Introductory Chemistry, 3rd Edition

Nivaldo Tro

Chapter 13
Solutions

Roy Kennedy
Massachusetts Bay Community College
Wellesley Hills, MA
2009, Prentice Hall

Tragedy in Cameroon
• Lake Nyos
! Lake in Cameroon, West Africa.
! On August 22, 1986, 1,700 people
and 3,000 cattle died.
• Released carbon dioxide cloud.
! CO2 seeps in from underground
and dissolves in lake water to
levels above normal saturation.
! Though not toxic, CO2 is heavier
than air—the people died from
asphyxiation.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 2

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 Tragedy in Cameroon:
A Possible Solution
• Scientists have studied Lake
Nyos and similar lakes in the
region to try and keep such a
tragedy from reoccurring.
• Currently, they are trying to
keep the CO2 levels in the lake
water from reaching the very
high supersaturation levels by
venting CO2 from the lake
bottom with pipes.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 3
13

Solutions
• Homogeneous mixtures.
!Composition may vary from one sample to
another.
!Appears to be one substance, though really
contains multiple materials.
• Most homogeneous materials we encounter
are actually solutions.
!E.g., air and lake water.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 4

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 Solutions, Continued
• Solute is the dissolved substance.
!Seems to “disappear.”
!“Takes on the state” of the solvent.
• Solvent is the substance solute dissolves in.
!Does not appear to change state.
• When both solute and solvent have the same
state, the solvent is the component present in the
highest percentage.
• Solutions in which the solvent is water are called
aqueous solutions.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 5
13

Brass
Type Color % Cu % Zn Density MP Tensile Uses
g/cm3 °C strength
psi
Gilding Reddish 95 5 8.86 1066 50K Pre-83 pennies,
munitions, plaques
Commercial Bronze 90 10 8.80 1043 61K Door knobs,
grillwork
Jewelry Bronze 87.5 12.5 8.78 1035 66K Costume jewelry
Red Golden 85 15 8.75 1027 70K Electrical sockets,
fasteners, eyelets
Low Deep 80 20 8.67 999 74K Musical instruments,
yellow clock dials
Cartridge Yellow 70 30 8.47 954 76K Car radiator cores
Common Yellow 67 33 8.42 940 70K Lamp fixtures,
bead chain
Muntz metal Yellow 60 40 8.39 904 70K Nuts & bolts,
brazing rods
 Common Types of Solution
Solute Solvent
Solution phase phase phase Example
Gaseous solutions Gas Gas Air (mostly N2 and O2)
Gas Liquid Soda (CO2 in H2O)
Liquid solutions Liquid Liquid Vodka (C2H5OH in H2O)
Solid Liquid Seawater (NaCl in H2O)

Solid solutions Solid Solid Brass (Zn in Cu)

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 7

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Solubility
• When one substance (solute) dissolves in another
(solvent) it is said to be soluble.
!Salt is soluble in water.
!Bromine is soluble in methylene chloride.
• When one substance does not dissolve in another it
is said to be insoluble.
!Oil is insoluble in water.
• The solubility of one substance in another
depends on two factors: nature’s tendency
towards mixing and the types of
intermolecular attractive forces.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 8
13
 Will It Dissolve?
• Chemist’s rule of thumb:
Like dissolves like
• A chemical will dissolve in a
solvent if it has a similar structure
to the solvent.
• When the solvent and solute
structures are similar, the solvent
molecules will attract the solute
particles at least as well as the
solute particles to each other.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 9

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Classifying Solvents
Structural
Solvent Class feature
Water, H2O Polar O-H
Ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH Polar O-H
Acetone, C3H6O Polar C=O
Toluene, C7H8 Nonpolar C-C and C-H
Hexane, C6H14 Nonpolar C-C and C-H
Diethyl ether, C4H10O Nonpolar C-C, C-H,
and
C-O
 Will It Dissolve in Water?
• Ions are attracted to polar solvents.
! Many ionic compounds dissolve in water.
" Generally, if the ions total charges < 4.
• Polar molecules are attracted to polar solvents.
! Table sugar, ethyl alcohol, and glucose all dissolve well in
water.
" Have either multiple OH groups or little CH.
• Nonpolar molecules are attracted to nonpolar solvents.
! β-carotene (C40H56) is not water soluble; it dissolves in fatty
(nonpolar) tissues.
• Many molecules have both polar and nonpolar structures
—whether they will dissolve in water depends on the
kind, number, and location of polar and nonpolar
structural features in the molecule.
11

Salt Dissolving in Water

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 12

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 Solvated Ions

When materials dissolve, the solvent molecules surround the

solvent particles due to the solvent’s attractions for the solute.
This process is called solvation. Solvated ions are effectively
isolated from each other.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 13
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Practice—Decide if Each of the Following

Will Be Significantly Soluble in Water.

• potassium iodide, KI soluble.

