NUCLEAR PHYSICS

 ISODIAPHERS: Nuclei having different Atomic

SYNOPSIS
number (Z) and mass number (A) but with same
excess number of neutrons over protons (A-2Z)
NUCLEUS: The nucleus of an atom is at the
centre. Most of the mass of an atom is at the are called isodiaphers. Ex:- 11 Na 23 , 13 Al
27

centre. The entire positive charge of an atom lies SIZE OF THE NUCLEUS:
in the nucleus.  Nuclear sizes are very small and are measured in
 All atomic nuclei are made up of elementary fermi (or) femtometer. 1 fermi=10-15m
particles called protons and neutrons. Proton is  Radius of the nucleus depends on number of
the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. It has a 1
3
positive charge of 1.6 × 10–19 C having a mass of nucleons. R  R0 A
1.6726 × 10-27 kg. This is nearly equal to 1836 above equation does not apply to heavy nuclei
times the electron mass. Neutron is electrically Value of Ro = 1.4 x 10-15m
neutral (i.e. neutron carries no charge). Mass of  Radius of the nucleus is in the order of 10-15 m.
neutron is slightlygreater thanthat ofthe proton (1.6750  Size of an atom is in the order of 10-10m.
× 10-27 kg). Both the proton and neutron together  If an  -particle with an initial kinetic energy E
constitute the nucleus. They are called nucleons. approaches a target of atomic number Z, if the
 Generally, atomic number is denoted by Z and mass distance of closest approach is “d” then
number is denoted by A and (A-Z) gives
1 2 e 2
number of neutrons (N) in the nucleus.  E (Where ‘e’ is charge of an
4  d
N  A  Z ; A = Z + N
 Nucleus is positively charged and its shape is electron) If “v” represents the initial velocity of 
considered as spherical. particle, (m is mass of “  ” particle) then
TYPES OF NUCLEI: 1 2 e 2 1 2
 ISOTOPES: Atomic nuclei having same atomic  mv
4  d 2
number but different mass numbers are known as
isotopes. They occupy same position in the periodic Note : If a particle of charge q, mass m is projected
table and possess identical chemical properties. towards a nucleus of charge Q with velocity v
They have same proton number. from infinity then the distance of closest approach
Ex: 1) 3Li6, 3Li7 2) 1H1,1 H2,1 H3 1 qQ 1 2
d is give by 4  d  2 mv
 ISOTONES : Atomic nuclei having same number 

of neutrons are called isotones. Note : If R, S and V be the Radius, surface area
37 39 17
Ex.: 1) 17 Cl ,19 K , 2) 7 N ,8 O ,9 F 18 19 and volume of a nucleus with mass number A then
 ISOBARS: Atomic nuclei having same mass 1
1
2
2
 A 3  A 3
 1   1  ;S  R 2  A 3  1   1 
R S
number but different atomic numbers are called R A3
R2  A2   S 2  A 2 
Isobars. They have same number of nucleons.
Ex.:1) 18Ar40,20 Ca40 , 2) G e 7 6 ,3 4 S e 7 6 V1 A1
32 V  R3  A  
 ISOMERS: Atomic nuclei having same mass V2 A 2
number and same atomic number but different Note : If a stationary nucleus splits in to two lighter
nulear properties are called isomers. nuclei with mass numbers A1 and A2 then according
Ex:- m 35 Br 80 metastable Bromine and g35 Br 80 to law of conservation of linear momentum, the two
lighter nuclei move in opposite directions with equal
ground state Bromine are two isomers with momenta hence m1v1 = m2v2
different half lives
1
 Ratio of velocities of the two nuclei ii) Now, the mass of 1 gm -mole of carbon is 12 gm
and according to Avogadro’s Hypothesis it has N
v1 m 2 A 2  R 2 
3
(Avogadro’s Number) atoms. Thus, the mass of
v2

m1
  
A1  R 1 
 m  A  R 3  one atom of carbon is (12/N) gm. According to
the definition.
Ratio of kinetic energy of the two nuclei
1
1amu  1u   mass of one carbon atom
KE1 m 2 A 2  R 2 
3
12
   
KE 2 m1 A1  R 1  1 12 1 1
   gm  gm
12 N N 6.0231023
 2 
KE  p & KE  1 when pis constant   1.6605651024 gm  1.6605651027 Kg
 2m m 
MASS - ENERGY EQUIVALENCE :
DENSITY OF THE NUCLEUS: According to Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence
 Density of nucleus is independent of mass number principle, mass is another form of energy. Mass
of the atom. can be converted into energy & energy can be
 Density of the nucleus is 1.45 x 1017 Kgm-3. converted into mass according to the equation E=
 The density is maximum at the centre and gradually mC2
falls to zero as we move radially outwards. Here m is the mass that disappears and E is the
 Radius of the nucleus is taken as the distance energy liberated. C is the velocity of light in vacuum.
When 1 amu of mass is converted in to energy
between the centre and the point where the density
Energy liberated is given by
falls to half of its value at the centre. E = (1.660565 x 10–27) x 9 x 1016 J= 931.5 MeV
 Density of nucleus is of the order of hence 1 amu of mass is equivalent to 931.5
1014 gm / cc  1017 kg / m3 MeV of energy  1 amu = 931.5 MeV/C 2
W.E-1: Compare the radii of the nuclei of mass The masses of electron, proton and neutron in terms
numbers 27 and 64. of various units are :
A. The ratio of the radii of the nuclei is Mass of the electron = me = 9.1095 × 10-31 kg
= 0.000549 u = 0.511 MeV/C2
1 1 Mass of the proton = mp = 1.6726 × 10-27 kg
R1  A1  3  27  3 3
=    ( R = R0A1/3) = = 1.007276 u = 938.28 MeV/C2
R2  
 A2   64  4 Mass of the neutron = mn = 1.6750 × 10-27 kg
= 1.008665 u = 939.573 MeV/C2 .
W.E-2: The radius of the oxygen nucleus 168O is NUCLEAR FORCES :
The attractive force which holds the nucleons
2.8 x 10-15m. Find the radius of lead nucleus together in the nucleus is called nuclear force.
205
82Pb . Properties of nuclear forces :
A. R0 = 2.8 x 10-15 m, A0 = 16, APb =205 R  A1/3 1) Nuclear forces are strongest forces in nature.
Nuclear forces are about 1038 times as strong as
1/3 1/3
R0  A0  2.8 1015  16  gravitational forces.The relative strengths of the
  =   gravitational, Coulomb's and nuclear forces are
RPb  APb  RPb  205 
Fg : Fe : Fn  1:1036 :1038
RPb = 6.55 x 10-15m.
2) Nuclear forces are short range forces .
3) Nuclear forces are basically strong
ATOMIC MASS UNIT (A.M.U): attractive forces, but contain a sm all
i) The masses of atoms, nuclei, sub atomic particles
are very small. Hence, a small unit is used to express component of repulsive forces.
these masses. This unit is called as atomic mass 4) Nuclear forces are saturated forces.
unit (amu). 1 amu is equal to one twelth part of 5) Nuclear forces are charge independent.
the mass of carbon (6C12) isotope. 6) Nuclear forces are spin-dependent.
Mass of 6C12 is exactly 12 amu 7) Nuclear forces are exchange forces.
8) Nuclear forces are non-central forces.
2
 MASS DEFECT, BINDING ENEGRY, VARIATION OF B.E. PER NUCLEON
EINSTEIN’S MASS ENERGY WITH MASS NUMBER

Binding energy per nucleon (Mev)

RELATION
 When matter is completely annihilated, energy 40 Fe 56 Region of
8.79ONeCa Greater stability
released is E = mc2 C
He 40  A  180
 The energy equivalent to 1 amu is 931.5 M eV = NF
7.6
1.4925  1010 J . Li

