MODERN

CONSTRUCTION
HANDBOOK
ANDREWWATIS
SECOND EDITIO N

~ SpringerWienNewYork
 3
INTRODUCTI ON 4 MATERIALS 6 WALLS 82 ROOFS 200
Introduction to Second Edition 4 Taxonomy of material systems 8 Trends in facade design 84 Trends in roof design 202
Changes from the First Edition 4 Structure and envelope 10 Generic wall types 90
Structure of this book 5 Digital tectonics 12 Metal roofs
Parametric design 16 Metal ( I) Metal standing seam 206
( I) Sheet metal 92 (2) Profiled metal sheet 2 10
Tectonics in metal 20 (2) Profiled cladding 96 (3) Composite panels 214
Steel 22 (3) Composite panels 100 (4) Rainscreens 218
Aluminium 26 (4) Rainscreens 104 (5) Metal louvres 222
Copper, zinc and lead 30 (5) Mesh screens 108
(6) Louvre screens 11 2 Glass roofs
Tectonics in glass 32 ( I) Greenhouse glazing
Glass 34 Glass systems 11 6 and capped systems 226
( I) Stick systems 120 (2) Silicone-sealed glazing
Tectonics in concrete 38 (2) Unitised glazing 124 and roofiights 230
Concrete 40 (3) Clamped glazing 128 (3) Bolt fixed glazing 234
(4) Bolt fixed glazing 132 (4) Bonded glass roofiights 238
Tectonics in masonry 46 (5) Glass blocks and channels 136
Masonry 48 (6) Steel windows 140 Concrete
Concrete block 50 (7) Aluminium windows 144 ( I) Concealed membranes 242
Stone 52 (8)Timber windows 148 (2) Exposed membranes 246
Brick 54 (3) Planted roof 250
Concrete
Tectonics in plastics 56 ( I) Cast in situ 152 Timber roofs
Plastics and composites 58 (2) Storey height precast 156 ( I) Flat roof: mastic asphalt
(3) Small precast panels 160 coverings 254
Tectonics in timber 62 (2) Flat roof: bitumen-based
Timber 64 Masonry loadbearing walls 164 sheet membranes 258
Fabrics and membranes 68 (3) Pitched roof: tiles 262
Masonry cavity walls
Internal walls ( I) Brick 168 Plastic roofs
( I) Fixed and demountable ri (2) Stone and block In ( I) GRP roofiights 266
(2) Plaster systems 74 Masonry cladding 176 (2) GRP panels and shells 270
(3) Wallboard systems 76 Masonry rainscreens 180
Fabric systems
Floors 78 Plastic ( I) ETFE cushions 274
Ceilings 80 ( I) Plastic-based cladding 184 (2) Single membrane:
(2) Plastic rainscreens 188 cone-shaped roof 278
(3) Single membrane:
Timber barrel-shaped roof 282
( I) Timber frame 192
(2) Cladding panels 196
 CONTENTS
5 6
I

STRUCTURE 286 ENVIRONMENT 354 FUTURE 418 REFERENCES 494

Material systems Energy and the building A future for building Glossary of term s 496
for structures 288 envelope 356 construction 420 Authorship 500
Photo credits 501
( I) Braced frames Double skin facades 358 ( I) Folded glazing 422 Index 502
Reinforced concrete 292 Environmental studies for
Steel 296 envelopes 362 (2) Metal solar shading: louvres
Timber 300 and mesh 428
Analysis for design
(2) Portal frames 304 ( I) Solar radiation 364 (3)Triangular panels for twisted
(2) Daylight 368 facades 434
(3) Loadbearing boxes (3) Embodied energy 372
Reinforced concrete 308 (4)Twisted panels with fiat glass
Brick 3 12 Passive design for twisted facades 440
Glass 316 ( I) Natural ventilation 376
(2) Solar shading and (5) Moving shading panels 448
(4)Trusses 320 daylight controls 378
(3) Solar power 380 (6) Precast concrete panels
(5) Arches and shells 324 (4) Solar heating 382 for facades of complex
geometry 452
(6) Space grids 328 Low energymaterial systems
( I) Straw bales and hemp 384 (7) Glazing systems wit h
Floor structures (2) Rammed earth, cob integral solar shading 458
( I) Cast in situ / and adobe bricks 386
cast-in-place concrete 332 (3) Green oak (8) Stick glazingfor double
(2) Precast concrete 334 and bamboo 388 facades 464
(3) Steel and steel mesh 336 (4) Green walls 390
(4) Timber 338 (9) Shingled glazingfor facades
(5) Glass 342 Active design of complex geometry 470
( I) Liquid based heating/
Stairs cooling systems 392 ( I0)Variable concrete panels for
( I) Concrete 346 (2) Mechanical heating/ solar shading 476
(2) Steel 348 cooling systems 394
(3) Timber 350 (3) Electrical lighting 400 ( I I) Str uctural facades of
(4) Glass 352 (4) Fuel and water supply 402 complex geometry 482

Support services ( 12) Facade with integrated

( I) Sanitation and drainage 404 furn iture 488
(2) Fire control 406
(3) Maintenance and
cleaning 408
(4) Lifts 414
lntroduction to Second Edition

