Outline of this Lecture

➢ Why Layered Architecture?

➢ What is layered Approach?
➢ Basic Principles of Layered Approach
➢ Layers and Interfaces
➢ Entity and Protocols
➢ Services and Service Access Points
➢ Types of Services
➢ Service Primitives
➢ ISO’s OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model
➢ Function of different Layers of OSI model

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 Basic Concepts
➢ For successful communication, two systems must follow a common set of rules for
generating and interpreting messages
➢ The set of rules to be followed is very complex
➢ Layered approach provides a viable approach to deal with a complex problem
➢ The communication functions are partitioned into a hierarchical set of layers

Layered Approach
➢ A complex problem is divided into a number of pieces of manageable and comprehensible
size
➢ It provides structured modular approach
➢ Each module can be developed and tested independently
➢ Allows easy enhancement and implementation of the functions of a particular layer without
affecting other layers

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 Layers and Interfaces
➢ System interconnection rules are modularized in terms of a series of layers of functions, say N
layers
➢ Each layer contains a group of related functions
➢ A layer below Layer N and a Layer above Layer N are Layer (N-1) and Layer (N+1), respectively
➢ Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface
➢ Interface defines which primitive services the lower layer offers to the upper layer
➢ Layer N provides service to the Layer (N+1) through service access points
➢ Each layer adds value to the services provided by lower layers
User A User B
Layer N protocol Layer N Layer N

Layer 2 protocol Layer 2 Layer 2

Layer 1/2 Interface
Layer 1 protocol Layer 1 Layer 1
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 Entity and Protocol
➢ Data communication occurs between two entities in different systems
➢ Entity is something which is capable of sending, processing or receiving information
➢ For communication to take place the entities should follow an agreed upon protocol
➢ A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication. It defines – What, How and When
▪ Syntax: Refers to the structure or format of data
▪ Semantics: The way the bit patterns are interpreted and actions taken based on interpretation
▪ Timing: Specifies when data can be sent and how fast it can be sent
ICI SDU PDU Information Flow in a Layered
Layer N Architecture
➢ Layer N on one machine carries on conversation with Layer
SAP: Service Access Points N on other machine
(Will have address)
ICI SDU ➢ Rules and conversations used in this conversation are
Layer N-1 collectively known as layer-n protocol
H SDU PDU ➢ List of protocols used by certain system is called protocol
ICI: Interface control Information stack
SDU: Service data Unit ➢ Set of layers and protocols is the network Architecture
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PDU: Protocol Data Unit
 Architecture
➢ What is Architecture? ➢ We use the concept of layers in
➢ Architecture is a set of rules and conventions used to build something our daily life. As an example, let
us consider two friends who
➢ It does not specify implementation details
communicate through postal mail.
➢ It is a model – a framework of standard
➢ The process of sending a letter to
➢ A standard based on the model can be implemented
a friend would be complex if there
Services were no services available from
➢ Connection-Oriented Services: Modeled after telephone system the post office.
(Ex. Sequences of pages, Remote log-in, digitized voice)
➢ Connection-Less Services: Modeled after Postal System
(Ex. Electronic Junk mail, Registered Mail, Data Base Enquiry)

➢ Quality of Service
▪ Confirmed
▪ Unconfirmed

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Tasks involved in sending a letter
 THE OSI MODEL
➢ Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards.
➢ An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.

Responsibility of
The Host

Responsibility of
The Network

Seven layers of
the OSI model 6
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
 Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

➢ Concerned with transmission of raw bits over a communication channel

▪ Number of pins and function of each pin of the network connector (Mechanical)
▪ Signal Level, Data rate (Electrical)
▪ Whether simultaneous transmission in both directions (Simplex/Full-Duplex)
▪ Establishing and breaking of connection
▪ Deals with physical transmission medium
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 Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
➢ This layer transforms the physical layer to a
reliable transmission/reception of a structured
stream. The following functions are included:
▪ Framing
▪ Physical Addressing
▪ Synchronization
▪ Error Control
▪ Flow Control
▪ Character/bit-oriented
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Hop-to-hop delivery ▪ Media Access Control – ALOHA, CSMA, etc.
 Network layer
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of
individual packets from the source host to the destination
host.

➢ Responsible for source-to-destination delivery by

establishing, maintaining and terminating
connections:
▪ Logical Addressing
▪ Routing
▪ Virtual Circuits
▪ Datagram Services
▪ Assembly/disassembly of messages
▪ Message priorities
▪ Internetworking (heterogeneous)

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Source-to-destination delivery
 Transport layer
➢ Responsible for End-to-End communication:
▪ Quality of service required by the session
layer
▪ Port Addressing
▪ Multiplexes end-user addresses onto
network
▪ Segmentation and Reassembly
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of ▪ Connection Control
a message from one process to another.
▪ Monitors quality of service
▪ End-to-end error detection/recovery
▪ Multiplexing
▪ Flow control

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message 10

 Session Layer
➢ Establishes connection and termination
➢ Perform dialog management
▪ Who speaks, when, how long
▪ Simplex
▪ Half-duplex
▪ Full-duplex
➢ Recovery using check-pointing
➢ Token management
The session layer is responsible for dialog control and
synchronization.