MASS DEFECT: Atomic mass is always less 2

H
than the sum of the masses of constituent particles. 1
1
The difference between the total mass of the 0 50 100 150 200 210
nucleons and mass of the nucleus of an atom Mass number (A)

gives mass defect. The main features of binding energy curve shown
in figure are :
m  ZMp  ( A  Z)Mn  Mnucleus (1) The minimum value of binding energy per nucleon
Z = Atomic number; Mp= Mass of proton is in the case of deuteron (1.11MeV).
Mn = Mass of neutron; A=Mass number BE
(2) The maximum value of is 8.7MeV for the
M nucleus = Mass of nucleus. A
BINDING ENERGY: The energy required to nucleus 28Fe56 (iron) which is the most stable.
bring the nucleons from infinity to form the nucleus (3) Binding energy is high in the range 28<A<138. The
binding energy of these nuclei is very close to 8.7
is called binding energy or it is the energy required MeV.
to split a nuclens into nucleons. (4) Further increase in the mass number, binding energy
It is energy equivalent of mass defect BE= per nucleon decreases and consequently for the
2
[  m]C heavy nuclei like uranium it is 7.6 MeV.
NOTE: BE = mass defect x 931.5 MeV if mass (5) In the region of smaller mass numbers, the binding
is expressed in a.m.u. energy per nucleon curve shows the characteristic
minima and maxima. Minima are associated with
B.E. per nucleon = Binding fraction nuclei containing an odd number of protons and
Binding Energy
=
m x 931 Mev neutrons such as 36 Li,10 14
5 B,7 N and the maxima are
Mass Number A associated with nuclei having an even number of
Averge Binding energy or Binding energy protons and neutrons such as 42 He,12 16
6 C,8 O .
fraction: It is the Binding energy per nucleon (or) (6) Nuclei with A > 220 are distinctly unstable. That
the average energy needed to separate a nuclei in means from A > 220 single heavy nucleus breaks
to its individual nucleons. into two nearly equal nuclei with mass number A <
 Binding energy is not a measure of stability of a 150 and so which are most stable. This process
nucleus. takes at right of the BE curve as shown in figure .
This process explains the nuclear fission.
PACKING FRACTION OF A NUCLEUS :
(7) Light nuclei such as hydrogen combine to form
Packing fraction : It is defined as the mass defect heavy nucleus to form helium for greater stability.
m M  A This process takes at left of the BE curve as shown
per nucleon. Packing fraction =  in figure. This process explains the nuclear fusion.
A A
Binding energy per nucleon (Mev)

If the packing fraction is negative then the nucleus

is more stable.
If the packing fraction is positive then the nucleus Ene
y rgy++
is unstable. erg
En
Packing fraction is zero for 6 C 12 +
 Packing fraction measures the stability of a nucleus.
Smaller the value of packing fraction, large is the
stability of the nucleus. Mass number (A)
3
Note : Iron  28 Fe56  whose binding energy per nucleon
56
W.E-3 : Find the binding energy of Fe . Atomic
26

stands maximum at 8.7 MeV is most stable and mass of Fe is 55.9349u and that of Hydrogen
will undergo neither fission nor fusion. is 1.00783u and mass of neutron is 1.00876u
Sol. Mass of the hydrogen atom mH = 1.00783u; Mass
Exo-ergic Reaction : The reaction in which of neutron mn = 1.00867 u; Atomic number of iron
energy will be released is called exo-ergic Z = 26; mass number of iron A = 56; Mass of iron
Reaction. A + B  C + D + Q atom Ma = 55.9349u
Here A and B are called Reactants Mass defect  m = [ZmH+(A-Z)mn] - Ma
C and D are called Products = [ 26 x 1.00783+(56-26)1.00867]-55.93493
Q is the amount of energy released u = 0.5287 u.
In an Exo - ergic Reaction  Binding energy = (m)c 2 = (0.52878 )
Mass of reactants > Mass of products c2 = (0.52878)(931.5MeV) = 492.55 MeV

m  MR  MP   MA  MB   MC  M D  W.E-4 : Find the energy required to split 168O

nucleus into four  - particles. The mass of
Energy Released Q  m C2 joule [ m is in kg]  - particle is 4.002603u and that of oxygen
is 15.994915u.
m931.5 MeV (  m is in amu) Sol. Mass of  -particle = 4.002603 u
If Binding energies are given then for Exo-ergic Mass of oxygen = 15.994915u
reactions. B.E=[Mass of 4  -particles - Mass of oxygen] x
931.5MeV
(B.E) Products > (B.E) Reactants.
B.E = [ 4 x 4.002603 - 15.994915] x 931.5 MeV
Energy released Q = (B.E)P – (B.E)R = (16.010412-15.994915) x 931.5 MeV
= [(B.E)C + (B.E)D] – [(B.E)A + (B.E)B] = 0.015497 x 931.5 ; B.E = 14.43 MeV
Endo-ergic Reaction : The reaction in W.E-5 : Calculate the binding energy per nucleon
which energy will be absorbed is called Endo- of 4020Ca. Given that mass of 4020Ca nucleus =
ergic Reaction. A + B  C + D – Q 39.962589 u, mass of proton = 1.007825 u.
Here A and B are called Reactants mass of Neutron = 1.008665 u and 1 u is
C and D are called Products equivalent to 931 MeV.
Q is the amount of energy absorbed Sol. A =40, Z = 20, A -Z = 20
In an Endo - ergic Reaction  m = Zm p   A  Z  mn   M n
mass of reactants < Mass of products = { (20 x 1.007825+(20x1.008665)} - 39.962589
m  MP  M R   MC  MD   M A  MB  = 40.329800 - 39.962589 ;  m = 0.3672111
Binding energy per nucleon =
Energy absorbed Q  m C2 joule [ m is in kg] m  931 0.367211 931
=  8.547 MeV .
m931.5 MeV (  m is in amu) A 40
If Binding energies are given then for W.E-6 : The binding energies per nucleon for
Endo-ergic reaction. deuterium and helium are 1.1 MeV and 7.0
MeV respectively. What energy in joules will
(B.E) Products < (B.E) Reactants. be liberated when 2 deuterons take part in the
Energy absorbed Q = (B.E)R – (B.E)P reaction.
= [(B.E)A + (B.E)B] – [(B.E)C + (B.E)D] Sol. 12 H  12 H  24 He  Q
Note: A nuclear reaction can occur only if certain Binding energy per nucleon of helium ( 24 He ) =7 MeV
conservation laws are followed. These are :
Binding energy = 4 x7 = 28 MeV
1. Conservation of mass number A.
Binding energy per nucleon of deuterium ( 12 H )=1.1MeV
2. Conservation of charge.
Binding energy = 2 x 1.1 = 2.2 MeV
3. Conservation of energy, linear momentum and Energy liberated (Q) = (28 -(2.2)2] = 23.6 Mev.
angular momentum.
i.e. Q=23.6x106x1.6x10-19; Q  37.76  1013 J
4
W.E-7: The kinetic energy of  -particles emitted
1 1.66  10 27 
in the decay of 88 Ra 226 into 86 Rn 222 is   mα vα2  m y v y2  
measured to be 4.78 MeV. What is the total 2  2 1.6 1013 
disintegration energy or the ‘Q-value of this
process’ ?  4.003  4.0 106  2   228.03  7.0 104 2  MeV
Sol. The standard relation between the kinetic energy  
of the  -particle (KE) and the Q-value (or total 0.34
disintegration energy) is  0.34 MeV  amu  0.000365amu
931.5
 A - 4   A 
KEa =  Q = 
 A   A - 4 
.Q .KEa Therefore, mass of 232
X  m y  mα  0.000365
92

 226  226  232.033365 u

  4.78MeV   4.78MeV
 226  4  222
Mass defect Δm  92 1.008    232  92 
Q  4.865MeV  4.87MeV

