Critical Technologies in Front-End

Signal Conditioning Systems

Introduction
Signal conditioning is one of the most important – and most overlooked – components of a
data acquisition system. With it, you can bring real-world signals into your digitizer. Many
sensors require special signal conditioning technology, and no instrument has the capability
to provide all types of signal conditioning to all sensors. For example, thermocouples
produce very low voltage signals, which require amplification, filtering and linearization.
Other sensors, such as strain gauges and accelerometers, require power in addition to
amplification and filtering, while other signals may require isolation to protect the system
from high voltages. No single instrument can provide the flexibility required to make all of
these measurements. However, with front-end signal conditioning, you can combine the
necessary technologies to bring these various types of signals into a single data acquisition
system.

Not all front-end signal conditioning options are equal. Most choices are nonintelligent,
parallel-in/parallel-out configurations that offer the bare minimum of functionality for a
select few signals or sensor types. However, for computer-based measurement and
automation, you want a system designed to take advantage of the latest PC-based data
acquisition and instrumentation technologies. This system should have programmable
input settings, the ability to be automatically detected by your computer, and tight
integration with your software to handle scaling and channel management. Your system
should offer all of the conditioning technologies you need, proof of its accuracy, and the
capability to take advantage of the advances in high-speed digitizers.

This document will first give you a general overview of signal conditioning and then
explain these critical technologies so you can make an informed decision about your next
front-end signal conditioning system. Experienced users of signal conditioning systems
should skip directly to the Critical Technologies section.

Signal Conditioning Background

Most signals require some form of preparation before they can be digitized. As previously
mentioned, thermocouple signals are very small voltage levels that must be amplified
before they can be digitized. Other sensors, such as RTDs, thermistors, strain gauges, and
accelerometers, require electrical power to operate. Even pure voltage signals can require
special technologies for blocking large common-mode signals or for safely measuring high
voltages. All of these preparation technologies are forms of signal conditioning.

Because of the vast array of signal conditioning technologies, the role and need for each
technology can quickly become confusing. Therefore, we’ve provided a list of common
types of signal conditioning, their functionality, and examples of when you need them.
• Amplification – When the voltage levels you are measuring are very small,
amplification is used maximize the effectiveness of your digitizer. By amplifying the
input signal, the conditioned signal uses more of the effective range of the
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and enhances the accuracy and resolution of the
measurement. Typical sensors that require amplification are thermocouples and strain
gauges.

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• Attenuation – Attenuation is the opposite of amplification. It is necessary when the
voltages to be digitized are beyond the input range of the digitizer. This form of signal
conditioning diminishes the amplitude of the input signal so that the conditioned signal
is within the range of the ADC. Attenuation is necessary for measuring high voltages.
• Isolation – Voltage signals well outside the range of the digitizer can damage the
measurement system and harm the operator. For that reason, isolation is usually
required in conjunction with attenuation to protect the system and the user from
dangerous voltages or voltage spikes. Isolation may also be required when the sensor
is on a different ground plane from the measurement sensor (such as a thermocouple
mounted on an engine).
• Multiplexing – Typically, the digitizer is the most expensive part of a data acquisition
system. By multiplexing, you can sequentially route a number of signals into a single
digitizer, thus achieving a cost-effective way to greatly expand the signal count of your
system. Multiplexing is necessary for any high-channel-count application.
• Filtering – Filtering is required to remove unwanted frequency components from a
signal, primarily to prevent aliasing and reduce signal noise. Thermocouple
measurements typically require a lowpass filter to remove power line noise from the
signals. Vibration measurements normally require an antialiasing filter to remove
signal components beyond the frequency range of the acquisition system.
• Excitation – Many sensors, such as RTDs, strain gauges, and accelerometers, require
some form of power to make a measurement. Excitation is the signal conditioning
technology required to provide this power. This excitation can be a voltage or current
source, depending on the sensor type.
• Linearization – Some types of sensors produce voltage signals that are not linearly
related to the physical quantity they are measuring. Linearization, the process of
interpreting the signal from the sensor as a physical measurement, can be done either
with signal conditioning or through software. Thermocouples are the classic example
of a sensor that requires linearization.
• Cold-Junction Compensation – Another technology required for thermocouple
measurements is cold-junction compensation (CJC). Any time a thermocouple is
connected to a data acquisition system, the temperature of the connection must be
known in order to calculate the true temperature the thermocouple is measuring. A
built-in CJC sensor must be present at the location of the connections.
• Simultaneous Sampling – When it is critical to measure two or more signals at the
same instant in time, simultaneous sampling is required. Front-end signal conditioning
can provide a much more cost-effective simultaneous sampling solution than
purchasing a digitizer for each channel. Typical applications that might require
simultaneous sampling include vibration measurements and phase-difference
measurements.