The Modern Construction Handbook that event ually formed the basis of this book ferent approach to construction.This book
began /5 years agowhen I was an archit ect A view expressed in this book is that there suggests how buildings can be designed and
working at Jean Nouvel's office in Paris, are no fixed methods of construction;tech- constructed wit h a limited number of mate-
developing projects for construction,typically niques are constantly evolving, both by multi- rial systems, much t he way buildings were
designing from the basis of small models plying the number of components in a given assembled before the imperatives of mass
and sketch proposals.The early design wor k assembly in order t o perform better as well production with its attendant need for repe-
done by others in the office was always as searching for new ways of re-integrating tition of ident ical components.This approach
highly aspirational, often without an estab- and simplifying these systems. is based on a closer tecto nic relationship
lished method of construction available between walls, roofs and structure rather
to realise the designs.The aim of moving How does this edition vary from than the contemporary approach of juxta-
designs forward towards their construction the First Edition? posing systems that are manufactured quite
was to bring as much of the design int ention The First Edit ion of the Modern Con- independently of one another.More than
as possible into the finished building.This was struction Handbook concerned itself prima- a question of individual design choice, con-
achieved by matchingthe essential design rily wit h setting out forms of construction struction is an essential aspect of our culture,
ideas to forms of construction which could in typesgrouped by their primary material. both as a process involving a large number
be developed by the designteam to achieve Wh ile textboo ks on construction divided of individuals who traditionally have shown
tho se aims; ideas which were spatial,techni- building elements int o components and craftsmanship in their work,whether on
cal and social.The built results varied in their assemblies rather than 'systems' based on the sit e or in a workshop, and as an expression
technical ambition, but were always root ed possibilities of the material used,the Modern of the values cherished by our society.The
in these early design aspirations, built either Construction Handbook aimed to set out idea of individual craftsmanship is a primar y
as a 'diagram' or 'fragment' of an idealised construction systems with a balanced and architectural motivation which is explored in
design that was embodied both in the early even t reatment of the different methods of this book,with examples of where this might
design models and in conversations wit hin constructing structures, walls and roofs and lead in emerging archit ecture that is cur-
the office.An alt ernative approach taken internal construction, with no system given rent ly being developed tod ay.
on some projects wast o take one or two more priority or described with more infor- The simp/est evolutions in material
aspects of the primary design aspirations and mation than any other.Essays on prefabrica- systems can lead to quite unexpected sys-
develop only t hose to a much greater extent tion, possible future directions for construc- tem 'behaviour' which does not necessarily
than other components of the 'tectonic', t ion, and their relationship to environmental follow expected rectilinear building forms.
or parts of the construction which were design set the agenda for Modern Construc- The greater geometric fiexibility of t hese
considered to combine spatial,t echnical and tion Facades and Modern Construction 'evolved' versions of contemporary material
social issues.This design process is common Roofs, books which followed in the series. systems allows buildings to engage more
to archit ecture that engages fully with the This Second Edition sets out these flexibly with our existing built environment.
possibilities of building construction:the element s of construction in a way which W here modernist architecture t o date has
process of building as an expression of the explains the main principles of each con- admired simple geomet ric forms and their
process of bringing design aspiration to life, struction system and point s to an expres- relatively simple interplay, material systems
rather than buildings asself-contained 'jewels' sion of architecture based on exploring the can be used to interact with the existing
or as visually coherent expressions of ideas possibilities of material systems beyond the fabric and to work wit hin it rather than
with a modest architectural basis. cladding of structural frames. Cladding can encourage a complete replacement of entire
Exploring forms of construction wit h be considered as beinga 'collage' or juxta- parts of t he built environment.This approach
other archit ects in the office led me to build position of independent material systems, is one which was enjoyed before the mass
up a set of sket ches of 'mat erial systems', all manufactured in isolation of one another, industrialisation of building production in the
since none were readily available in books, each system seeing it self as addressing a dif- early 20th century. In many waysthis book

MCH 4
demonstrates that the pre-industrial world from the Walls chapter are available in an and 'services' rather than being regarded as
of significant buildings,that formed a part of accompanying book in the Modern Con- fittings. Consequently, the Fittings chapter
our urban environment, can find a continu- struction Series,called Modern Construction from the First Edition is omitted, with materi-
ation in the world of digital fabrication and Facades, which includes more information on al re-allocated to the other chapters. In place
mass customisation. detail conditions within each material system. of Fittings is Future, showing how some of
Another accompanying book called Scratch- the material systems could be developed in
Structure of this book ing the Surface, also published by Springer new buildings.These 'future' material systems

This Second Edition is based on building Wien New York, sets out progressive exam- are based on research work undertaken at
'components' identified as structure, walls, ples of material systems in buildings of a size our practice, Newtecnic, for consideration on
roofs and environment, following the way and type experienced by most architects in live projects.
contemporary buildings are designed by general practice of modest budget and mod-
specialist consultants and constructed by est scale. Qualifying commemts
specialist contractors. While the First Edition The Roofs chapter is re-structured and The building techniques discussed and
focussed on only material systems produced developed to follow Modern Construction the built examples shown are designed to
by mass production techniques, the future Roofs, another book in the series, basing the last for an extended period with a relatively
chapter of the Second Edition adds in sys- classifications more firmly on systems than high performance. Consequently; buildings
tems that could be produced by mass cus- on types of roof covering as set out in the for exhibitions and for temporary use are
tomisation techniques. Considerably more First Edition of the Modern Construction excluded. In addressing an international
information is added than that of the First Handbook. This provides a closer link with readership, references to national legislation,
Edition, with the addition of more materi- the Walls chapter. building regulations, codes of practice and
als and more systems. Within each chapter, The Structures chapter, like the Walls and national standards have specifically not been
material systems are grouped in terms of Roofs chapters, has a complete set of new included. This book explains the principles
the primary material used to construct the drawings that explains the systems more of accepted building techniques currently in
system, following the same order of materi- clearly The relationship of the other building use. Building codes throughout the world
als listed in terms of their density; from heavy components to structure informs much of are undergoing increased harmonisation
to light, used in the first chapter on materials. architectural design, so this has been the basis because of increased economic and intel-
Within each material classification, systems of new essays in the Materials chapter. lectual globalisation. Building components and
progress from more traditional technology 'Services' are designed increasingly to assemblies from many different countries are
to more recent, largely following their his- use both 'passive'and 'active' systems and are often used in a single building. Since build-
torical development. referred to under the more general term of ing codes are written to protect users of
The first chapter sets out the essential 'environment', which forms its own chapter. buildings by providing for their health and
physical properties of each of the main This Second Edition has been strengthened safety; good construction practice will always
building materials explored in the book. with the addition of information on low uphold these codes as well as assisttheir
Materials are set out in order of their density; energy construction systems from which advancement. The components, assemblies
from heavy to light, ranging from metals to complete building envelopes can be manu- and details shown in this book describe many
glass, concrete, masonry; plastics and timber. factured. of the building techniques used by the build-
The second chapter on Walls expands Remaining items in the First Edition such ing industry today; but this book does not
information of the systems set out in the as stairs, lifts, partitions, ceilings and doors necessarily endorse or justify their use since
First Edition from two pages per topic to were put into a final chapter called Fittings, techniques in building are in a continual state
four pages, in common with most of the which was not an entirely satisfactory solu- of change and development.
topics covered in the book. More technical tion.The interior aspects of buildings such as
information and more detailed drawings stairs and lifts are essential parts of structure

MCH 5
MATERIALS

A taxonomy of material systems

Structure and envelope
Parametric design

Tectonics in metal
Steel
Stainless steel
Aluminium
Copper. zinc and lead
Tectonics in glass
Glass
Tectonics in concrete
Concrete
Tectonics in masonry
Masonry
Concrete block
Stone
Brick
Tectonics in plastics
Plastics and composites
Tectonics in timber
Timber
Fabrics and membranes