• octane, C8H18 insoluble.
• methanol, CH3OH soluble.
• copper, Cu insoluble.
• cetyl alcohol, CH3(CH2)14CH2OH insoluble.
• iron(III) sulfide, Fe2S3 insoluble.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 14

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 Solubility
• There is usually a limit to the solubility of one
substance in another.
!Gases are always soluble in each other.
!Two liquids that are mutually soluble are said
to be miscible.
"Alcohol and water are miscible.
"Oil and water are immiscible.
• The maximum amount of solute that can be
dissolved in a given amount of solvent is called
solubility.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 15

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Descriptions of Solubility
• Saturated solutions have the maximum
amount of solute that will dissolve in that
solvent at that temperature.
• Unsaturated solutions can dissolve more
solute.
• Supersaturated solutions are holding more
solute than they should be able to at that
temperature.
!Unstable.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 16
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 Supersaturated Solution

A supersaturated solution has more dissolved solute than

the solvent can hold. When disturbed, all the solute above
the saturation level comes out of solution.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 17
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Adding Solute to various Solutions

Unsaturated

Saturated

Supersaturated

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 18

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 Electrolytes
• Electrolytes are substances whose
aqueous solution is a conductor of
electricity.
• In strong electrolytes, all the
electrolyte molecules are dissociated
into ions.
• In nonelectrolytes, none of the
molecules are dissociated into ions.
• In weak electrolytes, a small
percentage of the molecules are
dissociated into ions.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 19

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Solubility and Temperature

• The solubility of the solute in the solvent depends on the
temperature.
! Higher temperature = Higher solubility of solid in liquid.
! Lower temperature = Higher solubility of gas in liquid.

20
Solubility and Temperature, Continued

Warm soda pop fizzes more than cold soda pop because the
solubility of CO2 in water decreases as temperature increases.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 21

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Changing Temperature =
Changing Solubility
• When a solution is saturated, it is holding
the maximum amount of solute it can at that
temperature.
• If the temperature is changed, the solubility
of the solute changes.
!If a solution contains 71.3 g of NH4Cl in 100 g
of water at 90 °C, it will be saturated.
!If the temperature drops to 20 °C, the saturation
level of NH4Cl drops to 37.2 g.
!Therefore, 24.1 g of NH4Cl will precipitate.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 22
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 Purifying Solids:
Recrystallization
• When a solid precipitates from a solution, crystals
of the pure solid form by arranging the particles in
a crystal lattice.
• Formation of the crystal lattice tends to reject
impurities.
• To purify a solid, chemists often make a saturated
solution of it at high temperature; when it cools,
the precipitated solid will have much less impurity
than before.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 23
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Solubility of Gases:
Effect of Temperature
• Many gases dissolve in water.
!However, most have very limited solubility.
• The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases
as the temperature increases.
!Bubbles seen when tap water is heated (before
the water boils) are gases that are dissolved,
coming out of the solution.
!Opposite of solids.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 24

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 Solubility of Gases:
Effect of Pressure
• The solubility of a gas is directly
proportional to its partial pressure.
!Henry’s law.
!The solubility of solid is not effected by
pressure.
• The solubility of a gas in a liquid increases
as the pressure increases.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 25

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Solubility and Pressure

• The solubility of gases in water depends on the
pressure of the gas.
• Higher pressure = higher solubility.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 26

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Solubility and Pressure, Continued

When soda pop is sealed, the CO2 is under pressure.

Opening the container lowers the pressure, which decreases
the solubility of CO2 and causes bubbles to form.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 27

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Solution Concentrations

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 28

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 Describing Solutions
• Solutions have variable composition.
• To describe a solution, you need to describe
both the components and their relative
amounts.
• Dilute solutions have low amounts of
solute per amount of solution.
• Concentrated solutions have high
amounts of solute per amount of solution.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 29

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Concentrations—Quantitative
Descriptions of Solutions
• A more precise method for describing a
solution is to quantify the amount of solute
in a given amount of solution.
• Concentration = Amount of solute in a
given amount of solution.
!Occasionally amount of solvent.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 30

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 Mass Percent
• Parts of solute in every 100 parts solution.
! If a solution is 0.9% by mass, then there are 0.9 grams of
solute in every 100 grams of solution.
" Or 10 kg solute in every 100 kg solution.
• Since masses are additive, the mass of the solution
is the sum of the masses of solute and solvent.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 31

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Example 13.1—Calculate the Mass Percent of a

Solution Containing 27.5 g of Ethanol in 175 mL H2O.
Given: 27.5 g ethanol, 202.5
175 mLg solution
H2O
Find: % by mass
Solution Map: gmL
EtOH,
H2O g H2O g H2O g sol’n %

Relationships: 1 mL H2O = 1.00 g

Solve:

Check: The answer seems reasonable as it is less than 100%.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 32

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Example 13.1:
• Calculate the mass percent of a solution containing 27.5 g
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175 mL of H2O. (Assume the
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.)

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 33

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Example:
Calculate the mass percent of
a solution containing 27.5 g
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175
mL of H2O. (Assume the
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.)

• Write down the given quantity and its units.

Given: 27.5 g C2H6O
175 mL H2O

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 34

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Example: Information:
Calculate the mass percent of Given: 27.5 g C2H6O; 175 mL H2O
a solution containing 27.5 g
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175
mL of H2O. (Assume the
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.)

• Write down the quantity to find and/or its units.

Find: mass percent

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 35

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Example: Information:
Calculate the mass percent of Given: 27.5 g C2H6O; 175 mL H2O
a solution containing 27.5 g Find: % by mass
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175
mL of H2O. (Assume the
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.)

• Collect needed equations:

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 36

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Example: Information:
Calculate the mass percent of Given: 27.5 g C2H6O; 175 mL H2O
a solution containing 27.5 g Find: % by mass
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175
Equation:
mL of H2O. (Assume the
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.)

