Chapter: 7 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Alternating Current:
Current whose magnitude changes continuously with time and direction changes periodically
is known as Alternating Current.

Importance of Alternating Current:

1. AC voltages can be easily and efficiently converted from one voltage to the other by
means of transformers.
2. Electrical energy can also be transmitted economically over long distances.
3. AC circuits exhibit characteristics which are exploited in many devices such as Radio,
Televisions. Oscillators etc.

A C Voltage Applied to a Resistor:

Consider a resistor is connected to a source ε of

sinusoidally varying potential difference across its terminals. Let this potential difference, also
called ac voltage. Given by
υ= υm sin ωt………….1
where ‘υm’ is the amplitude of the oscillating potential difference.
‘ω’ is its angular frequency
By applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule
υ= i R
Substituting equation 1
υm sin ωt= i R
υ
i= Rm sin ωt
Since ‘R’ is constant
υ
i=im sin ωt where im= Rm
Note:
• Both υ and i reach zero, minimum and maximum values at the same time. Hence the
voltage and current are in phase with each other.
• vm=NABω is the expression for peak voltage.

Power Supplied to a Resistor:

There is a dissipation of electrical energy when an AC current passes through a resistor.
The instantaneous power dissipated in the resistor is
p=i2R
2
p=(im sin ωt) R
2 2
p=im R sin ωt
As the current varies with time, power also varies
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Therefore by considering the average value of p over a cycle is
p̅ = i R
〈2 〉
p̅ =〈im 2 R sin2 ωt〉
2
Since im and R are constants
p̅ =im 2 R〈 sin2 ωt〉……1
Using trigonometric identity
1−cos2ωt
sin2 ωt= 2
1−〈cos2ωt〉
〈 sin2 ωt〉= …….2
2
1 T
By considering the function 〈 F(t)〉= ∫0 F(t)dt
T
〈cos2ωt〉= 1 T
∫
T 0
cos2ωt dt
T
〈cos2ωt〉=T1 [sin2ω
2ωt
]
0
1
〈cos2ωt〉= [sin2ωt]T0
2ωT
1
〈cos2ωt〉= [sin2ωT − 0]
2ωT
1
〈cos2ωt〉=
2π
[sin2 T − 0]
2ωT T
1
〈cos2ωt〉= [sin4π − 0]
2ωT
〈cos2ωt〉=0 ……..3
Substituting eqn 3 in eqn 2
1
〈 sin2 ωt〉= ……..4
2
Substituting eqn 4 in eqn 1
𝟏
̅ = 𝐢𝐦 𝟐 𝐑
𝐩 𝟐

rms current( Effective Current) and rms voltage (Effective Voltage):

rms current is the equivalent dc current that would produce the same average power loss as
the alternating current.
im
i.e., I= = 0.707 im
√2
Similarly, we define the rms voltage or effective voltage is the equivalent dc emf that would
produce the same average power loss as the alternating emf
υm
V= = 0.707 υm
√2

Representation of A C Current and Voltage by Rotating Vectors –PHASORS

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 • In order to show phase relationship between voltage and current in an ac circuit, we
use the notion of phasors. The analysis of an ac circuit is facilitated by the use of a
phasor diagram.
• A phasor is a vector which rotates about the origin with angular speed ω.
• The vertical components of phasors ⃗V and I represent the sinusoidally varying
quantities υ and i.
• The magnitudes of phasors V ⃗ and I represent the amplitudes or the peak values υm and
im of these oscillating quantities.
• Figure shows the voltage and current phasors and their relationship at time t1 for the
case of an ac source connected to a resistor.
• The projection of voltage and current phasors on vertical axis, i.e., υm sin ωt and im sin
ωt respectively represent the value of voltage and current at that instant.

Note: Phasors V
⃗ and I for the case of a resistor are in the same direction. This means that
the phase angle between the voltage and the current is zero.

AC Voltage Applied to an Inductor

Consider an inductor which has negligible resistance. Thus this circuit is a purely inductive AC
circuit.
Let the voltage across the source be υ = υm sin ωt …………….1
As there is no resistance in the circuit
Using Kirchhoff’s loop rule, ∑ ε(t) =0
di
i.e., υ – L dt =0 where ‘L’ is the self – inductance of an inductor
di
υ=L
dt
di υ
dt
=L
Substituting eqn 1
di υm sin ωt
=
dt L
di
By integrating with respect to time
dt
di υ
∫ dt dt = Lm ∫ sin(ωt)dt
υm
i=- ωL cos ωt + constant
π
Using -cos ωt = sin (ωt - 2 )