Internal walls
( I) Fixed and demountable
(2) Plaster systems
(3) Wallboard systems

Floors
Ceilings

MCH 7
Materials 0 I
A taxonomy of material systems

The organisation of the mater ial in the based on the structural frame;typically quite different headings.Whi le the system
Modern Construction Handbook,which has either steel or concrete,with the modest, is useful in describing a building for use by a
been refined for this Second Edit ion, has but growing, use of timber frames as a lower contractor;particularly with regard t o nat ion-
undergone several stages of development, embodied energy alternative.As examples al standards, including those for performance
based on the idea of grouping construction of loadbearing construction are rare,the testing, specifications do not relat e the parts
systems by the mat erial used rather than use of categor ies of'loadbearing'and 'non- in a way that can be easily used at the design
by their 'function', which is one of the most loadbearing'was not appropriat e due to t he stage to understand generic facade assem-
widely usedconstruction-based classifica- imbalance of the categories. Wh at emerged blies.The approach t aken in the classification
tion systems.The mat erials-based approach was that construction systems for the major- system in the Modern Construction Hand-
specific to this book allows the text t o draw ity of building construction are independent, book was to group items in a way known to
parallels between building 'systems'that are wit h few systems relating t o one another. building design teams: structure, walls, roofs,
based on the same primary mat erial, since Much of the skill of contemporary detailing and services.
the development and use of those systems is in knowing how to bring those systems The construction of buildings has, histor i-
is informed mainly by the physical proper- together which are fabricated or manufac- cally, been based on a varying relationship
ties specific to each material and the way tured in isolation of one another. between loadbearing structure, walls and
t he material is worked, manufactured or The linking of building systems so that roofs, and this forms t he basis of classifica-
formed for use as a building material. Known they might be able to interface more easily tion in this book.In some buildings, walls,
classification systems create a mix between has long been an aspiration of manufactur- roofs and structure are a single entity as in
manufacturer-led names for systems, such as ers, but the current sit uation is one where medieval cathedrals, with the exception of
'structural glazing', where the glass is often few systems co-ordinate easily wit h one their addit ional timber roofs, used to protect
not structural at all,and 'rainscreen cladding', another.This suggested that the taxonomy of the structural ceiling. In framed construction
which covers almost any decorative outer building systems in the First Edition should the walls and roofs can be continuous over
layer that has open joints. Rather than basing be based on a robust set of genuinely dif- a singlesupporti ng structure,while in many
classification on that of existing categories, ferent generic typesthat would have t o be cases of 20th century construction,walls,
the approach was to start from scratch and identified independently of current systems roofs and structure are quite separat e,and
t est material-based categories against one of classification, such as those described in are then subdivided within each category
another. In the First Edition,this evolved into designers' specificatio ns.The structure of t o provide a 'collage' form of construction
categories of walls, roofs, structure, environ- architecture-based specifications identifies where systems are overlaid in the manner of
ment and fitti ngs.Another category of mate- components and assemblies in inter-related a visual collage.
rials preceded this, since an understanding of sections, where each sub-item in the assem- Most of the primary building materials
the physical nature of materials is essential in bly is identified independently, such as'cur- can be used t o make loadbearing structures,
construction-led architecture. t ain walling', which itself comprises several where they serve as both structure and
An essential aspect of contemporary generic external wall types set out in this enclosure. Other uses of mat erials for walls
construction is the wide range of construc- book.Specifications then link items such as and roofs are non-Ioadbearing cladding.
tion systems which are non-Ioadbearing. 'curtain walling' to their constituent materials However;sometimeswhere different mat e-
Almost all cont emporary construction is of glass, seals, paint finishes and so on under rial systems are formed in the same material
MCH 8
in a building, there is still some structural zone within the building which is an inhabit- cific details can be created, which forms the
interdependency. Where quite different able equivalent of the 'twin wall' or 'double basis of an understanding of what is needed
material systems are mixed, such as in a con- skin' facade.This has helped to inform both to be accommodated in different geometries.
crete frame and enclosure, a different inter- material systems,not all of which need to be The chapter on 'future' systems adds a para-
dependency emerges, that of allowing each sealed,as well as the environment chapter metric component to some of the examples,
material to be expressed separately. where passive cooling, heating and ventila- thus highlighting the range of possibilities that
The inclusion of fittings in the taxonomy tion can be used to reduce overall energy might exist for some of the examples shown.
of the First Edition proved difficult, with consumption, as well as create a stronger link The materials chapter in this Second Edi-
smaller scale items of stairs, lifts, internal between the built environment of the city tion presents essays on how the tectonics
finishes and doors placed within the group. and the building itself The materials for roads of material systems was used historically and
The term 'internal fittings' was too restricting, and public spaces do not form part of the how digital tools are bringing fiexibility back
as some of these components could be used scope of this book, of course. into building construction, something which
externally.This was the least satisfying part of Each generic system is described first in was considered to be too expensive until the
the First Edition. In this Second Edition this terms of the properties of the material, then arrival of CAD/CAM (computer aided design
issue has been resolved by including stairs how they are used as a material system, and / computer aided manufacturing), mentioned
in the structure chapter, doors in the walls last how that material system 'behaves', or as a development bringing change in the First
chapter, and internal finishes in the first sec- can be made to 'behave', to form a building Edition.This return to an almost pre-industrial
tion on materials. Lifts are now described in by examining its detailing. Possible develop- approach to design allows new buildings to
the environment chapter, since they are usu- ments of some of these material systems are develop a much closer empathy with existing
ally considered to be part of the mechanical set out in the future chapter to show how buildings, even if the technologies used are
systems, the layout of which is designed by the principles can be extrapolated for use on very different.The non-rectilinear nature of
a specialist consultant. As a result of this last new projects. some of the material systems allows them
decision it could be seen that the environ- Generic systems are discussed in terms to engage more robustly and elegantly with
ment section could include both systems of how they are assembled, and how they existing fabric, both pre-industrial and that of
that reduce energy consumption by the work from a structural and/or enclosure 20th century Modernism in architecture.
use of low energy passive strategies, as well point of view.These paragraphs on 'system
as high energy active strategies, such as design' show how the generic example
mechanical ventilation, and lifts can be seen works. The way the system is applied to dif-
as part of this strategy to make tall buildings ferent geometries is explained in 'system
usable. details'.The geometries show how the
In environmental terms, the use of sev- system can be set out on different mathe-
eral layers of envelope and structure in a matically-based surfaces, and how the system
single building can create a much richer set can meet at corners and junctions.Two other
of internal spacesthan those provided by books in the Modern Construction Series,
the single skin envelope.The outer wall can titled Modern Construction Facades and
be made of a double skin,or even as a deep Modern Construction Roofs, show how spe-