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 Presentation layer

The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.

➢ Syntax and semantics of information

➢ Data types
➢ Character codes
➢ Data compression/Decompression
➢ Encryption/Decryption

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 Application layer
➢ Concerned with user applications
➢ Common Application Service Elements
(CASE) - login, password checks
➢ Specific Application Service Elements
(SASE)
➢ File transfer, access and management
➢ Job transfer and Manipulation
➢ Electronic mail
➢ Videotex, Teletex, Telefax, tec.
The application layer is responsible for providing
services to the user. ➢ Message handling
➢ Document Transfer

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Summary of layers

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 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
➢ The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model.
➢ The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application.
➢ However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of
five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application.
ICMP: Internet control message protocol
IGMP: Internet Group message protocol
RARP: Reverse Address Resolution
Protocol
ARP: Address Resolution Protocol
SCTP: Stream Control Transmission
TCP/IP and Protocol
OSI model TCP: Transmission Control Protocol
UDP: User Datagram Protocol
SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
FTP: File Transfer Protocol
HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol
DNS: Domain Name System
SNMP: Simple Network Management
Protocol
TELNET: Telecommunications Network
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 ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical,
port, and specific.

Addresses in TCP/IP

Relationship of layers
and addresses in TCP/IP

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 Physical Address Example
EX 1. In Figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address 87. The two
nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure shows, the computer with physical address
10 is the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.

Physical addresses

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte
(2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.
➢ The first 24 bits of a MAC address XX : XX: XX is decided by OUI (Organizationally Unique
Identifier). It represents the identity of the manufacturer.
➢ The next 24 bits of a MAC address YY : YY : YY represents the unique identity of the device. It is
assigned by the manufacturer. 17
 Logical Address Example
EX 2: Figure shows a part of an internet
with two routers connecting three LANs.
Each device (computer or router) has a pair
of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has
only one pair of addresses. Each router,
however, is connected to three networks
(only two are shown in the figure). So each
router has three pairs of addresses, one for
each connection.

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 Difference Between Physical Address and Logical Address
Physical Address Logical Address
Logical address also referred to as IP
Physical Address is the address of a node
(Internet Protocol) address is an universal
which is defined by its LAN or WAN
addressing system

Physical Address is computed by MMU. Logical Address is generated by CPU.

Found on Data Link Layer. Found on Network Layer.

Format is IPv4: 32-bit

Format is 48-bit address in hexadecimal.
IPv6: 128-bit

Physical address is not visible to users. Logical address is visible to users.

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 Port Address Example
EX 3: Figure shows two computers
communicating via the Internet. The sending
computer is running three processes at this time
with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the
sending computer needs to communicate with
process j in the receiving computer. Note that
although physical addresses change from hop to
hop, logical and port addresses remain the same
from the source to destination.

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses usuallyPort addresses
remain the same.

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal number as shown.

753
A 16-bit port address represented as one single number.
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 Difference Between IP Address and Port Number
IP Address Port Number
Internet Protocol address (IP address) used Port number is used to identify an
to identify a host in network. processes/services on your system
IPv4 is of 32 bits (4 bytes) size and for IPv6 is The Port number is 16 bits numbers.
128 bits (16 bytes).
IP address is the address of the layer-3 IP Port number is the address of the layer-4
protocol. protocols.
IP address is provided by admin of system Port number for application is provided by
or network administrator. kernel of Operating System.
ipconfig command can be used to find IP netstat command can be used to find
address . Network Statistics Including Available TCP
Ports.
IP address identify a host/computer on a Port numbers are logical interfaces used by
computer network. communication protocols.
192.168.0.2, 172.16.0.2 are some of IP 80 for HTTP, 123 for NTP, 67 and 68 for
address examples. DHCP traffic, 22 for SSH etc.
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 Difference Between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Full Form OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection
Protocol

Layers It has 7 layers It has 4 layers

Usage It is low in usage It is mostly used

Approach It is vertically approached It is horizontally approached

Delivery Delivery of the package is guaranteed in OSI Model Delivery of the package is not guaranteed in TCP/IP Model

Replacement Replacement of tools and changes can easily be done in this model Replacing the tools is not easy as it is in OSI Model

Reliability It is less reliable than TCP/IP Model It is more reliable than OSI Model

Not tied to specific protocols, but examples include HTTP

Protocol
(Application), SSL/TLS (Presentation), TCP (Transport), IP HTTP, FTP, TCP, UDP, IP, Ethernet
Example
(Network), Ethernet (Data Link)

Error Handling Built into Data Link and Transport layers Built into protocols like TCP

Connection Both connection-oriented (TCP) and connectionless (UDP)

TCP (connection-oriented), UDP (connectionless)
Orientation protocols are covered at the Transport layer
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