• Collect needed conversion factors:

d(H2O) = 1.00 g/mL ∴ 1.00 g H2O = 1 mL H2O

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 37

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Example: Information:
Calculate the mass percent of Given: 27.5 g C2H6O; 175 mL H2O
a solution containing 27.5 g Find: % by mass
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175 Equation:
mL of H2O. (Assume the Conversion Factor:
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.) 1.00 g H2O = 1 mL H2O

• Design a solution map:

Mass Solute & Vol Solvent Mass Percent

density

Mass Solvent Mass Solution

Solution =
solute + solvent
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 38
13
 Information:
Example: Given: 27.5 g C2H6O; 175 mL H2O
Calculate the mass percent of Find: % by mass
a solution containing 27.5 g Equation:
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175 Conversion Factor:
mL of H2O. (Assume the 1.00 g H2O = 1 mL H2O
Solution Map:
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.) mass solution and volume solvent →
mass solvent → mass solution → mass percent

• Apply the solution maps:

Mass of solution = mass C2H6O + mass H2O

= 27.5 g C2H6O + 175 g H2O
= 202.5 g
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 39
13

Information:
Example: Given: 27.5 g C2H6O; 175 mL H2O
Calculate the mass percent of Find: % by mass
a solution containing 27.5 g Equation:
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175 Conversion Factor:
mL of H2O. (Assume the 1.00 g H2O = 1 mL H2O
Solution Map:
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.) mass solution and volume solvent →
mass solvent → mass solution → mass percent

• Apply the solution maps and equation:

= 13.5802%
= 13.6%
40
 Information:
Example: Given: 27.5 g C2H6O; 175 mL H2O
Calculate the mass percent of Find: % by mass
a solution containing 27.5 g Equation:
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175 Conversion Factor:
mL of H2O. (Assume the 1.00 g H2O = 1 mL H2O
Solution Map:
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.) mass solution and volume solvent → mass solvent
→ mass solution → mass percent

• Check the solution:

mass percent = 13.6%

The units of the answer, %, are correct.

The magnitude of the answer makes sense
since the mass of solute is
less than the mass of solvent.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 41
13

Practice—Calculate the Mass Percent of a Solution that

Has 10.0 g of I2 Dissolved in 150.0 g of Ethanol.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 42

13
Practice—Calculate the Mass Percent of a Solution that
Has 10.0 g of I2 Dissolved in 150.0 g of Ethanol,
Continued
Given: 10.0 g I2, 160.0
150.0 g solution
ethanol H2O
Find: % by mass
Solution Map: g EtOH, g H2O g sol’n %

Relationships:
Solve:

Check: The answer seems reasonable as it is less than 100%.

Using Concentrations as
Conversion Factors
• Concentrations show the relationship between
the amount of solute and the amount of solvent.
! 12% by mass sugar (aq) means 12 g sugar ≡ 100 g solution.
• The concentration can then be used to convert
the amount of solute into the amount of
solution or visa versa.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 44

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 Example 13.2—What Volume of 11.5% by Mass
Soda Contains 85.2 g of Sucrose?
Given: 85.2 g sugar
Find: volume, mL
Solution Map: g solute g sol’n mL sol’n

Relationships: 100 g sol’n = 11.5 g sugar, 1 mL solution = 1.00 g

Solve:

Check: The unit is correct. The magnitude seems reasonable

as the mass of sugar ≈ 10% the volume of solution.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 45
13

Example 13.2:
• A soft drink contains 11.5% sucrose (C12H22O11) by
mass. What volume of soft drink in milliliters contains
85.2 g of sucrose? (Assume the density is 1.00 g/mL.)

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 46

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Example:
A soft drink contains 11.5%
sucrose (C12H22O11) by mass.
What volume of soft drink in
milliliters contains 85.2 g of
sucrose? (Assume the density
is 1.00 g/mL.)
• Write down the given quantity and its units.
Given: 85.2 g C12H22O11

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 47

13

Example: Information:
A soft drink contains 11.5% Given: 85.2 g C12H22O11
sucrose (C12H22O11) by mass.
What volume of soft drink in
milliliters contains 85.2 g of
sucrose? (Assume the density
is 1.00 g/mL.)
• Write down the quantity to find and/or its units.
Find: volume of solution, mL

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 48

13
Example: Information:
A soft drink contains 11.5% Given: 85.2 g C12H22O11
sucrose (C12H22O11) by mass. Find: mL solution
What volume of soft drink in
milliliters contains 85.2 g of
sucrose? (Assume the density
is 1.00 g/mL.)
• Collect needed conversion factors:

11.5% by mass ∴ 11.5 g C12H22O11 ≡ 100 g solution

d = 1.00 g/mL ∴ 1.00 g solution = 1 mL solution

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 49

13

Example: Information:
A soft drink contains 11.5% Given: 85.2 g C12H22O11
sucrose (C12H22O11) by mass. Find: mL solution
What volume of soft drink in Conversion Factors:
milliliters contains 85.2 g of 11.5 g C12H22O11 ≡ 100 g solution
sucrose? (Assume the density 1.00 g solution = 1 mL solution
is 1.00 g/mL.)
• Design a solution map:

Mass Solute Volume Solution

Mass
Density
percent
Mass Solution

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 50

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Example: Information:
Given: 85.2 g C12H22O11
A soft drink contains 11.5%
Find: mL solution
sucrose (C12H22O11) by Conversion Factors:
mass. What volume of soft 11.5 g C12H22O11 ≡ 100 g solution
drink in milliliters contains 1.00 g solution = 1 mL solution
85.2 g of sucrose? (Assume Solution Map:
the density is 1.00 g/mL.) g sucrose → g solution → mL solution

• Apply the solution map:

= 740.87 mL
= 741 mL

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 51

13

Example: Information:
Given: 85.2 g C12H22O11
A soft drink contains 11.5%
Find: mL solution
sucrose (C12H22O11) by Conversion Factors:
mass. What volume of soft 11.5 g C12H22O11 ≡ 100 g solution
drink in milliliters contains 1.00 g solution = 1 mL solution
85.2 g of sucrose? (Assume Solution Map:
the density is 1.00 g/mL.) g sucrose → g solution → mL solution

• Check the solution:

volume of solution = 741 mL

The units of the answer, mL, are correct.