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 Most sensors require a combination of the previously described signal conditioning
technologies. Again, the thermocouple is the classic example because it requires
amplification, linearization, cold-junction compensation, filtering, and sometimes
isolation. Ideally, a good measurement platform should give you the ability to select the
type of signal conditioning that is needed for your application. In some systems, front-end
signal conditioning is an option, but in other systems, front-end signal conditioning is a
necessity to make the required measurements. As a rule of thumb, your measurement
system should include front-end signal conditioning if you are planning to use any of the
following sensors:
• Thermocouples
• RTDs
• Thermistors
• Strain gauges
• Force/load/torque transducers
• LVDTs/RVDTs/resolvers
• Accelerometers
• Mixed low-voltage/high-voltage sources
• Current sources
• Resistance sources

Critical Technologies
When front-end signal conditioning is necessary for your data acquisition system, you
should choose a system that takes advantage of the latest advances in computer-based
measurement and automation. For your signal conditioning platform to fully exploit these
advances, there are several critical technologies that it should possess. These critical
technologies ensure that you get a high-performance signal conditioning platform that
integrates tightly with the rest of your system, all at a reasonable total cost. The primary
technologies we will examine in depth are integration, calibration, connectivity, switching,
isolation, expandability, bandwidth, software, and ease of use. By understanding each of
these technologies, you will be able make an informed decision on the purchase of a
front-end signal conditioning system.

Integration
The ability of your front-end signal conditioning system to integrate easily with the rest of
your system is technology that is a must. Your system should be modular, thus giving you
the ability to choose the types of signal conditioning necessary for your system. It is also
critical to have a system that accommodates mixed signal types. For example, you should
be able to connect currents, high voltages, various sensors, analog outputs, digital I/O, and
switching all into the same platform.

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Calibration
One of the most critical technologies that a front-end signal conditioning system should
possess is the ability to be easily and accurately calibrated. Most measurement devices are
calibrated at the factory, but the accuracy immediately starts to drift with time and
temperature changes. To make the most accurate measurements possible, it is necessary to
periodically calibrate the entire data acquisition system. If your system has precision
onboard voltage references, you can adjust your measurement system to compensate for
temperature changes. In addition, you must have access to external calibration services to
keep your system performing up to the manufacturer’s specifications year after year. It is
very important to learn the calibration process for any front-end signal conditioning system
under consideration because that is the only way to ensure that your investment contains
the technology you need to make accurate and reliable measurements.

Connectivity
Because connecting your signals to your signal conditioning system can be a major issue,
it is critical to select a platform that gives you the connectivity options you need. A good
front-end signal conditioning system should give you a wide range of connectivity options,
including thermocouple plugs, screw terminals, and BNC connectors.

Switching
In today’s demanding test environments, the ability to route signals easily throughout your
measurement system is a technology that can lead to huge improvements in test times. As
an example, consider a case where a unit under test (UUT) must be subjected to four
separate measurements in the testing process. Without the proper technology, the UUT
must be reconnected to each different measurement device for each test. With state-of-the
art switching technology, you can not only route the UUT leads automatically to each
measurement device in turn, but also test several UUTs at the same time. You thus achieve
more efficient use of your test equipment, faster test times, and less user intervention. The
selection of a front-end signal conditioning system that offers this technology can have a
huge impact on the overall performance of your system.

Isolation
Another important technology to consider is isolation. When you are measuring signals that
either are high-voltage signals or are subject to voltage spikes, it is critical that those signals
are isolated from the rest of your system. Inadequate isolation compromises the safety of
the operator, as well as the integrity of the entire data acquisition system. When
determining the isolation requirements of your system, it is imperative to have reliable and
accurate isolation specifications, including both a safe working voltage rating and an
installation rating. For more information on isolation technologies, see the National
Instruments white paper, Signal Conditioning Isolation Technologies.