MCH 9
Materials 0 I
Structure and envelope

Well s Cathedral ,Wells,UK Natural History Museum, O xford, UK Architect N atural H istory Museum, O xford, U K A rchitect
Deane and Woodw ard Deane and W oo dward

In terms of constru ction, Modern ist architec - of the w idespread use of t he structural The use of a str uctural frame clad w it h
t ure can be considered t o be an approac h frame in much of 20t h cent ur y Modern - no n-loadbearing walls has led to an aesthetic

th at was not an inevit able development ist archit ecture , th e separat ion of stru cture typically con cerned with eithe r forming a

of 19th cent ury archit ecture but rat her a and ext ern al wall has do minat ed, w here 'co llage' of different compo nents, or as a
respon se t o an industrialisation governe d th e facade is redu ced t o non -loadbearing repeated modul e of the same compon ent.
by mass production of building co mpo nents w alls.T his approach has been a result of the However, loadbearing constructi on can

such as steel sections for fr ames, br icks, development of structural forms, o riginally emb race a design approa ch of struct ural
blocks, meta l coil, timber boards and sec- destined for large scale buildings,w hich have and environmental integratio n: t he use of
t ions.The use of repeated , recti linear stru c- fou nd use in much smaller scale construc - envelope and str ucture combin ed t o create
tural bays, both in plan and elevation, can t ions, even being used in individual houses in space in the facade and cont inuity in gro und-
be seen as a response t o t he way the raw co ntin enta l Euro pe.T he use of loadbearing scape or urban context. Both loadbeari ng
products used in building are manufactured, stru ctures for larger scale buildings resulted and deep rainscreens are possible solutions
including the straight lines of cut t imber and in facades with 'punched ' window openings for th is approach .The recent introduction of
plywood used for concrete formwork. that gave a 'massive' quality to buildings. In computer controlled too ls has taken away
20th century Modernist architecture contrast, the use of t he separat e structural the imperat ive of mass prod uctio n, offering
can be considered in te rms of it s response frame w as able to create a visual lightness instead possibilit ies of'mass custom isation'
t o mass production te chniques through th e and t ransparency t hat gave greater freedom w here many componen ts of different size
use of th e structural fr ame , Building co mpo- t o designers. H owever,the int egrat ion of can be produced qu ickly t o a high quality
nent s and assemb lies were used as repeated skin and str ucture into loadbearing facades Cons eque nt ly, architectural prod uction is no
ident ical elements in building com positions . can also allow much greater freedom in t he longer determined by t he need for repeat ed
Th e use of stee l o r concrete fram es led t o design of the ext ern al envelope to suit the rect ilinear units used in Modernist designs.In
buildin g envelopes being enclosed in non- requirements of th e spaces immedi ately terms of th e relationship between st ruct ure
loadbearing cladding.The use of repeated , behind. In the context of th e ex isting built and ext ern al envelope, th e introduction of
rectilinear bays can be seen as a response environm ent, a new building can almost mass custom isat ion suggests th at systems for
to manufacture, includ ing th e straight lines 'grow' out of the adjacent existing building both facades and structu res could become
of cut t imb er and plywood used fo r co n- using the same mat erials but with a different mo re com plex and int erd ependent, w hile
crete formwork. Consequent ly,as a result material system. remaining eco nom ic by th e standards of

MCH 10
Colonia Guell,Barcelona, Spain.Architect:Antonio Sagrada-Familia, Barcelona, Spain.Architect:Antonio Sagrada-Familia,Barcelona,Spain.Architect: Antonio
Gaudi Gaudi Gaudi

contemporary building construction. be seen as a civic exp ression of the manual rect ilinear structu ral frame . In the I 950s,Eero
work of many craftsmen and labo urers of the Saarinen used loadbearing concrete in the
A tradition of the integration of medieval world, w as replaced by an archit ec- TWA Terminal at John F Kennedy Airport in
structure and envelope t ural expression of t he use of mass produced New Yo rk, a building w hich int egrat es t he lan-

T he integration of structure and enve- building components t hat were used as t he guage of str ucture and enclosure with t hat of
lope can be seen in th e Gothic tradition: raw mate rial for th e specialist fabrication of partition s, counter s, desks and furniture.The
facades fo rm ing external spaces create d entire parts in small w orkshops, rather than furnitu re is cur ved to make it com fortable
by t he fram ing effect of flying buttresses of that of w ork being all performed on sit e. for t he curved human physique, linking the
medieval cat hedrals. Such structures also Gothic Revival buildings such as the O xford form of w hat inhabits the building to inform
commun icate a sense of the communa l Museum are built wit h a mixture of load- th e constr uctio n of th e building it selfThis
effort required to construct t he building: bearing and framed co nstruction. building can be regarded as an integration
The w alls,w hich seem t o int egrat e frame In t he early 20th centur y t he archit ect of building, int erior spaces and furnit ure t hat
and infill wall into a single constructiona l Antonio Gaudi saw that an advantage of marked the buildings of medieval Oxford.A
ent ity, sweep inw ards at roof level t o cre- loadbearing construction was th at individual building designed by Eero Saarinen, t he Mil-
ate stone vaults t hat form a cont inuit y wit h blocks of stone , bricks or concrete blocks w aukee A rt Museum, was recently exte nded
the wa lls.Onl y a timber roof is required to could be corbe lled inwards or outwards from to a design by Santiago Calatrava in a struc-
protect the sto ne ceiling from the effects t he vertical plane of t he external w all to cre- ture that create s a loadbearing, or skelet al,
of the weat her.The t imber ro of is not a at e a comple x vertical section as w ell as a stru cture, rem iniscent of earlier buildings by
'concept ual' part of the masonry structure, complex plan. Gaudi's use of brickwork was O scar N iemeyer.Calatrava's interest in animal
but rat her a necessary addition t hat ensures based on his own structural investigat io ns, as skelet o ns goes one step beyond th e interest
t he constr uction provi des a weathert ight imple mented at t he Sagrada Familia in Barce- in the structure of Saarinen.
enclosure. Gothi c Revival buildings of th e lona. In the years th at follow ed, the buildings
19th cent ur y,such as the O xford Museum of Oscar Ni emeyer int egrated structure and
in England, com bine medieval methods of skin in projects of var ying brief, fro m ho using
loadbearing co nstructio n wit h industrially to churches to public buildings, exp loring the
manufactured iron ribs that form a vault ed po ssibilities inherent in reinforced concret e
roof structure infilled wit h glazing.What can rather than follo wing the imperat ives of the