The magnitude of the answer makes sense
since the mass of solute is
less than the volume of solution.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 52
13
 Practice—Milk Is 4.5% by Mass Lactose.
Determine the Mass of Lactose in 175 g of Milk.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 53

13

Practice—Milk Is 4.5% by Mass Lactose.

Determine the Mass of Lactose in 175 g of Milk,
Continued.
Given: 175 g milk ≡ 175 g solution
Find: g lactose
Equivalence: 4.5 g lactose ≡ 100 g solution
Solution Map: g solution g Lactose

Apply Solution Map:

Check Answer:
Units are correct. Number makes sense because lactose is a
component of the mixture, therefore, its amount should be less.
 Preparing a Solution
• Need to know amount of solution and
concentration of solution.
• Calculate the mass of solute needed.
!Start with amount of solution.
!Use concentration as a conversion factor.
"5% by mass ⇒ 5 g solute ≡ 100 g solution.
!“Dissolve the grams of solute in enough solvent to
total the total amount of solution.”

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 55

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Example—How Would You Prepare 250.0 g of

5.00% by Mass Glucose Solution (Normal
Glucose)?
Given: 250.0 g solution
Find: g glucose
Equivalence: 5.00 g glucose ≡ 100 g solution
Solution Map:
g solution g glucose

Apply Solution Map:

Answer: Dissolve 12.5 g of glucose in enough water to

total 250.0 g.
 Practice—How Would You Prepare 450.0 g of
15.0% by Mass Aqueous Ethanol?

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 57

13

Practice—How Would You Prepare 450.0 g of

15.0% by Mass Aqueous Ethanol?, Continued
Given: 450.0 g solution
Find: g ethanol (EtOH)
Equivalence: 15.0 g EtOH ≡ 100 g solution
Solution map:
g solution g EtOH

Apply solution map:

Answer:
Dissolve 67.5 g of ethanol in enough water to total 450.0 g.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 58
13
 Solution Concentration
Molarity
• Moles of solute per 1 liter of solution.
• Used because it describes how many molecules
of solute in each liter of solution.
• If a sugar solution concentration is 2.0 M , 1 liter
of solution contains 2.0 moles of sugar, 2 liters =
4.0 moles sugar, 0.5 liters = 1.0 mole sugar:
moles of solute
Molarity =
liters of solution
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 59
13

Preparing a 1.00 M NaCl Solution

Weigh out Add water to

1 mole (58.45 g) dissolve the
of NaCl and add NaCl, then
it to a 1.00 L add water to Swirl to mix.
volumetric flask. the mark.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 60
13
 Example 13.3—Calculate the Molarity of a Solution
Made by Dissolving 15.5 g of NaCl in 1.50 L of Solution
Given: 15.5 g NaCl, 1.50 L solution
Find: M
Solution Map: g NaCl mol NaCl
L solution M

Relationships: M = mol/L, 1 mol NaCl = 58.44 g

Solve:

Check: The unit is correct, the magnitude is reasonable.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 61

13

Example 13.3:
• Calculate the molarity of a solution made by putting
15.5 g of NaCl into a beaker and adding water to make
1.50 L of NaCl solution.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 62

13
Example:
Calculate the molarity of a
solution made by putting
15.5 g of NaCl into a beaker
and adding water to make
1.50 L of NaCl solution.

• Write down the given quantity and its units.

Given: 15.5 g NaCl
1.50 L solution

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 63

13

Example: Information:
Calculate the molarity of a Given: 15.5 g NaCl; 1.50 L solution
solution made by putting
15.5 g of NaCl into a beaker
and adding water to make
1.50 L of NaCl solution.

• Write down the quantity to find and/or its units.

Find: molarity (M)

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 64

13
Example: Information:
Calculate the molarity of a Given: 15.5 g NaCl; 1.50 L solution
solution made by putting Find: molarity, M
15.5 g of NaCl into a beaker
and adding water to make
1.50 L of NaCl solution.

• Collect needed equations and conversion factors:

Molar mass NaCl = 58.44 g/mol ∴ 58.44 g NaCl = 1 mol.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 65

13

Example: Information:
Calculate the molarity of a Given: 15.5 g NaCl; 1.50 L solution
solution made by putting Find: molarity, M
15.5 g of NaCl into a beaker
Conversion Factors: 58.44 g = 1 mol
and adding water to make
NaCl;
1.50 L of NaCl solution.

• Design a solution map:

Mass solute Mole solute

Molarity

Volume solution L solution

Already
liters
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 66
13
Example: Information:
Calculate the molarity of a Given: 15.5 g NaCl; 1.50 L solution
solution made by putting Find: molarity, M
15.5 g of NaCl into a beaker
Conversion Factors: 58.44 g = 1 mol
and adding water to make
NaCl;
1.50 L of NaCl solution.

• Apply the solution map:

= 0.177 M NaCl

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 67

13

Example: Information:
Calculate the molarity of a Given: 15.5 g NaCl; 1.50 L solution
solution made by putting Find: molarity, M
15.5 g of NaCl into a beaker
Conversion Factors: 58.44 g = 1 mol
and adding water to make
NaCl;
1.50 L of NaCl solution.

• Check the solution:

Molarity of solution = 0.177 M

The units of the answer, M, are correct.

The magnitude of the answer makes sense
since the mass of solute is less than the 1 mole
and the volume is more than 1 L.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 68
13
 Practice—What Is the Molarity of a Solution
Containing 3.4 g of NH3 (MM 17.03) in 200.0 mL
of Solution?