W.E-8: A nucleus X-initially at rest, undergoes

1.009   232.033365 .
alpha-decay, according to the equation.  Binding energy  1.962635  931.5 MeV
A
92 X 228
z Y α  1828.2 MeV
The α -particle in the above process is found NATURAL RADIO ACTIVITY :
to move in a circular track of radius Spontaneous decay of naturally occurring
unstable nuclei by emission of certain sub
1.1102 m in a uniform magnetic field of
particles (like  ,  , and  radiation) is called
3.0 103 T . natural radio activity.
The energy (in MeV ) released during the The emission of these rays takes place because of
process and binding energy of the parent the instability of the nucleus. In the process of
nucleus X, respectively. emitting these rays a nucleus tries to attain the
stability.
Given: m y  228.03 amu ; mα  4.003 amu ,
In general natural radioactivity takes place in heavy
m  10 n   1.009 amu ; m  10 H   1.008 amu , nuclei beyond lead in the periodic table. There are
also naturally radioactive light nuclei, such as
1amu  1.66  10 27 ; kg  931.5 MeV / c 2 potassium isotope 19K40 , the carbon isotope 6 C14
A
Sol: The given equation is 92 X 228 4
z Y  2 He
and the rubidium isotope 37 Rb87 .
A  228  4  232 ; 92  z  2  z  90 Regarding radioactivity.
(i) It is completely uneffected by the physical and
mα vα2 rqB chemical conditions to which the nucleus is
 qvα B ; vα  subjected i.e we cannot change the radio activity
r mα
by applying high temperature, high pressure and
1.1 10 2  2  1.6  10 19  3 103 strong electric field etc.
 (ii) The nucleus can disintegrate immediately (or) it may
4.003 1.66  10 27
take infinite time.
 4.0  106 m / s (iii) The energy liberated during the radioactive decay
comes from individual nuclei.
From conservation of linear momentum, mα vα  m y v y
MODES OF DECAY :
The radioactive nucleus before decay is called
mα vα  4.003  4.0 10 
6

vy   4
 7.0  10 m / s a parent nucleus, the nucleus resulting from
my  228.03 its decay by particles (Radiation) emission is
There fore, energy released during the process called daughter nuclei.
5
 This daughter nuclei may be stable (or) unstable.  -DECAY : When a nucleus disintegrates by
X 
 Y  R  Q radiating   rays, it is said to undergo
Parent Daughter Radiation Energy
  decay..
Here R may be either  particle (or)  particle i)  particles are nothing but electrons. Hence when
(or)  radiation. Q is the energy of the emitted a nucleus emits a  particle, the atomic number
particles (or radiation). (Z) increases by 1 unit, but the mass number does
 -DECAY : When a nucleus disintegrates by not change.
radiating  -rays, it is said to undergo  - The general form of   decay can be written as
decay. An  - particle is a helium nucleus. Thus a X A  Z1 Y A 1 e 0 .
Z
nucleus emitting an  particle losses two protons
and two neutrons, as a result its atomic number Z Ex: 90 Th 234 91 Pa 234 1 e 0
decreases by 2, the mass number A decreases by Both electric charge and nucleon number are
4 and the neutron number N decreases by 2. conserved in  decay also.
zX
A
 z  2 Y A  4  2 He 4  Q  -DECAY: When a nucleus disintegrates by
226
radiating   rays, it is said to undergo
Ex: 88 Ra  86 Rn 222  2 He 4  4.87MeV   decay..
Both electric charge and nucleon number are Gamma rays are nothing but electromagnetic
conserved in the process of  decay.. radiations of short wavelengths (not exceeding
Application : When a stationary Radio active 10–10m.)
nucleus x decays into another nucleus y by emitting The emission of   rays from the nucleus does
an  -particle. x  y   particle Q not alter either atomic number Z or mass number
A. It just results in the change of the energy state of
Applying LCLM if  particle moves forward with
a nucleus.
a momentum ‘P’ then daughter nucleus y recoils
When a parent nucleus emits an  or a  particle,
with same momentum ‘P’ so that total momentum
the daughter nucleus may be formed in one of
of the system is zero. Hence Py  P excited states. Such a nucleus will eventually comes
to the ground state. In this process   radiation
The energy released ‘Q’ is in the form of K.E of
will be emitted.
daughter nucleus ‘y’ and ‘  ’ particle.
X A  Z X A   Photon ( s )
Q  KE y  KE Z
87
Example: 38*Sr  38Sr 87   .
KE y M
38 Sr
is isomer of 38Sr .
Ratio of kinetic energies KE  M
 y Note :When a Radio active nucleus emits an  - particle
followed by two  - particles, its isotope is formed.
P2 1
(  KE  and KE  when ‘P’ is same)  2 
2m m ZX
A
 Z2Y A4  
  Z X A4
KE  KE y M y  M Note :When a Radio active nucleus emits a  - particle
KE y M 
1  1  KE My
its isobar is formed.
KE My ;
A A
Z X  Z1Y
 M y 
KE   Q    M  Note: When a Radio active nucleus emits a  - particle
 M   M y  KE y  Q    its isomer is formed
;  M  M y 

Z X A 
Z X A
Notice that KE is very close to (but smallerthan) Q.
6
 Deflection of Radioactive radiations in W.E-11: How many  and  - particles are emitted
electric and magnetic fields :
when uranium nucleus (92 U 238 ) decay to
 
82 Pb 214 ?

E B Sol. Let n be the number of  - particles and m be the

 
  number of  - particles emitted.



U 238  82 Pb214  n2 He4  m 1e0 
92
As mass is conserved, 238 = 214 + 4n + m (0)
Ra = 214 + 4n ; 4n = 24; n = 6
Ra As charge is conserved , 92 = 82 + 2n + m (-1)
Lead block
10 = 2(6) - m n  6 ; m = 2.
 6  - particles and 2  - particles are emitted
B RADIOACTIVE DECAY LAW:
X X X X

Based on their experimental observations and
X

X X X analysis of certain radioactive materials Rutherford

  and Soddy formulated a theory of radioactive
X X X X
decay. According to them
Ra
After decay of a nucleus the new product (daughter)
of nucleus has totally different physical as well as
Lead block chemical properties.
The rate of radioactive decay (or) the number
W.E-9:The nucleus 2310Ne decays by   emission. of nuclei decaying per unit time at any instant
Write down the  -decay equation and is directly proportional to the number of
determine the maximum kinetic energy of the nuclei (N) present at that instant and is
electrons emitted. Given that : independent of the external physical
m ( 10Ne) = 22.994466u; m(2311Na)=22.989770 u
23 conditions like temperature, pressure etc.
Let ‘N’ be the number of radioactive atoms present
_ _
Sol. 23
Ne  23
Na  e v  Q at a time ‘t’and N0 is the initial number of radio active
10 11
nuclei. Let dN atoms disintegrate in time ‘dt’.
For   - decay, Q = [M(x) - M(y)]C2 According to the law of radioactive decay
= [22.994466-22.989770]931.5  dN   dN 
= 0.004696 x 931.5 = 4.37 MeV  dt   N ;  dt  = – N ....... (1)
W.E-10: Calculate the binding energy of an  - The proportionality constant  is called decay
particle. Given that mass of proton = 1.0073u, constant (or) disintegration constant. The negative
mass of neutron = 1.0087u. and mass of  - sign indicates that as time increases N decreases.
particle = 4.0015u.
Sol. mP = 1.0073u, mN = 1.0087u, M = 4.0015u dN
From eqn (1)   dt .......(2)
N
N = A -Z =4 -2 =2  2 He 4  Z X A 
dN
B.E =  m x 931.5 MeV Integrating eq (2) on both sides     dt
N

=  Zm p  ( A  Z ) mn   M  931.5  log e N  t C ..... 3
  2  1.0073    2  1.0087   4.0015    931.5MeV Here C is the constant of integration
At t = O, N= N0 Substituting in eqn (3),
= 0.0305  931.5 MeV ; B.E = 28.4 MeV
we get, log e N 0  C

7
  log e N  t  loge N 0 ; which have activities R1, R2, ........... and Rn. Then
the resultant activity R = R1 + R2 +............... +
 log e N  loge N 0  t Rn. If nucleus decays simultaneously more
N N than one process is called parallel decay.
 log e   t ; N  e ; N  N et ... (4)
 t
The S.I unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq) and
 N 0  0 0
other units are curie (Ci) and Rutherford (Rd).
This shows that the number of radioactive nuclei 1 Bq = 1 decay per second,
decreases exponentially with time. 1 Rd = 106 decays per second.
Above equation is known as the decay law (or) 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 decays per second.
the law of radio-active decay. It is an Note : Curie is approximately equal to the activity
exponential law. of one gram of pure radium.
taking logarithm on both sides for the above DECAY CONSTANT (  ) : It gives the ability of a
N nucleus to decay. The decay constant  for a
equation. loge N = loge No - t ; t loge 0 given radio active sample is defined as the
N
reciprocal of the time during which the
1  N 0 
 t ln   1
  N  number of nuclei decreases to
e
times their
original value.
Nx Ny
No. of nuclei decayed
No. of nuclei left

N0 N0
N
N0
O time O t N0
(a) (b)
e
0 t
1
In(N0) 

1) Larger value of  corresponding to decay in

In(N)

smaller time and vice versa.

