Maxwell's

Equations

09 第 1 頁
 9-1 The Displacement Current
A. SOMETHING IS MISSING—MATHEMATICAL POINT OF
VIEW

(1) Electric charge in motion is electric current. Because charge is never

created or destroyed, the charge density and the current density
always satisfy the condition

If is constant in time, we have

According to Gauss's law,

we have

Thus, the electric field is constant in time. The current driven by

this electric field is called the steady current.

(2) If and change in time, we have

According to Amp re's law,

we have

We find the contradiction here. Since Amp re's law is only valid for
the steady current, there must be a missing term in Amp re's law.

(3) According to Faraday's law, a changing magnetic field is accompanied

by an electric field, we have

09 第 2 頁
 This is a local relation connecting the electric and magnetic fields in
empty space. Remember that the Lorentz-transformation of the
electromagnetic fields [c.f.5-5] are

If symmetry with respect to and is to prevail, we must expect

that a changing electric field can give rise to a magnetic field. Thus, we
shall have

This provides that Amp re's law has a missing term and should be
modified as

Take the divergence of both sides:

B. THE DISPLACEMENT CURRENT—PHYSICAL POINT

OF VIEW

(1) Consider the line integral of magnetic field around the wire that carries
charge away from the capacitor plate

09 第 3 頁
 According to Stokes' theorem,

The surface passes right through the conductor in which a current

is flowing.
The surface is a surface spanning ,

according to Stokes' theorem, there flows no current through this

surface.

Therefore, on , must depend on something other than the

current density .

(2) Define a displacement current density

09 第 4 頁
Thus, we obtain

The electric field at a particular instant.

The displacement-current (black arrows)

09 第 5 頁
 9-2 Maxwell's Equations
A. DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS

(1) For fields in the presence of electric charge of density and electric
current, that is, charge in motion, of density .

The second expresses the dependence of the magnetic field on the

displacement current density, or rate of change of electric field, and on
the conduction current density, or rate of motion of charge.
The fourth equation states that there are no sources of magnetic field
except currents; that is, there are no magnetic monopoles.

(2) In empty space, the terms with and are zero,

We can write the two induction equations in a symmetric form

The symmetry between and is clear.

B. INTEGRATED FORM OF MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS

(1) The integrated form of Maxwell's equations

Use Gauss's divergence theorem and Stokes' theorem,

09 第 6 頁
Thus, we obtain

EXAMPLES:
1. A half-infinite wire carries current from negative infinity to
the origin , where it builds up at a point charge with increasing
. Consider the circle, which has radius and subtends an angle
with respect to the charge. Show that

ANSWER:
•
Using Biot-Savart law

09 第 7 頁
 Therefore, we obtain

•
There are two surfaces and spanning the closed path .

09 第 8 頁
For the surface , since the current does not pass the surface (
does not intersect the wire), thus, we only need to calculate

Since

we find the electric field flux through the surface

he magnitude of the field at the angle is

The total flux through the surface is

09 第 9 頁
Therefore, the displacement-current is

For the surface :

The sum of the electric field flux through surfaces and equals
the total flux emanating from the charge , which is .

The flux through the surface is

R.H.S.:

09 第 10 頁
09 第 11 頁
 9-3 Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum
A. WAVE EQUATION

(1) In empty space, the terms with and are zero, two induction
equations are

They constitute a set of coupled first-order differential equations for

and . Applying curl to both equations give

Thus, we obtain

two decoupled second-order differential equations for and . Both

equations are called wave equations. So Maxwell's equation imply that
empty space supports the propagation of electromagnetic waves,
traveling at a speed,

which happens to be precisely the velocity of light, . Thus, we have

(2) Suppose that the waves are traveling in the direction and have no
or dependence; these are called plane waves, because the fields are
uniform over every plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

09 第 12 頁
uniform over every plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
The solutions of electromagnetic wave equations are

Since
and in Maxwell's equations,
that is,

Thus, electromagnetic waves are transverse: the electric and magnetic

fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

Since

implies a relation between the electric and magnetic amplitudes,

Thus, we obtain
and
or, more compactly:

Evidently, and are mutually perpendicular.

09 第 13 頁
(3) The monochromatic plane waves traveling in an arbitrary direction.

where is called the polarization vector.

Since

Both and are transverse.

B. ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY AND POYNTING

VECTOR

09 第 14 頁
 VECTOR

(1) The electrostatic energy is equivalent to a capacitor with potential

difference between opposite charged plates [c.f.4-4]

The magnetic energy is equivalent to a circuit with self-inductance

containing current [c.f.7-4]

The total energy stored in electromagnetic fields is

(2) Consider some distribution of charges and currents. In small time a

charge will move and, according to the Lorentz force law, the work
done on a charge will be

In terms of charge density and current density , we have

The power delivered to the system is

Thus, is the power delivered per unit volume.

(3) Express in terms of the fields,

Since

we obtain

Using Faraday's law, we obtain

09 第 15 頁
 Finally, we can integrate over the volume containing the current and
charge,

Using Gauss's divergence theorem,

we obtain

This is Poynting theorem:

energy lost by fields = energy gained by charges + energy flow
out of volume.

(4) Hence we can identify the vector

as the energy flux density and it is known as the Poynting vector.

EXAMPLES:
1. In a region of empty space where there is no charge.

Since

hence, we have

09 第 16 頁
 This expresses the local conservation of electromagnetic energy.

2. A capacitor has circular plates with radius and is charged by a

constant current . Find the Poynting vector at radius inside
the capacitor.

ANSWER:
In a region of empty space, we have

Using Stokes' theorem , we obtain

Since

we obtain the magnetic field as

The Poynting vector is

The total power flowing into the cylinder of radius is then

C. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE IN DIFFERENT INERTIAL

FRAME

09 第 17 頁
 FRAME

(1) General property of any electromagnetic field

For an electromagnetic wave, and are perpendicular and equal in
amgnitude, i.e.,
and
These two quantities should be invariant in all frames. Thus, we claim
that a light wave looks like a light wave in any inertial frame of
reference.

(2) Lorentz invariance of

Since

we have

Since

we obtain

09 第 18 頁
(3) Lorentz invariance of

Since

thus, we obtain

09 第 19 頁