MCH II
Materials 0 I
Structure and envelope 2

Aerial view,Oxford, UK

Parametric modelling
This need for variat ion in more complex drawings, and that buildings can be seen as escope and fitting the 'secondary' research
arrangements of linked spaces is tackled mere 'built drawings' rather than being con- spaces into it,the design allows both aspects
more comprehensively in projects by Zaha ceived as'buildings' in the first place. Gehry of the design to combine as a more bal-
Hadid, whose work is informed by an inter- is less interested in loadbearing construction anced composition.This was achieved by
est in parametric design, where spaces can than in the built forms that can be generated designing the spaces from the outside in, cre-
be linked by rhythm, and links achieved from a few material systems which are liber- ating an envelope to suit the general enclo-
through the assistance of computer soft- ated from the constraints of mass produc- sure of spaces, effectively wrapped around
ware, so that many more iterations can be tion towards an eventual approach of mass the telescope.The structure supporting the
investigated and explored than are possible customisat ion. telescope is set inside the building, requiring
by hand, by conventional 2D CAD, or even a quite different support for the observation
by conventional physical modelling. Paramet- Modernism and construction floor.The space between the outer envelope
ric modellingprovides an interrelationship Modernism developed from aspects and the inner telescope structure is inhab-
between parts of the building as well as of architecture of the early 20th century, ited by the circulation space serving both
the urban space surrounding it, making the influenced by mass production techniques t elescope and study spaces.The telescope
cityscape one of interdependence as, once from about 1920 onwards. In contrast,the can be considered to be designed from
again,can be found in medieval Oxford .The approach taken by architects such as Eric the inside out, while the study spaces are
involvement of structural engineers such as Mendelsohn in Germany duringthe 1920s designed from the outside in.The interstitial
Adams KaraTaylor has led to a more ambi- considered ways of integrating different zone between the inner and out er structure
tious engagement with loadbearing struc- aspects of programmes informed strongly is inhabited by the staircase which rises
tures.The office of Frank Gehry has taken by the waythe building was constructed. through the building. In anot her project,the
the use of parametric modelling as a tool for The Einsteinturm in Potsdam, Germany, by staircase itselfcould have been part of the
generat ing building forms that would not be Eric Mendelsohn integrated the needs of a overall building structure, but here the stair
possible in a practical sense without compu- research cent re comprising spaces for study is supported primarily by both inner and
ter software and its link to computer aided and discussion, with the complimentary out er structures on its sides.The building's
manufacturing. Gehry is concerned that requirement for an astronomical telescope external envelope is built from brick,cov-
archit ects produce buildings that are gener- to be accommodated in the building.Rather ered in render. W hile the building could have
ated by the need to be resolved in 2D as than express the 'primary' aspect of the tel- been formed in concrete,the construction
MCH 12
Einstein Tower, Potsdam, Germany. Architect: Erich Mendelsohn EinsteinTower, Potsdam, Germany. Architect: Erich Mendelsohn

method of corbelling brickwork in and out built environment.and may also depart geo- and external facade structures creates an
of vertical plane is ideally suited as a method metrically from its context, as in the case of opportunity for a buffer zone between them,
to construct a form of this geometry. Zaha Hadid's design for an extension to the which could be used as an inhabited space
In our own time, the rise of digital tool s Louvre Museum in Paris.The design provides or for circulation around the building, as was
permits this more complex approach to continuity of material and context wit hout mentioned in the previoustext on the Ein-
tectonicsthat was dominated in the 20th compromising the performance of the build- steinturm by Eric Mendelsohn.The recently
century by the use of the structural frame. ing in term s of use, organisation and spaces completed Mercedes-Benz Museum in Stutt-
As set out in the previous essay, a char- created within the building while responding gart by UN Studio has interstitial zones used
acteristic of the construction of Modernist to environmental imperatives of reducing for circulation, while interstitial zones which
architecture has been the separation of energyconsumption within the building.The are inhabited can be seen in the Phaeno Sci-
structure and external envelope. where new structure can almost be seen as 'grow- ence Center inW olfsburg, Germany, by Zaha
the facade is reduced to non-loadbearing ing'out of the adjacent existing building and Hadid.
'cladding' as a result of the development of the adjacent groundscape using the same The integration of skin and structure into
structural frames, originally destined for large material but employinga different material a loadbearing facade has obvious difficulties.
scale buildings. In contrast, the use of digital system. The material system can be chosen The conventional 'layered'approach of clad-
tools and mass customisation methods can or developedto suit the design needs of ding applied to structural forms in Modernist
be used to create a partial or full integration the spaces immediately behindthe external construction has the advantage of superim-
of skin and structure as loadbearing facades. envelope. posing wat erproofing,thermal insulation and
This revived loadbearing approach can allow W it hin building designs. spaces can be vapour barriers to form a sequential wall
a much greater control of the design of the created in an outward direction from the build-up. In loadbearing facades it is more
envelope to suit the requirements of the internal spaces of the building.W here spaces difficultto integrate these different func-
spaces immediately behind, rather than using are required to have a high level of techni- tions into a single structural wall. However,
the repeated bays of structural frames built cal performance, or specific light conditions allowing lines of structure to deviate from
using established methods of mass produc- that are to be created, this can be achieved the rectilinear rather than beingusedto suit
tion.ln this loadbearing-based approach. without immediate referenceto the external primarily rectilinear facade cladding. allows
the choice of material used may be taken envelope but rather to the building structure. structure to interact with non-rectilinear
from the immediate physical context of the An interstitial zone between internal spaces spaces within buildings. Current Modernist