2)  = 0 for stable nuclei.
time(t) 3) Decay constant is the characteristic of the sample
(C) taken and does not vary with time.
4) If a nucleus can decay simultaneously by more than
ACTIVITY (R) : one process (say n), which have decay constants
The number of decays per unit time (or) decay 1,  2 ...........and  n , then the effective decay
rate is called activity (R)
constant is   1   2  ..........   n . This is
dN d
| R |
dt

dt
 
N 0e t (or) R  N  N 0et (or) called parallel decay.
HALF LIFE (T) : As the name suggests, the half life
R  R 0e t , where R 0  N 0 is the decay rate of a radioactive sample is defined as “The time
at t = 0, called initial activity. interval during which the activity of a radio
active sample falls to half of its value, (or) The
R time interval during which the number of
R0
radio active nuclei of a sample disintegrate to
half of its original number of nuclei” Half lives
vary from isotope to isotope. While T may be as
small as 10-16 s, its largest value may be as big as
If a nucleus can decay simultaneously by n processes, 109 years.

8
 Eg: Half-life of uranium  238
92
U is 4.47 x 10 years
9
Note: The number of nuclei remain in the sample
after half of half life period (t=1/2T) is given by

half-life of krypton  8936 Kr is 3.16 minutes.  1 n 1  2

N  N 0   here n  then N  N 0  1 
1

 2  2  2 
Relation between decay constant (  ) and
half life period (T). N0
 N taking N0 = 100, N = 50 2 = 70.7
N 2
From Law of Radioactive decay  e t
N0 70.7% of nuclei remain and 29.3% of nuclei
decayed.
N0 1
when N = , t T   eT or 2  eT
2 2 (N/ N0)
taking logirthms on both sides ln 2  T 1
2.303log10 2 0.693 T Half life
(or) loge 2  T  T   0.5
  0.25
0.125
ln 2 2.303log 2 0.693 0.0625
time
 T=   


0 T 2T 3T 4T
The above relation establishes that the half - life (T) AVERAGE LIFE (OR) MEAN LIFE :
depends upon the decay constant  of the The phenomenon of radioactivity is random
because we just can’t predict which of the atoms
radioactive substance. The value of  is different
in a given sample will decay first and when. Hence
for different radioactive substances.
radioactivity process totally depends on chance.
Note :
In decay process some of the atoms of the given
i) Half life is the characteristic property of the sample sample may have very short life span, and others
and T cannot be changed by any known method. may not decay even after a very large span of time.
ii) At any given instant whatever be the amount of So to determine the ability of the nucleus to decay
the undecayed sample, it will be reduced to exactly it would be useful to calculate the average life.
half its value after a time equal to the half life of the Hence average life is defined as the total life time
sample. of all the nuclei divided by the total number
iii) In parallel decay   1   2  ........ n hence of original nuclei.

1 1 1 1 i.e  
 life span of individual nucleus   t
   ........ , where T is t he Total number of original nuclei N0
T T1 T2 Tn
equivalent half-life and T1, T2 ...........Tn are the Let N0 be the radio active nuclei that are present at
t = 0 in the radioactive sample.
half-lives in individual decay.
The number of nuclei which decay between t and (t
Application : + dt) is dN i.e the life time of these nuclei is ‘t’.
In a radioactive sample the number of nuclides The total life time of these dN nuclei is (t dN)
undecayed after n-half lives (i.e., t = nT) is  The total life time of all the nuclei present initially
n  ln 2 1  N 0 
t 
N 
t = nT 
1
l n  0  or  ln    tdN [ N = 0 at infinity]
  N 
in the sample =
  N   t 0

N0  1 n
 tdN dN
or 2 
n
; or N  N 0   Average life time  = But  N
N  2 N0 dt

9
dN = Ndt  N 0 e t dt ( N  N 0 e t ) t
log e N  log e N 0 t  log N  log N 0 
2.303

N 0 e  t 1   
  t dt ;   log N   t  log N 0
0
N0   2.303
The mean life (or) average life of a radio active 
sample is reciprocal to decay constant. Slope of the graph m   tan  
2.303
We know that N  N 0 et ; When t   ,    2.303 tan 
2.303 log 2
Half life period T 
1
 x
  
N  N0 e  0  0.37N0  37% of N0
e 2.303 log 2
Hence average life period of a radio active sample T  T  log 2 cot 
2.303 tan 
can also be defined as “The time interval during Note : In radioactive sample decay
which 63% of sample decays or sample reduces 1) The probability survival of nucleus after time
to 37% of its original amount”. N
RELATION BETWEEN HALF LIFE Ps   e t .
N0
PERIOD AND AVERAGE LIFE 2) The probability of nucleus to disintegrate in time t
PERIOD
is Pd  1  Ps  1  e t .
0.693 1
We know that T  &  W.E-12: A radioactive sample has an activity of
 
5.13 x107 Ci. Express its activity in ‘becqueral’
T and ‘rutherford’.
Hence T  0.693 (or)    1.443T Sol. Since 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decays per second,
0.693 activity = 5.13 x 107 Ci
From the above equation it is clear that average =5.13 x 107 x 3.7 x 1010 Bq = 1.9 x 1018 Bq
life period is 44.3% greater than half life period. Since , 1 x 106 decay per second = 1Rd
1.9 1018
R Activity =1.9 x 1018 Bq = Rd = 1.9 x 1012 Rd.
R0 1106
W.E-13:A radioactive substance has 6.0 1018
R0 active nuclei initially. What time is required
2 R0 for the active nuclei of the same substance to
e
0 t become 1.0 1018 if its half-life is 40 s.
T 
Sol. The number of active nuclei at any instant of time t,
Determination of decay constant   and half N0
 et
;
N 
log e  0   t
N  N 
life period (T) of a radioactive sample
N  N 
graphically loge  0  2.303 log10  0 
 N   N 
t  
 
In this problem, the initial number of active nuclei,
N 0 = 6.0  1018 ; N  1.010 , T  40s,
18

0.693 0.693
   1.733 102 s1 .
T 40
 6.0 1018 
2.303 log10  
18 
 1.0 10 
If N0 and N be the number of atoms present t
1.733102
undecayed initially and after a time t, then
2.303 log10 6  2.303 0.7782
We know that N=N0 e   t taking log on both sides = 2
  103.4 s.
1.73310 1.733102

10
W.E-14: A radioactive sample can decay by two W.E-16: A certain substance decays to 1/32 of its
different processes. The half-life for the first initial activity in 25 days. Calculate its half -
process is T1 and that for the second process life.
is T2. Find the effective half-life T of the 1 1 1 1
radioactive sample. Sol. 1g 
1
 2 g 
2
 4 g 
3
 8 g 
4
 16 g
Sol. Let N be the total number of atoms of the
1
dN1 dN 2
radioactive sample initially. Let and
5
  32 g  n  5
dt dt
be the initial rates of disintegrations of the t t 25
 n   t1/ 2  
radioactive sample by the two processes t1/ 2 n 5 ; t1/2  5 days
dN dN
respectively. Then dt1  1 N and dt2  2 N W.E-17: The half -life period of a radioactive
substance is 20 days. What is the time taken
Where 1 and  2 are the decay constants for the
for 7/8th of its original mass to disintegrate?
first and second processes respectively. Sol. Let the initial mass be one unit.
The initial rate of disintegrations of the radioactive
sample by both the processes 7 1
Mass reamaining = 1  
8 8
dN1 dN 2
=   1 N  2 N  1  2  N .
dt dt 1
A mass of 1 unit becomes unit in 1 half life
If  is the effective decay constant of the 2
radioactive sample , its initial rate of disintegration. 1 1
dN
unit becomes unit in 2nd half life
 N 2 4
dt
1 1
dN dN1 dN 2 unit becomes unit in 3rd half life
But   4 8
dt dt dt
 Time taken = 3 half lifes = 3 x 20 = 60 days
 N  1   N
W.E-18: How many disintegrations per second will
    