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 𝛑
i=im sin (𝛚𝐭 -𝟐) ……..2
υ
where im = m is the amplitude of the current
ωL
The quantity ωL is called inductive reactance, denoted by XL. i.e., XL= ωL
By Comparing eqn 1 and 2 and also by comparing phasor diagram current lags the voltage
𝛑
by .
𝟐
Note:
υ
1. Amplitude of the current in terms of inductive reactance is i m = m .
XL
2. Its S I unit is ohm (Ω)
vrms rms value of voltage across inductor
3. Definition of XL = =
irms rms value of current through inductor

Power Supplied to an Inductor:

The instantaneous power supplied to the inductor is
pL= iυ
𝛑
pL= im sin (ωt − 𝟐) X υm sin (ωt)
pL=- im υm cos (ωt) sin (ωt)………1
Using trigonometric identity
Sin(2ωt) = 2 sin (ωt) cos (ωt)
Sin (2ωt)
sin (ωt) cos (ωt)= 2 …………..2
Substituting eqn 2 in 1
i υ
pL=- m m sin (2ωt)
2
So, the average power over a complete cycle is
i υ
PL = 〈− m2 m sin (2ωt)〉
im υm
PL =− 〈sin (2ωt)〉………3
2
1 T
By considering the function 〈 F(t)〉=T ∫0 F(t)dt
〈sin2ωt〉=T1 ∫0T sin2ωt dt
T
1 cos2ωt
〈sin2ωt〉= - [
T 2ω ]0
1
〈sin2ωt〉= - [cos2ωt]T0
2ωT
1
〈sin2ωt〉= - [cos2ωT − cos0]
2ωT
1
〈sin2ωt〉= -
2π
[cos2 T − 1]
2ωT T
1
〈sin2ωt〉= - [cos4π − 1]
2ωT
1
〈sin2ωt〉=- [1 − 1]
2ωT

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〈sin2ωt〉= 0……4
Substitute eqn 4 in eqn 1
PL = 0
Thus the average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is
zero.
A C VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A CAPACITOR

When the capacitor is connected to an A C source generating ac voltage

υ = υm sin ωt……1
Let ‘q’ be the charge on the capacitor at any time‘t’.
Then instantaneous voltage across the capacitor is
q
υ =C……..2
From the Kirchhoff’s loop rule, the voltage across the source and the capacitor is equal.
Equating equation 1 and 2 we have
q
υm sin ωt=C
q= υm C sin ωt……..3
dq
To find the current, we use the relation i=
dt
Substituting eqn 3 in above
d(υm C sin ωt)
i=
dt
d
i= υm C dt (sin ωt)
i= ω υm C cos(ωt)…..4
π
Using the relation cos (ωt)= sin (ωt+ )
2
Substituting in eqn 4
π
i= ω υm C sin (ωt+ )
2
π
i= ω υm C sin (ωt+2 )
π
i=im sin (ωt+2 )………5
where im = ωC υm
υm υm
im = 1 =
⁄ωC R

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1⁄ 1
ωC Plays a role of resistance called capacitive reactance and is denoted by XC. i.e., XC= ⁄ωC
υm
Then im =
XC
π
By comparison of eqn 1 and 5 current leads the voltage by
2
vrms rms value of voltage across capacitor
Note: Definition of XC = =
irms rms value of current through capacitor

Power Supplied to a Capacitor:

The instantaneous power supplied to the capacitor is
pC= iυ
𝛑
pC= im sin (ωt + 𝟐) X υm sin (ωt)
pC= im υm cos (ωt) sin (ωt)………1
Using trigonometric identity
Sin (2ωt) = 2 sin (ωt) cos (ωt)
Sin (2ωt)
sin (ωt) cos (ωt)= 2
…………..2
Substituting eqn 2 in 1
im υm
PC= sin (2ωt)
2
So, the average power over a complete cycle is
im υm
PC = 〈 sin (2ωt)〉
2
im υm
PC = 〈sin (2ωt)〉………3
2
1 T
By considering the function 〈 F(t)〉=T ∫0 F(t)dt
〈sin2ωt〉=T1 ∫0T sin2ωt dt
T
1 cos2ωt
〈sin2ωt〉= - [
T 2ω ]0
1
〈sin2ωt〉= - [cos2ωt]T0
2ωT
1
〈sin2ωt〉= - [cos2ωT − cos0]
2ωT
1
〈sin2ωt〉= -
2π
[cos2 T − 1]
2ωT T
1
〈sin2ωt〉= - [cos4π − 1]
2ωT
1
〈sin2ωt〉=- [1 − 1]
2ωT
〈sin2ωt〉= 0……4
Substitute eqn 4 in eqn 1
PC = 0
Thus the average power supplied to a capacitor over one complete cycle is zero.
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AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Circuit:
Phasor Method:

Consider that a source of an alternating emf is connected to a series combination of an

inductor of inductance L, a resistor of resistance R and a capacitor of capacitance C as shown
in figure. Therefore, the ac current in each element is the same at any time, having the same
amplitude and phase.
Let it be i= im sin (ωt+ϕ)………1
Where ‘ϕ’ is the phase difference between the voltage across the source and the current in
the circuit.
By phasor diagram,
Let I be the phasor representing the current in the circuit as given by 1
Let ⃗VL , ⃗VR , ⃗VC , and ⃗V represent the voltage across the inductor, resistor, capacitor and the
source respectively.
π π
We know that ⃗VR is parallel to I , ⃗VC is behind I and ⃗VL is ahead of I.
2 2
As per the Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
⃗ =V
V ⃗R +V⃗ C +V
⃗ L = …………..2
Length of the phasors represents the amplitude of the ⃗VL , ⃗VR , ⃗VC , they are
υRm = imR, υCm = imXC, υLm = imXL
Consider ⃗VL and ⃗VC along same direction then their magnitude of the amplitude is
⃗ L |= υCm- υLm
⃗C +V
|V
⃗R+V
|V ⃗ L |=υm
⃗C +V
By considering in right angled triagle
υm 2=υRm 2 + (υCm − υLm)2
υm 2 =(imR)2 + (imXC-imXL)2
υm 2 = im 2(R2+ (XC-XL)2)
υ 2
im 2=R2 + (Xm −X )2
C L

𝛖𝐦
𝐢𝐦 =
√𝐑𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐

Consider impedance Z is the resistance offered by the LCR circuit then

υm
im = where Z=√R2 + (X C − X L )2
Z
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From the equation 1, ϕ is the phase difference between ⃗Vand I

υ −υLm
Then tan ϕ= Cm
υRm

im XC−im XL
tan ϕ=
im R
𝐗 −𝐗 𝐗𝐂 −𝐗𝐋
tan ϕ= 𝐂 𝐋 ϕ= tan-1
𝐑 𝐑
Note:
𝑑𝑖 𝑞
• In LCR circuit, instantaneous pd across the source depends on v=L𝑑𝑡+iR+𝐶
• If XC > XL, ϕ is positive and the circuit is predominantly capacitive. Consequently, the
current in the circuit leads the source voltage.
• If XC < XL, ϕ is negative and the circuit is predominantly inductive. Consequently, the
current in the circuit lags the source voltage.
• If XC= XL the current in the circuit is in phase with the applied voltage hence the circuit
is predominantly resistive. Such situation is called resonance.

RESONANCE:

An interesting characteristic of the series RLC circuit is the phenomenon of resonance.

The phenomenon of resonance is common among systems that have a tendency to oscillate
at a particular frequency. This frequency is called the system’s natural frequency. If such a
system is driven by an energy source at a frequency that is near the natural frequency, the
amplitude of oscillation is found to be large.

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For an RLC circuit driven with voltage of amplitude 𝜐m and frequency ω, we found that the
current amplitude is given by
υ
im= Zm
𝛖𝐦
𝐢m=
√𝐑𝟐 + (𝐗𝐂 −𝐗𝐋 )𝟐
1
With XC=ωC , XL=ωL
So if  is varied, then at a particular frequency 0,
Xc = XL, and the impedance is minimum ( Z= √𝐑𝟐 + 𝟎𝟐 =R)
1
Then XC= , XL=ω0 L
ω0 C
As Xc = XL
1
=ω L
0
ω0 C
1
ω20 =
LC
1
ω0 =
√LC
This frequency is called the resonant frequency
𝛖𝐦
At resonant frequency, the current amplitude is maximum . i.e.,𝐢m =
𝐑

Resonance in the Tuning Mechanism of a Radio or a TV Set:

The antenna of a radio accepts signals from many broadcasting stations. The signals
picked up in the antenna acts as a source in the tuning circuit of the radio, so the
circuit can be driven at many frequencies. But to hear one particular radio station, we
tune the radio. In tuning, we vary the capacitance of a capacitor in the tuning circuit
such that the resonant frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency
of the radio signal received. When this happens, the amplitude of the current with the
frequency of the signal of the particular radio station in the circuit is maximum. It
important note that resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a circuit only if both L and
C are present in the circuit.

Power in AC Circuit: The Power Factor

Consider a voltage υ= υmsin ωt applied to a series RLC circuit drives a current in the
υ (XC −XL )
circuit given by i= imsin(ωt+ϕ) where im = Zm and ϕ= tan-1 R
Therefore, the instantaneous power ‘p’ supplied by the source is
p= υi
p= (υmsin ωt) . (imsin(ωt+ϕ))
p=υmimsin ωt (sin ωt cos ϕ + cos ωt sin ϕ)

