as order management, customer care,
demand planning, product development, and strategic outsourcing.

 XML or ebXML coexists with the popular web formatting language

HTML.HTML tells us how the data should look, but XML tells us what it
means.

 The key issue of IoT applications is also about integration and

interoperability, so the HTML/ ebXML approaches still apply and new
HTML- based, ebXML- like standards should be the solution for the Internet
of Missed Things and the focus of IoT data representation standards for WoT
applications.

 There are a few specifications for the WoT data format:

 CBRN, format for Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear
data
 CAP, Common Alerting Protocol
 EXDL, Emergency Data Exchange Language of OASIS
 FDT, Field Device Tool
 IRIG, Inter- Range Instrumentation Group
 PML, Physical Markup Language

 There are many efforts to create a unified, cross- segment data representation
standard for WoT. Due to domain knowledge differences, this is a great
technological challenge or even mission impossible.

 Even within a pillar segment, it’s not an easy task to create a unified data
standard.
Unified Identification of Objects
One of the key issues of unified data format for IoT is the unique identification of
objects. When the IoT application is within the intranet or extranet of an
organization, which is the case most often currently, the identification is not an
issue.

 object identification can essentially encompass the naming, addressing, or

both of an asset or device.
  In IoT, similar to the Internet and the web, objects need to have common
naming and addressing schemes and also discovery services to enable global
reference and access to them.

 uID or ucode is the identification number assigned to individual objects. The

ucode is a 128-bit fixed- length identifier system.

 Inthe field of RFIDs, EPCglobal has promoted the adoption and

standardization of electronic product code (EPC), which has been used to
uniquely identify RFID tags.

 In the mobile telecoms domain, the international mobile equipment identity

(IMEI) provides a means for unique identification of mobile phones. IMEI is
formed through a set of digits that represent the manufacturer, the unit itself,
and the software installed on it.

The following unique ID schemes refer to addresses and names of electronic

objects at various levels of the OSI stack along with their related protocols:

 MAC address, IP address on the Internet, e- mail address, uniform resource

name (URN), URI, URL, and others. IP address is certainly a straightforward
unique ID scheme.

 if millions to hundreds of millions of new devices are going to be networked

in an Internet of Things in the coming years, shortage of IPv4 addresses poses
a challenge, particularly for countries outside of North America that were
allocated comparatively fewer IPv4 addresses to begin with.

 The long- term solution is IPv6, which enables orders of magnitude larger
numbers of available IP addresses. Most mobile network operators (MNOs)
are in the planning stages for this transition to IPv6 or have already made the
transition.

 UUIDs are widely used in distributed middleware such as Tuxedo,CORBA,

and JavaEE. UUID was also used in the Bluetooth standard. One widespread
use of this standard is in Microsoft’s globally unique identifiers.
 one often needs to reference an object in a unique and universal way.

 Many standards define certain objects for which unambiguous identification

is required. This is achieved by assigning OID to an object in a way that
makes the assignment available to interested parties.

 It is carried out by a registration authority. The naming structure of OID is a

tree structure that allows the identification of objects in a local or
international context, without being limited by the registration authority or by
the number of objects they can register (Figure 6.17).

 OID is a good identification candidate for IoT objects considering it’s a

mature scheme and supported by both ISO and ITU.

 However, it’s a bit complex to use compared with other schemes such as
UUID, EPC, or uID.
 EPC, uID, UUID, and so forth are basically fixed- length IDs, while OID and
others are variable- length IDs. OID is more flexible in intranet and extranet
IoT applications.