Occur in one gram of 238 U , if its half-life
92
0.693 0.693 0.693
  against  -decay is 1.42 x 1017s?
T1 T2 T
0.693
1 1 1 TT Sol. Given Half -life period (T) = 
  ;T  1 2 . 
T T1 T2 T1  T2
1.42  1017 s
W.E-15: Plutonium decays with a half life of 0.693
24,000 years. If plutonium is stored for 72,000   4.88  1018
1.42  1017
years, what fraction of it remains? Avagadro number (N) = 6.023  1023 atoms
A. T1/2 = 24,000 years
Duration of time (t) = 72,000 years 238 N
n = Number of atoms present in 1 g of 92 U 
A
t 72000
Number of half lifes (n) = T  3
6.023  10 23
1/2 24000   25.30  10 20
238
1 1 2 1 3 1
 1g  g   g   g dN
2 4 8 Number of disintegrations =  n
dt
1
 Fraction of plutonium remains = g = 4.88 x10-18 x 25.30 x 1020
8 = 1.2346 x 104 disintegrates/sec

11
W.E-19: One gram of radium is reduced by 2 W.E-21: Obtain the amount of 60
Co necessary to
27
milligram in 5 years by  -decay. Calculate
provide a radioactive source of 8.0 mCi
the half-life of radium. 60
Sol: Initial mass = 1 g, t = 5 years strength. The half -life of 27 Co is 5.3 years.

2 Sol. Half - life of 60 27 Co = 5.3 years

-3
Reduced mass = 2mg = 2 x 10 g = g
1000 = 5.3x365x24 x 60 x 60 S = 5.3 x 3.15 x 107 s
2 998 60
10  3 x
Remaining mass = 1 -  Now `x` gm of 27 Co contains k - mole
1000 1000 60
N 998 x 103
 ( Mass  Number of atoms) =  6.025  1026
N0 1000 60
N = 0.1004x x 1023 = 1.004 x x 1022 atoms
N
 e t ; 998  e  t Required strength of 60 27 Co = 8 m Ci
N0 1000
= 8 x 10-3 x 3.7 x1010 dis/s
1000  1000  We know that, decay rate (R) =  N
 et  e5   log e    5
998  998 
R 8  3.7  107
2.303 (3.0000 -2.9991) = 5  N 
 0.693 / T1/ 2
2.303  1  0.0009
 29.6  107
5  x5.3x3.15x107 = 713.0909 x 1014
0.693
0.693 0.693  5 1.004x x 1022 = 713.0909 x 1014
(T1/2) =  = 1671.7 years
 2.303  0.0009 x = 710.2499 x 10-8 kg = 7.1 x 10-6 g
W.E-20: The half-life of a radioactive substance ARTIFICIALTRANSMUTATION OF
is 5000 years . In how many years, its activity ELEMENTS
will decay to 0.2 times of its initial value? The conversion of one element into another
Given log105 = 0.6990. by artificial means is called artificial
Sol. T = 5000 years, transmutation of the element. Rutherford
performed number of experiments in which the
N 2 1 atoms of different stable elements, such as nitrogen,

N 0 = 0.2 = 10 5 aluminium, phosphorus, etc, were bombarded by
high speed   particles from natural radioactive
0.693 0.693
  substances. Finally in 1919, he discovered the
T 5000 phenomenon of artificial transmutation.
N
 e  t
N0 B A B
S
1 1 t R F M
= t  5  e
5 e
5
loge = t
Fig.
2.303  0.6990 = t The apparatus used by Rutherford is as shown in
Fig.
2.303  0.6990  5000
t i. It consists of a chamber A provided with an
0.693 adjustable rod, carrying a radio - active substance
t = 11614.6years  1.1615104 years R (Radium C).
12
ii. The side of the glass tube facing ‘R’ is covered by 127
c) 53 I  0 n1 53 I128*    rays
metal plate with a central hole which is closed by a
thin silver foil ‘F’. Radio – iodine is used in the treatment of thyroid
iii. A screen ‘S’, coated with a fluorescent material glands. Radio - iodine ( I131) is used for diagnosis
like zinc sulphide is arranged infront of the silver and treatment of brain tumor and for the study of
foil and the scintillations produced on it can be pumping condition of heart.
59
observed through the microscope ‘M’. d) 27 Co  0 n1 27 Co60*    rays
iv. The side tubes B, B were used to fill various gases Radio – cobalt is used in the detection and
in the chamber. treatment of cancer
v. The source of  - particles, Ra was placed on a e) Radio-iron is used to detect anemia and treat
small disc at R. Its distance from F was adjustable. anemia.
vi. The radio-active substance emits  -particles 2) In Geology:
whose range in air was found to be about 7cm. a) Radio carbon(C14) is used to determine the age
vii. When the glass tube is filled with nitrogen gas, of fossils by radio - carbon dating
scintillations are observed, even when ‘R’ is at a b) Radio isotopes are used to determine the age of
distance of 40cm from the foil.
rocks by the ratio of U 238 to Pb 206
viii. These particles producing scintillations can not be
 -particles as they can not have such a long range. 3) In industry :
ix. Rutherford concluded that nitrogen nucleus hit by a) Radio – isotopes are used to find the wear and
an  (2He4 )-particle transmutes into oxygen tear of machine parts
nucleus along with a proton (1H1). b) Radio isotopes are used to detect flaws in metal
x. The nuclear reaction causing artificial transmutation structures
can be represented as 7N14+ 2He4  8O17 + 1H1 c) Radio isotopes are used for treatment of alloys such
Thus an atom of nitrogen is transformed into an as quenching , annealing and hardening.
isotope of oxygen. This process is called d) Radio isotopes are used in the selection of
transmutation of elements. appropriate lubricants.
* High energy  - particles were used in the 4) In research: Radio - isotopes are used in the
discovery of artificial transmutation and neutron study of nuclear disintegrations of elements.
because  - particles produce intense ionisation of 5) In food preservation: By exposing vegetables
the medium through which they pass and can be and other food stuffs to radiations from radio - active
stopped after travelling a few mm in air. isotopes, their shelf life can be increased.
Significance : 6) In agriculture:
i) It leads to the discovery of proton and neutron. a) Radio phosphorus (P32) is used to study the uptake
ii) It helps to produce radio isotopes. of phosphorus by plants using.
iii) It helps to produce transuranic elements. b) Radio sulphur (S34) is used to study the transport
RADIO ISOTOPES AND THEIR USES: of minerals in plants .
Radio isotopes have very short half lives and hence c) Radio zinc is used to develop new species of plants
used for various purposes. by causing genetic mutation.
1) Medical applications : d) Irradiation by  - radiations of seeds to improve
yields.
27
a) 13 Al  0 n1 11 Na 24* 2 He 4 7) In Chemistry :
Radio – sodium is used to find out how a given a) Radio oxygen (O 18 ) is used to study the
medicine is circulated in the body. It is also used to mechanisms of photosynthesis and hydrolysis of
find out circulatory disorders in blood vessels. ester
31 b) Radio isotopes are used in the chemical analysis of
b) 15 P 1 H2 15 P32* 1 H1
solubility of sparingly soluble salts such as PbSO4
Radio – phosphorus is used in the treatment of skin and AgCl and determination of trace amounts of
diseases. It is also used for the treatment of blood elements in industrial raw materials and products.
disorders.
13
 NEUTRON CHAIN REACTION:
 It is electrically neutral and its mass is slightly greater  If the mass of fissionable material exceeds a
than that of proton. It was discovered by chadwick critical value, chain reaction or self propagating
 Bothe – Becker equation: fission reaction takes place.
 The rate of reaction increases in geometric
9 4 13 12 1 progression during uncontrolled chain reaction.
4 Be  2 He  6C 6 C  0 n
 Chain-reaction : The process of continuation of
 Neutron is unstable outside the nucleus. nuclear fission which when once started continues
spontaneously without the supply of additional
n 1  1 H 1  1 e 0   (anti neutrino)
0
neutrons from outside is defined as chain reaction.
 It has high penetrating power and low ionizing Reproduction factor (K): “It is the ratio of number
power. of neutrons in any particular generation to the
 Slow moving neutrons are called thermal number of neutrons in the preceeding generation.
neutrons. Fast moving neutrons convert into thermal Case(i): K<1 ; Chain react ion is not
neutrons when they pass through a substance called maintained.(sub-critical state)
moderator. Case (ii): K=1 : Chain reaction is maintained at
 Thermal neutrons have an average energy of nearly steady rate. (critical state). In the state electricity is
0.025 eV. Fast moving neutrons have an average produced in the reactors at steady rate
energy of 2 MeV. Case (iii): K>1 : Chain reaction becomes self
NUCLEAR FISSION sustained and lead to atomic explosion(super critical
state)
 Nuclear Fission is a nuclear reaction in which a
 Uncontrolled chain reaction takes place in atom
heavy atomic nucleus like U235 splits into two
bomb.
approximately equal parts, emitting neutrons and
NUCLEAR REACTOR OR ATOMIC PILE:
liberating large amount of energy.
 Nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission
 Bohr and Wheeler proposed liquid drop model to is produced by controlled self sustaining chain
explain this fission process. reaction. And is used for the production of nuclear
 Nucleus of U235 undergoes fission when it is struck power (energy).
by slow neutrons. This fission is not due to the  The essential parts of a nuclear reactor are (i) the
impact of neutron. fuel, (ii) moderator, (iii) control rods, (iv) coolant,
 Energy of about 200 MeV is released during one (v) radiation shields.
235
fission reaction of 92U . The most probable  THE FUEL: The common fuels used are uranium
nuclear fission reaction is 235
235 1 141
U + n  Ba + Kr +3 n +energy
92 1 U  , enriched uranium (U
238
) and plutonium
92 0 56 36 235 0
There is no guarantee that U always breaks into  Pu  and T h .
236 23 2