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Expandability
Any front-end signal conditioning system should be easily expandable. Adding more
channels or different types of signals to your system must not require a massive overhaul
of your data acquisition system. With the right technology, expanding your system should
be as simple as plugging in another module.

Bandwidth
In addition to being expandable, a system should also have the bandwidth to handle the data
throughput from a high-channel-count system. The bandwidth should also be high enough
to accommodate future growth in channel count. System bandwidth is typically expressed
in samples/second (Hz). To determine the minimum necessary bandwidth of the system,
you should multiply your total number of expected channels times the maximum sampling
rate you will need on an individual channel. For a high-channel-count system, the required
bandwidth for a modest acquisition rate can quickly reach several hundred kHz. Bandwidth
is an often overlooked, but extremely important technology to consider when selecting a
front-end signal conditioning system.

Software
A large portion of the total cost of a test and measurement system is application
development. To keep application development costs to a minimum, you must use software
tools that maximize your productivity. Your front-end signal conditioning system should
be designed to integrate tightly with these software tools. Only with the capability to fully
control your front-end signal conditioning system from your software application can you
take full advantage of the latest technologies in computer-based measurement and
automation.

Configuration/Installation
Finally, any signal conditioning system you consider should be easy to use. No one can
afford to lose time due to overly complex installation or configuration issues. An ideal
front-end signal conditioning system will poll the hardware, report which equipment you
have, and provide you a software interface for setting up all signal conditioning settings.
You should be able to configure channels through software, and have the capability to set
up channel names and scaling to engineering units.

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National Instruments Signal Conditioning Solutions
National Instruments produces a front-end signal conditioning system known as SCXI
(Signal Conditioning eXtensions for Instrumentation). SCXI is a rugged, modular platform
for high-performance signal conditioning. An SCXI system consists of multichannel signal
conditioning modules installed in one or more rugged chassis. SCXI offers a wide range of
signal conditioning modules – analog input, analog output, digital I/O, counter/timer,
switching, and multiplexing. To the analog input modules, you can connect an extensive
variety of sensors, such as thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors, strain gauges,
accelerometers, and LVDTs. The modules condition the input signals and multiplex them
onto the backplane bus of the chassis, where they are typically routed into a data acquisition
device to be digitized.

The SCXI architecture has many advantages as a front-end signal conditioning solution.
SCXI incorporates all of the critical technologies necessary to build a high-performance,
fully integrated, and easy-to-use front-end signal conditioning system, all at an affordable
cost per channel. It is modular and easily expandable, making it ideal for medium to high
channel count applications. Because it is modular, the SCXI architecture makes it very easy
to measure mixed signal types in one system. SCXI is also a high bandwidth system,
capable of multiplexing up to 333 kS/s into a single data acquisition device. It integrates
seamlessly with National Instruments data acquisition devices and timesaving application
development software such as LabVIEW™ and Measurement Studio™. SCXI modules are
shipped with NI-DAQ™ driver software, which offers easy set up, including autodetection
of modules and programmatic modification of settings. Many SCXI modules now come
with both calibration certificates (proving the module is within manufacturer’s
specifications) and onboard calibration sources (so you can easily calibrate it from
software). Finally, with the wide range of options in SCXI modules, you can specify a
system that includes signal routing (with matrix switching modules), isolation, filtering,
and more.

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 The SCXI architecture, first introduced in 1992, has been continually improved through
software enhancements and additional modules. It is now a mature product with the benefit
of years of continuous technology enhancements. The SCXI front-end signal conditioning
system is used by thousands of customers in a wide variety of applications.

Conclusions
A front-end signal conditioning system should be looked at as a platform that defines the
measurement capabilities of your data acquisition system. It is critical to invest in a
platform that is both proven by time and constantly improving by incorporating the latest
technologies. The most important technologies to be considered in any front-end data
acquisition system are calibration, isolation, bandwidth, expandability, measurement
coverage, signal routing, and, of course, ease of use. The National Instruments SCXI
system is a proven platform that integrates these critical technologies into a full-featured
data acquisition system that can meet a broad range of measurement requirements.

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