p=υmim [sin2 ωt cos ϕ + sin ωt cos ωt sin ϕ] ………1

wkt cos2 ωt= 1-2sin2 ωt

𝟏−𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛚𝐭
sin2 ωt= &
𝟐
sin2 ωt=2sin ωt cos ωt
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 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛚𝐭
sin ωt cos ωt = 𝟐
substitute in eqn 1
1−cos2ωt
p=υmim [
2 cos ϕ + sin22 ωt sin ϕ ]
υ i
p= m m [cos ϕ − cos2ωt cos ϕ + sin2ωt sin ϕ ]
2
υ i
p= m2 m [cos ϕ − (cos2ωt cos ϕ − sin2ωt sin ϕ )]

p= m2 m [cos ϕ − cos (2ωt + ϕ)] ………………....2

υ i

The average power over a cycle is given by the average of the two terms in R.H.S. of Eq. 2
It is only the second term which is time-dependent. Its average is zero (the positive half of
the cosine cancels the negative half).
υ i
Therefore, P= m m cos ϕ
2
υm i m
P=
√2 √2
cos ϕ
P=V I cos ϕ
This can also be written as
P= I2Z cos ϕ
Where V and I are rms value of voltage and current and the term cos ϕ is called the power
factor.
R
Power factor is given by cos ϕ=
Z
Cases:
Case (i) Resistive circuit: If the circuit contains only pure R, it is called resistive. In that case
ϕ = 0, cos ϕ = 1. There is maximum power dissipation.
Case (ii) purely inductive or capacitive circuit: If the circuit contains only an inductor or
capacitor, we know that the phase difference between voltage and current is π/2. Therefore,
cos ϕ = 0, and no power is dissipated even though a current is flowing in the circuit. This
current is sometimes referred to as wattless current.
Case (iii) LCR series circuit: In an LCR series circuit, power dissipated is given by
(XC −XL )
P=V I cos ϕ where ϕ= tan-1 . So, ϕ may be non-zero in a RL or RC or RCL circuit.
R
Even in such cases, power is dissipated only in the resistor.
Case (iv) Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit: At resonance Xc – XL= 0, and ϕ = 0.
Therefore, cos ϕ = 1 and P = I2Z = I2 R. That is, maximum power is dissipated in a circuit
(through R) at resonance.

Transformer:

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Definition: Transformer is a device which changes an alternating voltage from one to another
of greater or smaller value.
Principle: It works on the principle of mutual induction.
Construction:
• A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other.
• They are wound on a soft-iron core, either one on top of the other as in or on separate
limbs of the core.
• One of the coils called the primary coil has Np turns.
• The other coil is called the secondary coil; it has Ns turns.
• Often the primary coil is the input coil and the secondary coil is the output coil of the
transformer.
Working:
• When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current produces
an alternating magnetic flux which links the secondary and induces an emf in it.
• The value of this emf depends on the number of turns in the secondary.
Theory:
We consider an ideal transformer in which the primary has negligible resistance and all the
flux in the core links both primary and secondary windings.
Let 𝜙 be the flux in each turn in the core at time t due to current in the primary when a
voltage vp is applied to it.
Then the induced emf or voltage 𝜀s, in the secondary with Ns turns is
𝑑𝜙
𝜀s=-NS 𝑑𝑡 …………..1
The alternating flux 𝜙 also induces an emf, called back emf in the primary.
This is
𝑑𝜙
𝜀p=-Np 𝑑𝑡 …………...2
As 𝜀p=vp then 𝜀s= vs where vp and vs are the voltages across primary and secondary coil.
𝑑𝜙
vs =-NS 𝑑𝑡 ………….3
𝑑𝜙
vp =-Np 𝑑𝑡 …………..4
From the eqn 3 and 4 we have
vs Ns
=N
v
p p
Note that the above relation has been obtained using three assumptions:
(i) The primary resistance and current are small.
(ii) The same flux links both the primary and the secondary as very little flux escapes
from the core.
(iii) The secondary current is small.

Note:
• If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses), the power input
υs ip Ns
is equal to the power output, and since p = i v, ip𝜐p = is𝜐s then = =
υp is Np
N Np
• vs =N s vp and is = N ip
p s
• Well designed transformer may have an efficiency of more than 95%.
• If the secondary coil has less turns than the primary(Ns < Np), such transformers are
called step-down transformer. In this case, Vs < Vp and Is > Ip. That is, the voltage is
stepped down, or reduced, and the current is increased.

Energy Loss in Practical Transformers

(i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the flux due to
primary passes through the secondary due to poor designs of the core or the air gaps
in the core. It can be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils one over the
other.

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 (ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for the windings has some resistance and
so, energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire (I2 R). In high current, low voltage
windings, these are minimized by using thick wire.
(iii) Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core
and causes heating. The effect is reduced by having a laminated core.
(iv) Hysteresis: The magnetization of the core is repeatedly reversed by the alternating
magnetic field. The resulting expenditure of energy in the core appears as heat and is
kept to a minimum by using a magnetic material which has a low hysteresis loss.

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