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 69

13

Practice—What Is the Molarity of a Solution

Containing 3.4 g of NH3 (MM 17.03) in 200.0 mL of
Solution?, Continued
Given: 3.4 g NH3, 200.0 mL solution
Find: M
Solution Map: g NH3 mol NH3
mL sol’n L sol’n M

Relationships: M = mol/L, 1 mol NH3 = 17.03 g, 1 mL = 0.001 L

Solve:

Check: The unit is correct, the magnitude is reasonable.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 70

13
 Using Concentrations as
Conversion Factors
• Concentrations show the relationship between the
amount of solute and the amount of solvent.
! 0.12 M sugar (aq) means 0.12 mol sugar ≡ 1.0 L solution.
• The concentration can then be used to convert the moles
of solute into the liters of solution, or visa versa.
• Since we normally measure the amount of solute in
grams, we will need to convert between grams and
moles.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 71

13

Example 13.4—How Many Liters of a 0.114 M

NaOH Solution Contains 1.24 mol of NaOH?
Given: 1.24 mol NaOH
Find: volume, L
Solution Map: mol NaOH L solution

Relationships: 1.00 L solution = 0.114 mol NaOH

Solve:

Check: The unit is correct, the magnitude seems reasonable as

the moles of NaOH > 10x the amount in 1 L.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 72
13
Example 13.4:
• How many liters of a 0.114 M NaOH solution contains
1.24 mol of NaOH?

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 73

13

Example:
How many liters of a
0.114 M NaOH solution
contains 1.24 mol of
NaOH?

• Write down the given quantity and its units.

Given: 1.24 mol NaOH

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 74

13
Example: Information:
How many liters of a Given: 1.24 mol NaOH
0.114 M NaOH solution
contains 1.24 mol of
NaOH?

• Write down the quantity to find and/or its units.

Find: volume of solution (L)

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 75

13

Example: Information:
How many liters of a Given: 1.24 mol NaOH
0.114 M NaOH solution Find: L solution
contains 1.24 mol of
NaOH?

• Collect needed conversion factors:

Molarity = 0.114 mol/L ∴ 0.114 mol NaOH = 1 L solution.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 76

13
Example: Information:
How many liters of a Given: 1.24 mol NaOH
0.114 M NaOH solution Find: L solution
contains 1.24 mol of
Conversion Factor:
NaOH?
0.114 mol = 1 L

• Design a solution map:

Mole solute L solution

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 77

13

Example: Information:
How many liters of a Given: 1.24 mol NaOH
0.114 M NaOH solution Find: L solution
contains 1.24 mol of Conversion Factor:
NaOH? 0.114 mol = 1 L
Solution Map: mol → L

• Apply the solution map:

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 78

13
Example: Information:
How many liters of a Given: 1.24 mol NaOH
0.114 M NaOH solution Find: L solution
contains 1.24 mol of Conversion Factor:
NaOH? 0.114 mol = 1 L
Solution Map: mol → L

• Check the solution:

Volume of solution = 10.9 L

The units of the answer, L, are correct.

The magnitude of the answer makes sense.
Since 1 L only contains 0.114 moles,
the volume must be more than 1 L.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 79
13

Practice—Determine the Mass of CaCl2

(MM = 110.98) in 1.75 L of 1.50 M Solution.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 80

13
 Practice—Determine the Mass of CaCl2
(MM = 110.98) in 1.75 L of 1.50 M Solution,
Continued.
Given: 1.75 L solution
Find: g CaCl2
Equivalence: 1.50 mol CaCl2 ≡ 1 L solution; 110.98 g = 1 mol CaCl2
Solution Map:
L solution mol CaCl2 g CaCl2

Apply Solution Map:

Check Answer:
Units are correct.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 81
13

Practice—How Many Grams of CuSO4•5 H2O

(MM 249.69) are in 250.0 mL of a 1.00 M Solution?

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 82

13
 Practice—How Many Grams of CuSO4•5 H2O
(MM 249.69) are in 250.0 mL of a 1.00 M
Solution?, Continued
Given: 250.0 mL solution
Find: mass CuSO4• 5 H2O, g
Solution Map: mL sol’n L sol’n mol CuSO4 g CuSO4

Relationships: 1.00 L solution = 1.00 mol; 1 mL = 0.001 L; 1 mol = 249.69 g

Solve:

Check: The unit is correct, the magnitude seems reasonable as

the volume is ¼ of a liter.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 83
13

Example—How Would You Prepare 250 mL

of 0.20 M NaCl?
Given: 250 mL solution
Find: g NaCl
Equivalence: 0.20 moles NaCl ≡ 1 L solution; 0.001 L = 1 mL;
58.44 g = 1 mol NaCl
Solution Map:
mL L moles g
solution solution NaCl NaCl

Apply Solution Map:

Answer:
Dissolve 2.9 g of NaCl in enough water to total 250 mL.
84
 Practice—How Would You Prepare 100.0 mL
of 0.100 M K2SO4 (MM = 174.26)?