MCH 13
Materials 0 I
Structure and envelope 3

..' ~ .-
.-
..- .-

..--
.-
~
.- II
..-
-
-

::I
-

Paramet ric mode l of a twisted tower

architecture responds to the needs of mass of the mass production of identical compo- ing forms have been seen in both twi sted
production,a set of design imperatives of nents towards a new period of craftsmanship and folded geometries.
repeatability and a rectilinearapproach based as a result of mass customisation. Twisted building forms achieve geometric
on mass production rather than the possibili- A design approach of designing inwards complexity by using curves,typically across
ties provided by digital tool s of design and from the facade of the building, and outwards a surface of constant curvature in order
production available wit h mass customisation. from the internal spaces of the building, could to make it easierto build in a construction
The renewed interest in the structural allow structure to create interstitial space market that is used to mass production tech-
design of the externalloadbearing wall cre- between inside and outside.This approach niques of building construction. Geometric
ates at once a new design vocabulary for can also create environmental 'buffer' spaces, complexity can also be achieved wit h folds,
architecture and a return to an expression of which are not maintained at the internal tem- where conventional flat surfaces, which are
the joy of making buildings, as demonstrated perature of the building but serve as a buffer straightforward to build, can be formed into
in individual craftsmanship,an approach that between inside and outside temperature unconventional facade forms. The recent
can be seen to have been shared widely in conditions.These spaceswould not require examples are those by Sant iago Calatrava,
construction before early prefabrication tech- the same amount of tempered air;but would Frank Gehry and UN Studio in twisted forms,
niques were introduced in the 1920s.This provide an opportunity for natural vent ila- and OM A, Zaha Hadid and LABArchit ecture
approach to design is informed by a balance tion,all key to reducing carbon dioxide emis- in folded forms.The approach of folded and
of the specific useof the material system, sions in buildings. From the point of view of twisted building forms is a way of introduc-
used to form the building, wit h the sequence construction, this approach is more complex ing complex geometr y while maintaining
of movement around the building and the than 20th century construction, but could be contemporary principles of'repeatability' in
spaces created within.The expression of achieved with digital tools for design and fab- order to makethem economicto build using
construction and circulation as'designed' rication,the to ols of mass customisation.The a conventional approachto construction. In
elements harnessed to the 'objective' design possibility of mass customisation of compo- t his sensethe approach of tw isted and folded
requirements of spatial organisation related nents allows a departure from the repeated forms is an intermediary one between the
to programme and site context, can be rectilinear component so that components rectilinear repetition of Modernist construc-
a powerful partnership of principles.This can be more geometrically complex, either as tion and the emerging construction methods
approach could allow construction to move individual components or as complete build- described here.The current approach to
on from 20th century industrial imperatives ing assemblies. Recent developments in build- folded and twisted facades requires geomet-

MCH 14
 ·. -

Computer generated construction system models

ric discipline in order to maintain the repeat- construction as an additional driving factor. factured and used in a system in addition to
ability of components, mainly facade panels, This may be digital, as wit h the possibilities their essential physical properties.This book
used in conventional construction techniques. for invention that the t ools bring, or may be also sets out the construction systems essen-
With the greater introduction of digital fabri- used for the continued cladding of structural tial to contemporary architectural produc-
cation tools,the need to maintain a geomet- frames.This leads the design into a direct tion, categorised in terms of envelope, struc-
ric discipline will slowly disappear; perhaps connection with traditional loadbearing con- ture and environment.The book begins with
making design choices more dependent on struction, but moving it forward with chang- a setting out of materials and how they are
the principles of design performance impera- ing methods of industrial production. Digital used as material systems and ends with pro-
tive in buildings such as the Einsteinturm dis- tools allow the performance of a design to posals for new material systems as an extrap-
cussed in the lastessay. Greater freedom of be explored and optimised,and be devel- olation of what is possible in the present and
design from digital tool s will provide greater oped in order for an individual or a t eam how it could be used in the future.
control and greater responsibility from the to tackle the fabrication of the component
designer to usethe technology wisely. which has not been made in a particular way
before. Alt ernat ively. a design may usehistori-
Design methodology cal models, either to endorse the construc-
Current architectural design has a prefer- tion methods of existing buildings,to mix old
ence for rectilinear spaces linked in a spatial and new to create something new, or even
organisation which is also primarily rectilinear; to advance what is already constructed by
though dependent upon site conditions, physically adjusting it by using the same mate-
based around the useof rectilinear structural rial but a different material system.
frames.The design generated is then given The Modern Construction Handbook
an outward facade expression of materials sets out these construction techniques, both
formed wit h openingsor wraps as an inter- traditionally-based and contemporary. all of
face between the internal arrangement of which evolved during the industrialisation
the building at its immediate site context. of the 19th century. Essential to this use of
An alternat ive design methodology is to material systems is an understanding of the
add the use of material systems to that mix: physical characteristics of materials as manu-

MCH 15
Materials 0 I
Parametric design

Parametrically modelled glazed structural facade

The use of parametric design in architecture open jointed rainscreens and solar shading ing is typical or dimensionally constant in the
has been centred around the use of soft- screens set forward of a wat erproofed back- external walls.The relationship of inner and
ware that was originally developed for other ing wall. Rainscreen facade panels comprise outer skin varies, 50 a set of' rules'is set out
industries. Its primary use in architecture has a pattern of repeated tri angular panels in a in the system drawings,then applied t o t he
been t o generate digital models for build- pinwheel grid,where a set of five triangular 'kit of parts' drawings and the setti ng out
ing structures and external envelope which panels forms a shape identical in propor- drawings.
have a complex geometryThe word 'com- tion to the smallest triangle from which it is At Federation Square for example, the
plex' is used t o denote geometries which formed. In projects such as these,facades are inner and outer layers are set out in a loose-
are not rectilinear; and therefore cannot be described in a way that can communicate to fit relationship between inner and outer skin.
described by plans and sections which can contractors the nature of a complex three In projects where forms are either facet-
be extruded in a straight line through the dimensional form on paper. Elevations of ted or curved t o create an architecture of
form of the building. Building designs which such buildings are set out as unfolded or complex geometry. the means of contro lling
do not conform to the rectilinear forms 'developed' facades from a 3D digital model. the geometry of the building become more
characteristic of Modernism are difficult to This describesthe scope of the facades and crucial. In single skin buildings where the
describe as 2D plans, sections and elevations the t ot al material needed as'kit of parts' building has a complex form,the exact fit of
in a way which can be communicated to drawings resemblingthat of anAirfix model the different components during construc-
thosewho will construct the building. Even kit. In addition, 2D details describe the 'sys- tion is critical during construction. In devel-
2D plans, while still a useful t ool, still cannot tem' as a wall method that could be used oping such building forms and implement ing
be used to establishthe edge of the external t o describe how the facades go to gether; them,the forms need to establish criteria
envelope if the external wall is not vertical, regardless of its actual application around the which are fixed, such as floor areaof the
as the position of that wall applies only at building.Drawings specifically for the facade different spaces comprising the building,sit e
the horizontal planeat which the plan is set, systems are needed since the facade con- constraints, and criteria which are not fixed.
typically at floor level for a form of complex struction method is devised individually for Some building designs for complex forms
geometry.Typically. glazing is set above the such projects. Details of facade conditions at evolve as a result of more information being
floor level, where plans are typically drawn, edges, corners, interfaces and junctions with known about the building, allowing more
but any dimensions on the plan at this point other parts of the building construction are of the design to be fixed. Consequently. the
are set at a level difficult to establish on sit e prepared in the tradit ional way different criteria of the design can be set
in buildings of complex geometry Drawings describing the design of com- as'parameters'which can be related as a
A well-known example of complex plex geometry of the external envelope are matrix in the form of a spreadsheet.The
geometry using flat facadesthat do not of different types:'kit of parts' drawings,'sys- spreadsheet can be linked to the process
conform to the rectilinear forms of most tem' drawings, details and setting-out draw- of modelling the building forms digitally in a
contemporary archit ecture is Federation ings.This method differs significantly from parametric design software.Working para-
Square in Melbourne,Australia.The external the traditional approach of plans, sections, metrically allows the design to establish what
walls were designed in the form of'wraps'of elevations,typical details and so on,as noth- is'fixed' and what will be 'variable' in the
MCH 16
Detailed images of construction system from the same parametricmodel