Barium and Krypton. MODERATOR:

 On an average,in the fission of U235, 2.5 neutrons  The function of a moderator is to slow down the
are emitted per fission when fission occurs due to fast moving neutrons to increase the rate of fission.
slow neutrons. U235 undergoes fission with fast  The commonly used moderators in the order of
neutrons also. But this probability is minimum. efficiency are (i) Heavy water (ii) graphite,
 Fission fragments are unstable and emit neutrons (iii) Berillium and Berillium Oxide
some time after fission reaction which are called  Heavy water is a best moderator
“delayed neutrons”  A good moderator should have
 99% of neutrons emitted during fission process (1) low atomic mass
are prompt. (2) poor absorption of neutrons
(3) good scattering property.
 Delayed neutrons play an important role in chain
(4) The size of moderator atom should be nearly
reaction
of same size as that of the size of a prompt neutron.
14
 CONTROL RODS: Note: If ‘x’gm of fuel with mass number ‘A’
 The function of a control rod is to absorb completely undergo nuclear fission in time t sec in
(capture) the neutrons. a reactor then its power is given by
 Cadmium, Boron and steel rods are used as control
rods in a nuclear reactor. x
Number of moles in x gm of fuel =
 Cadmium rods are best control rods A
 They regulate the net rate of neutron production Number of atoms (nuclei) present in x gm of fuel
and hence they control the intensity of fission
x
process. n    N A . Where N is Avogadro number
COOLANT:  A  A

 The function of a coolant is to keep the reactor

temperature at a low value so that there may not nE xN A E
 power P   P
be any danger of heat damage to the reactor. t At
 Air and CO2 are used as gaseous coolants. Water,
Uses of Nuclear Reactors:
Organic liquids, Helium, Liquid Sodium are used
as liquid coolants. Liquid sodium is best coolant. 1) To generate electric power.
 Protective shield: The process of preventing 2) To produce nuclear fuel plutonium -239 and
radioactive effect around nuclear reactor is called other radioactive materials which have a wide
Protective Shield. variety of applications in the fields of medicine,
 During the working of a nuclear reactor dangerous industry and research.
radiations such as high energy neutrons, gamma rays USES OF ATOMIC ENERGY :
and thermal radiations are produced. To protect 1. Generation of electric power : The coolant in a
the persons working there, the reactor is thoroughly nuclear reactor absorbs the heat generated as a
shielded with concrete wall of several feet thick result of the chain reaction and it releases the heat
and lined with metals like lead.
to the water which is converted into high pressure
POWER OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR
steam. This steam is used to drive turbine and
In the nuclear reactor, large amount of heat will be
generated in the core. These reactors have operate the electric generator.
elaborate cooling systems that use water. This water 2. Production of radio isotopes : A small amount of
absorbs the heat and produces steam. This steam the pure element is placed in an aluminium container
in turn is used to run the steam turbines which and the container is placed in the reactor for a few
ultimately generate electric power. Such reactors days. The element absorbs neutrons and the
are called power reactors. element becomes radioactive isotope.
The power generated by a nuclear reactor is 127
53 I  0 n1 53 I128*   .
nE n
P here be the number of fissions per Radioiodine obtained in this way can be used to
t t treat the thyroid gland. These radio isotopes have
second and E be the energy released in each fission a number of applications in the field of medicine ,
E = 200 MeV  200106 1.61019 J agriculture, industry and basic research.
= 3.2 x 10-11J 3. Source of neutrons : A large number of neutrons
Note : Number of fissions per sec in a reactor of are produced in a reactor. They are used in research
n P . The effect of neutrons on biological tissues is
power 1 W is given by  studied. A new branch of physics called Neutron
t E
Physics has come up.
1
 = 3.125 x 1010 fissions per sec 4. Atomic energy is used to create artificial lakes, to
3.21011 divert the course of a river , to make tunnels for
Note : If only x% of energy released in fission is laying new railway tracks etc.
converted into electrical energy then out put power 5. Atomic energy is used for driving automobiles,
x  n E  submarines and war - planes.
 
1 0 0  t 
of reactor is 6. Atomic energy is used in war - fare for creating
destructive atom bombs and hydrogen bombs.
15
 NUCLEAR FUSION:  In the sun both proton - proton cycle and
 The phenomenon in which two lighter nuclei carbon- nitrogen cycles occur with equal
combine to form a heavier nucleus of mass less probabilities. In stars, whose interior temperatures
than the total mass of the combining nuclei is called are less than that of the sun, proton -proton cycle
nuclear fusion. This mass defect appears as energy. dominates the energy generation. Again in stars,
 At temperatures of about 107K, light nuclei combine whose interior temperatures are more than that of
to give heavier nuclei. Hence, fusion reactions are the sun, the energy generation is mainly due to
called thermo nuclear reactions. carbon- nitrogen cycle.
 Nuclear fusion takes place in the sun and other  The core temperature of heavier stars may be larger
stars. than that of the sun and much larger nuclei may be
formed.
 Energy produced in a single fission of 92U235 is
NOTE: Due to enormous energy released in Sun
larger than that in a single fusion of Hydrogen into
and Stars the atmosphere of them will be in ionised
Helium.
state which is called Plasma (Which contains fast
 But fusion produces more energy than fission per moving neutrons and electrons). Nuclear fusion can
nucleon. not be controlled.
 In fission, 0.09% of mass is converted into energy.
In fusion 0.66% of mass is converted into energy.
 Hydrogen bomb is a fission – fusion bomb.
STELLAR AND SOLAR ENERGY:
Stellar and solar energy is due to fusion.
The cycles that occur are.
Proton - Proton Cycle & Carbon - Nitrogen Cycle
PROTON - PROTON CYCLE:
The Thermonuclear reactions involved are:
1 1 2 0
2( H )+2( H )  2( H ) + 2( e ) + Q1
1 1 1 +1
2  1 H 2   2  1 H 1   2  2 He3   Q2
3 3 4 2
He + He  ( He ) + 2( H ) + Q3
2 2 2 1
On adding up these reactions, we obtain.
1 4 0
4( H )  He + 2 e + Q
1 2 +1 W.E-22: An explosion of atomic bomb releases an
Where Q  Q1Q2 Q3 is the total energy evolved energy of 7.6 x 1013 J. If 200 MeV energy is
in the fusion of 4 hydrogen nuclei (protons) to form released on fission of one 235 U atom calculate
Helium nucleus. The value of Q as calculated from (i) the number of uranium atoms undergoing
mass defect comes out to be 26.7MeV fission. (ii) the mass of uranium used in the
atom bomb
CARBON - NITROGEN CYCLE:
Sol:E=7.6x103J;Energy released per fission = 200 MeV
Proposed by bethe. It consists of following reactions. = 200  106  1.6 x 10-19 = 3.2 x 10-11 J
13 13 0
6 C 12 1 H 1  7 N 13  Q1 ; N  C +( e )+ Q2 Total energy
7 6 1
13 1 14 14 1 15 Number of uranium atoms (n) =
6 C 1 H  7 N  Q3 ; 7 N 1 H 8 O  Q4 Energy per fission
15 15 0
O  N +( e )+ Q5 ; 7.6  1013
8 7 +1 n 11
= 2.375  1024 atoms
N 15 1 H 1  6 C 12  2 He 4  Q6 3.2  10
7