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 85

13

Practice—How Would You Prepare 100.0 mL

of 0.100 M K2SO4 (MM = 174.26)?, Continued
Given: 100.0 mL solution
Find: g K2SO4
Equivalence: 0.100 moles K2SO4 ≡ 1 L solution; 0.001 L = 1 mL;
174.26 g = 1 mol K2SO4
Solution map:
mL L moles g
solution solution K2SO4 K2SO4

Apply solution map:

Answer:
Dissolve 1.74 g of K2SO4 in enough water to total 100.0 mL.
86
 Molarity and Dissociation
• When strong electrolytes dissolve, all the
solute particles dissociate into ions.
• By knowing the formula of the compound
and the molarity of the solution, it is easy to
determine the molarity of the dissociated
ions. Simply multiply the salt concentration
by the number of ions.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 87

13

Molarity and Dissociation

NaCl(aq) = Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
1 “molecule” = 1 ion + 1 ion
100 “molecules” = 100 ions + 100 ions
1 mole “molecules” = 1 mole ions + 1 mole ions

1 M NaCl “molecules” = 1 M Na+ ions + 1 M Cl- ions

0.25 M NaCl = 0.25 M Na+ + 0.25 M Cl-

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 88

13
 Molarity and Dissociation,
Continued
CaCl2(aq) = Ca2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)
1 “molecule” = 1 ion + 2 ion
100 “molecules” = 100 ions + 200 ions
1 mole “molecules” = 1 mole ions + 2 mole ions
1 M CaCl2 = 1 M Ca2+ ions + 2 M Cl- ions

0.25 M CaCl2 = 0.25 M Ca2+ + 0.50 M Cl-

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 89

13

Example 13.5—Determine the Molarity of the

Ions in a 0.150 M Na3PO4(aq) Solution.
Given: 0.150 M Na3PO4(aq)
Find: concentration of Na+ and PO43−, M

Relationships: Na3PO4(aq) → 3 Na+(aq) + PO43−(aq)

Solve:

Check: The unit is correct, the magnitude seems reasonable as

the ion molarities are at least as large as the Na3PO4.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 90
13
Practice—Find the Molarity of All Ions in the
Given Solutions of Strong Electrolytes.

• 0.25 M MgBr2(aq).

• 0.33 M Na2CO3(aq).

• 0.0750 M Fe2(SO4)3(aq).

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 91

13

Practice—Find the Molarity of All Ions in the

Given Solutions of Strong Electrolytes,
Continued.
• MgBr2(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + 2 Br-(aq)
0.25 M 0.25 M 0.50 M

• Na2CO3(aq) → 2 Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq)

0.33 M 0.66 M 0.33 M

• Fe2(SO4)3(aq) → 2 Fe3+(aq) + 3 SO42-(aq)

0.0750 M 0.150 M 0.225 M
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 92
13
 Dilution
• Dilution is adding extra solvent to decrease the
concentration of a solution.
• The amount of solute stays the same, but the
concentration decreases.
• Dilution Formula:
Concstart solnx Volstart soln = Concfinal solnx Volfinal sol
• Concentrations and volumes can be most units as
long as they are consistent.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 93

13

Example—What Volume of 12.0 M KCl Is

Needed to Make 5.00 L of 1.50 M KCl Solution?
Given:
Initial solution Final solution
Concentration 12.0 M 1.50 M
Volume ?L 5.00 L
Find: L of initial KCl
Equation: (conc1)·(vol1) = (conc2)·(vol2)
Rearrange and apply equation:

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 94

13
 Making a Solution by Dilution
M1 x V1 = M2 x V2
M1 = 12.0 M V1 = ? L
M2 = 1.50 M V2 = 5.00 L

Dilute 0.625 L of 12.0 M solution to 5.00 L.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 95

13

Example—Dilution Problems
• What is the concentration of a solution made by
diluting 15 mL of 5.0% sugar to 135 mL?
M1 = 5.0 % M2 = ? %
V1 = 15 mL V2 = 135 mL
(5.0%)(15 mL) = M2 x (135 mL)
M2 = 0.55%
• How would you prepare 200 mL of 0.25 M
NaCl solution from a 2.0 M solution?
M1 = 2.0 M M2 = 0.25 M (2.0 M) x V1 = (0.25 M)(200 mL)
V1 = ? mL V2 = 200 mL V1 = 25 mL
Dilute 25 mL of 2.0 M NaCl solution to 200 mL.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 96
13
 Practice—Determine the Concentration of
the Following Solutions.
• Made by diluting 125 mL of 0.80 M HCl to 500 mL.

• Made by adding 200 mL of water to 800 mL of 400 ppm.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 97

13

Practice—Determine the Concentration of

the Following Solutions, Continued.
• Made by diluting 125 mL of 0.80 M HCl to 500 mL.
M1 = 0.80 M M2 = ? M
V1 = 125 mLV2 = 500 mL
(0.80 M)(125 mL) = M2 x (500 mL)
M2 = 0.20 M
• Made by adding 200 mL of water to 800 mL of 400 ppm.
M1 = 400 ppm M2 = ? ppm
V1 = 800 mLV2 = 200 + 800 mL
(400 PPM)(800 mL) = M2 x (1000 mL)
M2 = 320 PPM
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 98
13
 Example—To What Volume Should You Dilute
0.200 L of 15.0 M NaOH to Make 3.00 M NaOH?
• Sort Given: V1 = 0.200L, M1 = 15.0 M, M2 = 3.00 M
information. Find: V2, L
• Strategize. Solution Map:
V1, M1, M2 V2

Relationships: M1V1 = M2V2

• Follow the Solve:
solution map
to Solve the
problem.
• Check. Check: Since the solution is diluted by a factor
of 5, the volume should increase by a
factor of 5, and it does.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 99
13

Practice Question 1—How Would You Prepare

400 mL of a 4.0% Solution From a 12% Solution?

Practice Question 2—How Would You Prepare 250

mL of a 3.0% Solution From a 7.5% Solution?