design development.This approach allows different requirements can be put into the to the design of individual buildings, the
a digital design method to evolve. In facade model at the beginning, with changes in the possibilities are being seen more widely in
design,the behaviour of the model as a set digital model showing the corresponding both fieldsof architectural design and urban
of surfaces can be understood by number; effect between them all. Facade design of design.Whe re buildings have been designed
size,geometry and so on.The relationship of complex forms is often driven by a desire to asa 'collage' of components which are jux-
the parameters in the design allows the dig- optimise the construction; often by simplify- taposed or stacked to gether in a loose-fit
ital model to evolve through an engineering- ing it by providing as simple a solution as manner;more contemporary architectural
based method of iteratio n,rather than start possible without losing t he strength of vision design is basing itself on a greater integration
the digital design model again each time or strength of archit ectural expression in of structure, envelope,environment. space
a new option is explored.This approach the design. Even in higher budget projects, and light as ingredient s in a richer mix.
requires some discipline and clarity in the the need to omit unnecessary complexity This greater level of interdependency
design approach at the outset. which often of construction and diversity in panel size is of design allows buildings t o become bet-
makes the parametric design met hod more important to both reduce costs and attract ter constructed at the scale of the window,
suit ed t o design development than initial the most highly qualified companies to work the bay,the wall, the building and the street
design research. However;parametric plug- on the project. to form a continuit y.Where the provision
ins are becoming available for early stage The possibilities of parametrically-based of buildings, roads, natural landscape and
design software,ensuring that the parametric design go beyond the need for evolving a services infrastructure are considered quite
approach is gaining influence throughout the single digital model for the main components separat ely in our industrialised society. the
design process. of building structure and external envelope. re-integration of these essential components
In facade design, where the paramet- With more and more parts of the design of our cities could eventually become part
ric approach is becoming a primary to ol forming a single model, the use of a building of linked parametric models.The interde-
in architecture,the aims vary during the information model or 'BIM' that sets out all pendency of building,street. and the natural
different stages of design development. the components required to make a build- landscape that was a criticalgenerator ofthe
Outcomes of parametric design can range ing, is becoming a reality.Whe reas large scale built forms of the pre-industr ial world, where
from establishing a rationalised or optimised manufacturing of aircraft, cars, boats and so the use of energy for both transportation
geometry. reducing the number of panel on have already usedthis working method within towns and cities and the responseto
types, restricting the facade assembly so that for some years, the use of BIMs in building the built environment played much bigger
it conforms only to the design limits imposed design is just becoming the norm in higher roles in the generation of urban form.
by the material systems or facade systems profile projects. Building information models An essential aspect of parametric design
being used, ensuring that the floor plates are now becoming parametric, with the pos- with digital models is to establish what is
provide a fixed t ot al amount of floor area, sibility of introducing complex geometry into import ant in the design and what is much
or ensuring that the relationship with the the process. less important; understanding what design
primary supporting structure is maintained W hile this approach is aimed primarily 'problem' is being set. and what might be the
without exceeding maximum spans.All these at bringing greater control and knowledge ways of exploring that design.This approach

MCH 17
Materials 0 I
Parametric design 2

Parametrically modelled lapped glazed panel covered facade

allows buildings to become a much more parallel, for these choices are as important Embodied energy and digital
closely dependent set of spaces, and building as the internal organisation of the building, design
construction becominga closer expression the spatial arrangement and relationship to Two trends in buildingconstruction
of the ideas of space, light and form con- the site.This brings the choice of materials which are driving change in architectural
structed within the constraints of a particular andthe way they are used, or 'tectonics' back design are concerns about the environment,
material system.A parametric approach will to the centre of architectural design, rather and the introduction of computer controlled
also allow much greater int erdependency of than material and construction-related issues manufacturing.The effect of building con-
buildings working together as part of a single being chosen as standard construction meth- struction on the environment has been of
'organism'- the urban environment of build- ods afterwards.The result of involving issues concern since at least the I960s.The effect
ings, streets and public spaces. It is perhaps of mat erials and construction at a later stage in building construction is a growing aware-
in the design of public space, and the elimi- is that the forms of construction used can ness of the energy required to construct
nation of residual or ill-defined space that become no more than an outer 'clothing' buildings, or'embodied energy', and secondly
could be the next major use of parametric that is deemed appropriate t o the site con- the energy required t o operate the building
design in digital models. text and the brief.that it should somehow when in use.The embodied energy part of
behave well in an architectural sense.The the equation is concerned wit h both the
Parametric working method limitation of this approach is that the outer amount of energy needed t o manufacture
An essential aspect of working with skin has little t o do with the structure and the materials,transport them t o site,then
parametric design is the ability to develop envelope mat erials behind it, often forming install them on sit e.This interest has favoured
different parts of the building design in the outer rainscreen or covering of a con- the use of timber,which absorbs C02 dur-
parallel rather than working sequentially struction systemthat is based on procure- ing its growth and can be re-planted when
from outline design, scheme design, detailed ment expediency rather than design. Conse- cut down for useas a building material.
design and so on. Rather than viewing design quently. there is a need for material systems However,much timber is used as a'clad-
as a series of stages to complete and move to be involved at early stages of the design ding' mater ial to an envelope constructed of
on from without significantly changing or process. Construction methods used for quite different materials.The idea of'c1adding'
informing what has already been accom- these essential parts of building design are buildings involves increasing the number of
plished in the design,the design of a building set out as material systems in the chapters layers, and has led to a desireto reduce all
is tackled not as something developing as of this book;each described from a com- the different requirements of construction
a result of a series of decisions which influ- mon platform of how the principle mat erial by making the external walls loadbear-
encethe next decision in turn (from primary is used to form a system for wall,roof or ing rather than being cladding panels to a
concerns to secondary concerns and so structure,and how these might be applied structural frame.This interest is linked to a
on) but rather of material systems which to specific strategies of environmental design. preference for reduced amounts of glazing in
interact and influence one another. A mate- many building types, where structural frames
rial system for structure,walls, roofs and were enclosed in highly transparent enve-
environmental design can be developed in lopes.W hile high levels of glazing encourage
MCH 18
Detailedimages of a glazing systembased on a voronoi pattern