On adding all these 6 equations, we get Avagadro number (N) = 6.023×1023 atoms
1 4
4 H  He + 2( e )+ Q
0 Mass of uranium =
1 2 +1
Where Q  Q1Q2 Q3Q4Q5Q6 The value of Q n × 235 2.375 × 10 24 × 235
= = 92.66g
as calculated from mass defect is 26.7 Mev. N 6.023 × 10 23
16
W.E-23: Calculate the energy released by fission W.E-26: How long can an electric lamp of 100W
from 2 g of 23592 U in kWh. Given that the be kept glowing by fusion of 2.0 kg of
energy released per fission is 200 MeV. deuterium ? Take the fusion reaction as
Sol. Mass of uranium = 2g 2
H+21H  32He+n+3.27 MeV
1
Energy released per fission = 200 MeV Sol. 1 H 2 1 H 2 3 2 He  n  3.27 MeV
= 200 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19 = 3.2 x 10-11 J No. of atoms in 2 kg of 1H2 = 2/2 x 6.023 x 1026
Number of atoms in 2 gram of uranium is = 6.023 x 1026 atoms
In the above reaction two deuterium nuclei are combined
2  6.023  1023
n = 5.125  1021 atoms Power (p) = w x rate of fusion.
235
Number of atoms
Total energy released = No. of atoms x energ = 3.27 MeV x Time exp ended
released per fission
= 5.125 x 1021 x 3.2 x 10-11 = 16.4  1010J 6.023  1026
100 = 3.27 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19 x
10 2x
 Energy in Kwh = 16.4  10 Kwh
36  105 3.27  1.6  6.023  1011
x  = 15.756 x 1011S
= 0.455  105 Kwh = 4.55  104 Kwh 2

W.E-24: 200 Mev energy is released when one 15.756  1011 15.756  1011
= = =5x104 years
nucleus of 235U undergoes fission. Find the 365  24  60  60 3.15  107
number of fissions per second required for W.E-27: Suppose India had a target of producing
producing a power of 1 megawatt. by 2020 AD, 200,000 MW of electric power,
Sol. Energy released = 200MeV ten percent of which was to be obtained from
= 200 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19 = 3.2 x 10-11J nuclear power plants. Suppose we are given
P = 1 mega watt = 106 watts. that, on an avedrage, the efficiency of
utilization ( i.e conversion to electric energy)
Total energy of thermal energy produced in a reactor was
No.of fissions per second (n)= Energy per fission
25%. How much amount of fissionable
uranium would our country need per year by
106 2020 ? Take the heat energy per fission of 235U
n= 11
 3.125  1016 Fissions
3.2  10 to be about 200 MeV.
Sol. Required power from nuclear plants
W.E-25: How much 235U is consumed in a day in = 10% of 2,00,000 Mw = 2 x 1010w
an atomic power house operating at 400 MW, Required electric energy from nuclear plants in one
provided the whole of mass235U is converted year = 2 x 1010 x 365 x24 x 60 x 60
into energy? = 2 x 1010 x 3.15 x 107 = 6.30 x107 J
Sol. Power = 400 MW = 400 x 106 W; Available electric energy per fission = 25% of 200
time = 1 day = 86, 400 s. MeV = 50 MeV = 8 x 10-12J
Energy produced , E = power  time = 400  6.30  1017
Req. no. of fissions per year = =0.7875x1029
8  10  12
106  86,400 = 3.456  1013 J.
As the whole of mass is converted into energy , by 0.7875  1029
Req. no. of moles of U238 = =0.1307 x106
Einstein's mass -energy relation. 6.023  1023
E = Mc2 Required mass of U238 = 0.1307 x 235 x106 g
= 30.71 x106 gm = 30.71 x106 x 10-3 kg
E 3.456  1013 = 0.03071 x 106 kg = 3.071 x 104 kg
2
 8 2
 3.84  10 4 kg  0.384 g.
c (3  10 )
17
W.E-28: Calculate the energy released by the  PAIR AND PRODUCTION AND PAIR
fission 1 g of 235 U in joule, given that the ANNIHILATION : When an energetic γ -
energy released per fission is 200 MeV. photon falls on a heavy nucleus, it is absorbed by
the nucleus and a pair of electron and positon is
( Avogadro’s number = 6.023  1023 ) produced. This phenomenon is called as pair
Sol. The number of atoms in 1 g of 235 U production and can be represented by the following
equation:
Avogadro ' s number 6.023 10 23
= =  2.56310 21
Mass number 235 hv  1 β0  1 β0
 γ  photon   Positron   electron 
Energy released per fission = 200 MeV
= 200106 1.61019  3.21011 J . +10
Energy released by 1 g of 235 U
= Number of atoms  energy released per fission   photon
Heavy nucleus 10
= 2.5631021  3.21011 J  8.2021010 J
The rest mass energy of electron or positron is:
W.E-29: In the process of nuclear fission of 1 gram
2
uranium, the mass lost is 0.92 milligram. The E0  m0c 2   9.1  1031    3  108 
efficiency of power house run by it is 10%. To
obtain 400 megawatt power from the power  8.2 1014 J  0.51MeV .
house, how much uranium will be required Hence for pair production, the minimum energy of
per hour? (c = 3 x 108 ms–1)
γ -photon must be 2  0.51  1.02MeV . If the
Sol. Power to be obtained from power house = 400 energy of γ -photon is less than this, there may be
mega watt\ Energy obtained per hour = 400
Compton’s effect. If energy of γ -photon is greater
meagwatt x 1hour = (400 x 106 watt) x 3600 second
= 144 x 1010 joule than E0 , then extra energy will become kinetic
Here only 10% of input is utilised. In order to obtain energy of the particles. If E is the energy of γ -
144 x 1010 joule of useful energy, the output energy photon, then kineric energy of each particle will
10 E E  2 E0
from the power house 100 = 144 x 1010 J be, K electron  K positron 
2
E = 144 x 1011 joule The inverse process of pair production is called
Let, this energy is obtained from a mass–loss of pair annihilation. According to it when electron
 m kg. and a positron come close to each other, annihilate
each other and produces minimum two γ -photons.
Then  m c 2  144  1011 joule Thus
1441011 β0  β0  2hf
m   16105 kg 1 1
 γ  photon 
310 
2 = 0.16 g
8
 Positron   electron 
Since 0.92 milli gram (= 0.92 x 10–3 g) mass is lost +10
in 1 g uranium, hence for a mass loss of 0.16g, the
1 0.16 2 (   photon )
uranium required is  3
 174 g
0.9210
Thus to run the power house, 174 gm uranium is 10
required per hour.
18
 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION vii) Neutrino and antineutrino : The existence of
ELEMENTARY PARTICLES : these particles was predicted in 1930 by Pauli while
We have realized, so far that there are only four explaining the emission of  - particles from
fundamental constituents of matter. We can radioactive nuclei, but these particles were actually
describe various physical processes involving observed experimentally in 1956. Their rest mass
atoms, molecules and nuclei in terms of electrons, and charge are both zero but they have energy and
protons, neutrons and photons. The first three are
momentum. These are mutually antiparticles of each
the building blocks of atoms and hence matter. The
fourth one (i.e photon) is the quantized energy which other. They have the symbol  and 
is exchanged whenever electronic or nucleonic viii) Pi - Mesons : The existence of pi - mesons was
transition is involved. predicted by Yukawa in 1935, but they were
Subsequently many more elementary particles and actually discovered in 1947 in cosmic rays. Nuclear
antiparticles have been discovered, using giant and forces are explained by the exchange of pi-mesons
modern accelerating machines. between the nucleons. pi - mesons are of three
The particles which are not constituted by any
other particles are called Elem entary types, positive  - mesons    , negative pi-

mesons    and neutral  - mesons  0  .