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 100

13
 Practice Question 1—How Would You Prepare
400 ML of a 4.0% Solution From a 12%
Solution?, Continued
M1 = 12 % M2 = 4.0 % (12%) x V1 = (4.0%)(400 mL)
V1 = ? mL V2 = 400 mL V1 = 133 mL
Dilute 133 mL of 12% solution to 400 mL.
Practice Question 2—How Would You Prepare 250
ML of a 3.0% Solution From a 7.5% Solution?,
Continued
M1 = 7.5 % M2 = 3.0 % (7.5%) x V1 = (3.0%)(250 mL)
V1 = ? mL V2 = 250 mL V1 = 100 mL
Dilute 100 mL of 7.5% solution to 250 mL.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 101
13

Solution Stoichiometry
• We know that the balanced chemical equation
tells us the relationship between moles of
reactants and products in a reaction.
!2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l) implies that for every 2
moles of H2 you use, you need 1 mole of O2 and will
make 2 moles of H2O.
• Since molarity is the relationship between moles
of solute and liters of solution, we can now
measure the moles of a material in a reaction in
solution by knowing its molarity and volume.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 102
13
 Example 13.7—How Many Liters of 0.115 M KI Is
Needed to React with 0.104 L of a 0.225 M Pb(NO3)2?
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)→ 2 KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)
Given: 0.104 L Pb(NO3)2
Find: L KI
Solution Map: L mol mol L
Pb(NO3)2 Pb(NO3)2 KI KI

Relationships: 0.225 mol Pb(NO3)2 = 1 L; 2 mol KI = 1 mol Pb(NO3)2;

0.115 mol KI = 1 L
Solve:

Check: The unit is correct.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 103

13

Example 13.7:
• How much 0.115 M KI solution, in liters, is required to
completely precipitate all the Pb2+ in 0.104 L of 0.225 M
Pb(NO3)2?
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 104

13
Example:
How much 0.115 M KI
solution, in liters, is required
to completely precipitate all
the Pb2+ in 0.104 L of
0.225 M Pb(NO3)2?
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) →
PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)

• Write down the given quantity and its units.

Given: 0.104 L Pb(NO3)2

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 105

13

Example: Information:
How much 0.115 M KI Given: 0.104 L Pb(NO3)2
solution, in liters, is required
to completely precipitate all
the Pb2+ in 0.104 L of
0.225 M Pb(NO3)2?
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) →
PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)

• Write down the quantity to find and/or its units.

Find: volume of KI solution, L

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 106

13
Example: Information:
How much 0.115 M KI Given: 0.104 L Pb(NO3)2
solution, in liters, is required Find: L KI
to completely precipitate all
the Pb2+ in 0.104 L of
0.225 M Pb(NO3)2?
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) →
PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)

• Collect needed conversion factors:

0.115 M KI ∴ 0.115 mol KI ≡ 1 L solution.

0.225 M Pb(NO3)2 ∴ 0.225 mol Pb(NO3)2 ≡ 1 L solution.

Chemical equation ∴ 2 mol KI ≡ 1 mol Pb(NO3)2.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 107

13

Example: Information:
How much 0.115 M KI Given: 0.104 L Pb(NO3)2
solution, in liters, is required Find: L KI
to completely precipitate all Conversion Factors:
the Pb2+ in 0.104 L of 0.115 mol KI ≡ 1 L solution
0.225 M Pb(NO3)2? 0.225 mol Pb(NO3)2 ≡ 1 L solution
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → 2 mol KI ≡ 1 mol Pb(NO3)2
PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)

• Design a solution map:

L Pb(NO3)2 mol Pb(NO3)2

mol KI L KI

108
 Information:
Example:
Given: 0.104 L Pb(NO3)2
How much 0.115 M KI Find: L KI
solution, in liters, is required Conversion Factors:
to completely precipitate all 0.115 mol KI ≡ 1 L solution
the Pb2+ in 0.104 L of 0.225 mol Pb(NO3)2 ≡ 1 L solution
0.225 M Pb(NO3)2? 2 mol KI ≡ 1 mol Pb(NO3)2
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → Solution Map:
L Pb(NO3)2 → mol Pb(NO3)2 →
PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
mol KI → L KI

• Apply the solution map:

= 0.40696 L
= 0.407 L

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 109

13

Information:
Example:
Given: 0.104 L Pb(NO3)2
How much 0.115 M KI Find: L KI
solution, in liters, is required Conversion Factors:
to completely precipitate all 0.115 mol KI ≡ 1 L solution
the Pb2+ in 0.104 L of 0.225 mol Pb(NO3)2 ≡ 1 L solution
0.225 M Pb(NO3)2? 2 mol KI ≡ 1 mol Pb(NO3)2
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → Solution Map:
L Pb(NO3)2 → mol Pb(NO3)2 →
PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
mol KI → L KI

• Check the solution:

Volume of KI solution required = 0.407 L.
The units of the answer, L KI solution, are correct.
The magnitude of the answer makes sense
since the molarity of Pb(NO3)2 is larger than KI
and it takes 2x as many moles of KI as Pb(NO3)2,
the volume of KI solution should be larger than the volume of Pb(NO3)2.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 110
13
 Practice—How Many Liters of 0.0623 M
Ba(OH)2(aq) Are Needed to React with 0.438 L of
0.107 M HCl?
Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2 HCl(aq) → BaCl2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 111

13

Practice—How Many Liters of 0.0623 M Ba(OH)2(aq) Are

Needed to React with 0.438 L of 0.107 M HCl?
Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2 HCl(aq) → BaCl2(aq) + 2 H2O(l), Continued
Given: 0.0.438 L HCl
Find: L Ba(OH)2
Solution Map: L mol mol L
HCl HCl Ba(OH)2 Ba(OH)2

Relationships: 0.0623 mol Ba(OH)2 = 1 L; 2 mol HCl= 1 mol Ba(OH)2;

0.107 mol HCl = 1 L
Solve:

Check: The unit is correct.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 112

13
 Why Do We Do That?
• We spread salt on icy roads and
walkways to melt the ice.
• We add antifreeze to car radiators
to prevent the water from boiling
or freezing.
! Antifreeze is mainly ethylene
glycol.
• When we add solutes to water, it
changes the freezing point and
boiling point of the water.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 113

13

Colligative Properties
• The properties of the solution are different
from the properties of the solvent.
• Any property of a solution whose value
depends only on the number of dissolved solute
particles is called a colligative property.
!It does not depend on what the solute particle is.
• The freezing point, boiling point, and osmotic
pressure of a solution are colligative properties.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 114

13
 Solution Concentration
Molality, m
• Moles of solute per 1 kilogram of solvent.
!Defined in terms of amount of solvent, not
solution.
!Does not vary with temperature.
"Because based on masses, not volumes.