increased levels of natural daylight in build- become primary tools to reduce energy material systems shown in this book are
ings,they also admit solargain and provide consumption for heatingand cooling build- set out in more detail in the accompanying
poor thermal insulation in all climates.The ings.This has resulted in the re-introduction books Modern Construction Facades and
preference for loadbearing construction of opening windows and of cross ventilat ion Modern Construction Roofs. From a design
is in some ways a return to pre-industrial in buildings. perspective,rather than production of infor-
forms of construction.This interest in a mation for tender or for construction, a 3D
'leaner' higherperforming construction is Material systems model andthe controlled manipulation of
possible wit h computer controlled manu- This Second Edition is aimed as a guide that model in relationto the constraints of
facturing tools that are linked to drawings to using material syst ems in contemporary the material systems such as glass sizes or
and 3D models produced by the design buildings, with material systems shown as bending constraints on panels, is as valid as
team.Although in practice it is manufactur- views of 3D models in order to understand a 2D section through a building of constant
ers who provide the final drawings for CNC how they fit together spatially rather than section. Drawings can show the 'kit of parts'
machines,this is largely a requirement based treat them as 2D sections.This is because required to describe the scope of the build-
on how buildings are procured rather than traditional vert ical and horizontal drawn sec- ing, which is essential to understanding and
an imperative of the design process. Conse- tions assume most systems are continuous setting out how much material is required to
quently, designers can produce a full set of through their length,that they are extruded construct the building. From these drawings,
drawings for manufacturers to make a much in a linear direction either side of the section the embodied energy required to construct
wider range of components than has been taken. This method of representation also the building can be calculated.
the case wit h mass production.This link of assumes that a drawn section, both vertical The systems of modern construction
design directly to construction, rather than and horizontal, is a typical condition. W hile set out in this book suggest a gradual move
re-interpretinga design as a set of drawings plan, section and elevation explain the over- forward to methods of production based
that in turn 'get built' is forging a much closer all scope of the design,junctions of the sepa- on mass customisation techniques that are
link between design and construction. In rate planes represented in these drawings evolving in manufacturing, as well as show-
common with the re-introduction of load- are rarely resolved in these drawings, leaving ing how current mass produced material
bearing construction, the use of computer some coordination issues to be resolved at a systems can be modified and'diverted' to
controlled mass customisation tools is bring- later stage. Expressing information as images the end of producing an architecture rooted
ingthe design of buildings much closerto from a 3D model allows the system's behav- in the construction techniques that makeit
the process of constructing them, a privilege iour to be understood from a geometrical possible.
enjoyed in the pre-industrial world of con- point of view of how the components,
struction prior to around 1920.The second assemblies or panels are set out.
essential aspect of environmental concern Traditional detail drawings can show
is of the energy consumed by the building how to describe assemblies in a way which
in use. Natural vent ilation,thermal mass and is useful when progressing from design ideas
associated issues of night-time cooling have to a design ready for construction, andthe

MCH 19
Materials 0 I
Tectonics in metal

Olympic Stadium, Tokyo, Japan. Architect: KenzoTange Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Spain.Architect: FrankGehry

Architectural interest in metals in the early striking form of construction that was char-
industrial world can be seen in the writings acteristic of later 19th century construction.
of Jean-Baptiste Rondelet, an admirer of In the 20th century, the Tokyo Olympic
industrial Britain in the early 19th century. Stadium of 1964, designed by Kenzo Tange,
His book Traite theorique et pratique de comprises st eel tension cables in a catenary
l'art de batir discussed architecture from form, support ed by concrete masts at each
the point of view as comprising a mixture of end.The complete tent-like structure is used
the visual and the technical rather than the to support a metal skin,which would typi-
prevailing values of the time of Renaissance cally be used on a rigid substrate.The metal
architecture, which were primarily of art and roof skin is actually a series of metal plates
symbolism. He also taught stereotomy, that welded to gether to form a sealed surface.
is, the art of cutting stones to form complex W elded metal roofs have been used in more
Olympic Stadium,Tokyo, Japan. shapes such as arches and vaults,which is recent projects for large-scale roofs, but few
Archit ect: Kenzo Tange
enjoying a revival wit h an interest in complex combine the possibilities of a continuous,
geometry in contemporary archit ecture.As welded metal surface with that of a skeletal
a construction textbook , the Traite theorique or tent-like structure that can form a metal
set out many of the components needed cable structure. Even the cable structure is
for a complete metal construction, such as made from short lengths bolted together to
prefabricated market buildings, showing an form a structure that can support the metal
approach towards an integrated assembly roof plates without an intermediary material.
that follows on from his passion for stereot- The metal structure and skin is not a'mini-
omy.The metal castings securing the bases mal' structure, but is certainly one where
of the supporti ng arches illustrate both the thesetwo components are interdependent.
need for the continuity of material needed The all-metal roof structure and skin is held
to fix the archesto their bases as well as in place by a reinforced concrete structure
the elegance associated with their use.The beneath,whose form echoes that of the
drawings in Rondelet's books are both a metal structure rather than contrasting visu-
'kit of parts'showing what components are ally with it.
needed as well as a 3D representation of More recently. moving structures such as
the assembly of key components.This inter- the sail-like canopy at Milwaukee Museum of
est in the physical modelling of junctions Art, designed by Santiago Calatrava,take for-
rather than in reducing them only t o 2D ward the visually dynamic qualities of metal
views helps to explainthe more complex construction.This canopy is used t o provide
nature of t he construction, whose design solar shading, and moves in order t o provide
approach is embraced rather than simplified. different experiences of light. Here a folding
The combination of rolled members, castings structure with a building performing differ-
and connecting brackets creates a visually ent functions and forming different spaces
MCH 20