particles. A brief discussion of important
fundamental particles is as follows.
i) Electron : It was discovered in 1897 by Thomson. Charge on  is  e. Whereas mass of  is 274
Its charge is –e and mass is 9.1 X 10–31 kg. Its times the mass of electron.  0 has mass nearly
symbol is e– (or 1  0 ). It is a stable particle having 264 times the electronic mass. These are unstable
1 having half life 10–8 sec and spin = 0
spin = ix) Mu-Mesons : These were discovered in 1936
2
by Anderson and Neddermeyer. These are found
ii) Proton : It was discovered in 1919 by Rutherford
in artificial nuclear disintegration. It has a positive in abundance in the cosmic rays at the ground level.
charge +e and its mass is 1836 times (1.673 X 10– There are two types of mu-mesons. Positive mu-
meson   and negative mu-meason   . There
27kg) the mass of electron. In free state, the proton

is a stable particle. Its symbol is P+. It is also written

is no neutral mu-meson. Both the mu-mesons have
as 1 H 1 . It is a stable particle having spin = 1/2. the same rest mass 207 times the rest mass of the
iii) Neutron : It was discovered in 1932 by Chadwick. electron. These are unstable having half life 10–6
Electrically it is a neutral particle. Its mass is 1839 sec and spin = 1/2.
times (1.675 X 10–27 kg) the mass of electron. In x) Photon : These are bundles of electromagnetic
free state the neutron is unstable. Inside the nucleus energy and travel with the speed of light. Energy
the neutron is stable. Its symbol is n (or) 0 n1 . and momentum of a photon of frequency  are
iv) Positron : It was discovered by Anderson in 1932. h
It is the antiparticle of electron, i.e., its charge is +e h and c respectively. They posses no charge.
and its mass is equal to that of electron. Its symbol
no mass and spin = 1 and are stable.
is e+ (or 1  0 ) xi) Gravitons : Hypothetical particles that carry
v) Antiproton : It is the antiparticle of proton. It was gravitational energy are called Gravitons. They
discovered in 1955. Its charge is –e and its mass is possess no mass, no charge and spin = 2 as
equal to that of proton. Its symbol is P–. proposed by Dirac.
vi) Antineutron : It was discovered in 1956. It has
no charge and its mass is equal to the mass of Antiparticles :An antiparticle is a form of matter
neutron. The only difference between neutron that has the same mass as the particle but carries
and antineutron is that their magnetic momenta an opposite charge and / or a magnetic moment
will be equal in magnitude and opposite in that is oriented in an opposite direction relative to
direction. The symbol for antineutron is n . the spin.
19
 THE QUARK MODEL:
Name of the particle Antiparticle According to this model, each baryon and meson
particle is made up of quarks. Quarks are supposed
Electron (e-1) Positron (e+1) to be the ultimate building blocks of these particles
Anti proton (P-) and hence matter. They are point particles with no
Proton (P+)
internal structure. Unlike any other charged
Neutron (n) Anti Neutron n particles, quarks are supposed to have fractional
Anti Neutrino   charges and spin 1/2.
Neutrino  
Positive Pi-Meson   Negative Pi-Meson  
Positive Mu-Meson   Negative Mu-Meson  Name
Q u arks A n tiq u a r k s
Sym bo l C h a rg e Sym bo l C h arg e

Note: A few electrically neutral particles, like the 2 2

Up u  e u  e
photon and neutral  meson are their own 3 3
antiparticles. A collision between a particle and an 1 1
antiparticle results in annihilation of matter. D ow n d  e d  e
3 3
Classification of particles based on spin 1 1
1) Bosons : These particles have spin in the integral S tr a n g e s  e s  e
3 3
multiples of unity
2) Fermions : These particles have spin in the integral 2 2
C harm ed c  e c  e
multiples of 1/2. 3 3
Classification of particles based on rest mass 2 2
Top t  e t  e
1) Photons : Particles with zero rest mass 3 3
2) Leptons : Lighter particles 1 1
3) Mesons : Particles with intermediate mass B o tto m b  e b  e
3 3
4) Baryons : Heavier particles
Classification of particles based on interaction
1) Photons: representing electromagnetic interactions.
These quarks combine to form some well known
2) Leptons: representing weak interactions.
3) Hadrons: representing strong interactions. Mesons and Baryons. A meson consists of a quark
4) Gravitons: representing gravitational interactions. and an antiquark whereas a baryon contains three
quarks.
Elementary Particles

Particle Quarks charge spin

Bosons Fermions
1
proton (u, u, d) e
2
Mass less Boson Meson
1
neutron (u d d) 0 2
Etameson Pions Kaons

( )
Gravition Photons
pi-meson (ud) e 0

+  + 
 
    

Leptons Baryons Table - 2

Photons and leptons are considered to be
Electrons Muon Tau Neutrinos Hyperons Nucleons elementary particles and they are not composed of
  
(e ) ( ) ( )
quarks.
Proton Neutron
Lambda Sigma Xi Omega Note : Isolated quark doesn’t exist.
   

20
W.E-30: An electron-positron pair is produced W.E-32: Obtain the maximum kinetic energy of
when a  -ray photon of energy 2.36MeV  -particles, and the radiation frequencies of
passes close to a heavy nucleus. Find the  decays in the decay scheme shown in Fig.
kinetic energy carried by each particle 14.6. You are given that
produced, as well as the total energy with m(198Au) = 197.968233 u; m(198Hg) = 197.966760 u
each. 198
79 Au

Sol. The reaction is represented by 

1 Page 24 Table 2

2 1.088Mev
0 0
  ( 1e )  ( 1e ), sothat 1 3
0.412Mev
2 2
E  m0C  K .E electron + m0C  K .E positron
2
0
198
80 Hg
2.36MeV = 2m0.C 2  K.E (electron) + K.E (positron)
Sol.  -rays are electro magnetic radiations having
= 1.02 MeV + K .E(e )  K .E(e ) E
energy E = h   = where h = plank`s
h
 1 constant = 6.625 x 10-34 J.S
K.E. of (e )  K .E(e )  (2.36 1.02)MeV ,
2 1) Frequencies of  1 ,  2 and  3 are calculated as follows

(K.E. carried each) = 0.67 MeV (motional energy) E (1.088  0)MeV 1.088  106  1.6  1019
1   
h 6.625  10 34 J .s 6.625  1034
Total energy shared by each particle is obviously
= 0.2627 x 1021 = 2.627 x 1020 Hz
m0C 2  K .E  0.51MeV  0.67MeV = 1.18MeV.. E (0.412  0) MeV 0.412  1.6  1019  106
2   
h 6.625  1034 J .s 6.625  1034
= 0.0995 x1021 = 9.95 x 1019Hz
W.E-31: A gamma ray photon of energy 1896 MeV
annihilates to produce a proton-antiproton E (1.088  0.412)  106  1.6  10 19
3  
pair. If the rest mass of each of the particles h 6.625  10 34
involved be 1.007276 a.m.u approximately, = 0.1632 x 1021 = 1.632 x 1020 Hz
find how much K.E these will carry? 2) Now maximum K.E of 1 = [M(19879Au)
Sol. Working on the same lines as an electron-positron 1.088 2
pair production, we notice that the reaction.   M(19880Hg)- ]c
931.5
proton + antiproton, has the energy balance
1
E = m0 2 ( 1 amu = 931.5 MeV  1MeV = U )
(proton) C + K.E (proton) + 931.5
m0 2 = [197.968233-197.966760-0.001168]931.5 MeV
(antiproton)C + K.E (antiproton)
= 0.000305 x 931.5 = 0.284 MeV
But m0C2 = energy equivalent of 1.007276 a.m.u
Maximum K.E of  2  =
 938 MeV. [ 1.007276 x 931  938 MeV]
Thus K.E of each particle 0.412 2
[M(19879Au)-M(19880Hg)- ]c
931.5
1
= [1896 MeV - 2 × 938 MeV] = 10MeV.. = [197.968233-197.966760-0.000442]931.5
2
= 0.001031 x 931.5 =0.9603 MeV

21