Mass of solution = volume of solution x density.

Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 115
13

Example 13.8—What Is the Molality of a Solution

Prepared by Mixing 17.2 g of C2H6O2 with
0.500 kg of H2O?
Given: 17.2 g C2H6O2, 0.500 kg H2O
Find: m
Concept Plan: g C2H6O2 mol C2H6O2
kg H2O m

Relationships: m = mol/kg, 1 mol C2H6O2 = 62.07 g

Solve:

Check: The unit is correct, the magnitude is reasonable.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 116

13
Example 13.8:
• Calculate the molality of a solution containing 17.2 g of
ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) dissolved in 0.500 kg of water.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 117

13

Example:
Calculate the molality of a
solution containing 17.2 g of
ethylene glycol (C2H6O2)
dissolved in 0.500 kg of
water.

• Write down the given quantity and its units.

Given: 17.2 g C2H6O2
0.500 kg H2O

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 118

13
Example: Information:
Calculate the molality of a Given: 17.2 g C2H6O2; 0.500 kg H2O
solution containing 17.2 g of
ethylene glycol (C2H6O2)
dissolved in 0.500 kg of
water.

• Write down the quantity to find and/or its units.

Find: molality (m)

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 119

13

Example: Information:
Calculate the molality of a Given: 17.2 g C2H6O2; 0.500 kg H2O
solution containing 17.2 g of Find: molality, m
ethylene glycol (C2H6O2)
dissolved in 0.500 kg of
water.

• Collect needed equations and conversion factors:

Molar Mass C2H6O2 = 62.08 g/mol ∴ 62.08 g C2H6O2 = 1 mol.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 120

13
Example: Information:
Calculate the molality of a Given: 17.2 g C2H6O2; 0.500 kg H2O
solution containing 17.2 g of Find: molality, m
ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) Conversion Factors:
dissolved in 0.500 kg of 62.08 g C2H6O2 = 1 mol
water.

• Design a solution map:

Mass solute Mole solute

Molality

Mass solvent kg solvent

Already
kg
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 121
13

Example: Information:
Calculate the molality of a Given: 17.2 g C2H6O2; 0.500 kg H2O
solution containing 17.2 g of Find: molality, m
ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) Conversion Factors:
dissolved in 0.500 kg of 62.08 g C2H6O2 = 1 mol
water.

• Apply the solution map:

= 0.554 m C2H6O2

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 122

13
Example: Information:
Calculate the molality of a Given: 17.2 g C2H6O2; 0.500 kg H2O
solution containing 17.2 g of Find: molality, m
ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) Conversion Factors:
dissolved in 0.500 kg of 62.08 g C2H6O2 = 1 mol
water.

• Check the solution:

Molality of solution = 0.554 m.

The units of the answer, m, are correct.

The magnitude of the answer makes sense
since the mass of solute is less than the ½ mole
and the mass of solvent is ½ kg.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 123
13

Practice—What Is the Molality of a Solution that Is

Made by Dissolving 3.4 g of NH3 (MM 17.03) in
1500 mL of H2O (d =1.00 g/mL).

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 124

13
Practice—What Is the Molality of a Solution that Is Made
by Dissolving 3.4 g of NH3 (MM 17.03) in 1500 mL of
H2O (d =1.00 g/mL), Continued.
Given: 3.4 g NH3, 1500 mL H2O
Find: m
Solution Map: g NH3 mol NH3
mL H2O g H2O kg H2O m
m = mol/kg, 1 mol NH3 = 17.03 g, 1 kg = 1000g, 1.00 g = 1 mL
Relationships:
Solve:

Check: The unit is correct, the magnitude is reasonable.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 125

13

Freezing Points of Solutions

• The freezing point of a solution is always lower
than the freezing point of a pure solvent.
! Freezing point depression.
• The difference between the freezing points of the
solution and pure solvent is directly proportional
to the molal concentration.
• ΔTf = m x Kf
! Kf = freezing point constant.
• Used to determine molar mass of compounds.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 126

13
Freezing and Boiling Point Constants

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 127

13

Example 13.9—What Is the Freezing Point of a 1.7 m

Aqueous Ethylene Glycol Solution, C2H6O2?
Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2(aq)
Find: Tf, °C
Solution Map: m ΔTf FP
FPsolv − FPsol’n = ΔT

Relationships: ΔTf = m ·Kf, Kf for H2O = 1.86 °C/m, FPH2O = 0.00 °C

Solve:

Check: The unit is correct, the freezing point being lower

than the normal freezing point makes sense.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 128
13
Example 13.9:
• Calculate the freezing point of a 1.7 m ethylene glycol
solution.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 129

13

Example:
Calculate the freezing point of
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol
solution.

• Write down the given quantity and its units.

Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 130

13
Example: Information:
Calculate the freezing point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol
solution.

• Write down the quantity to find and/or its units.

Find: freezing point (°C)

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 131

13

Example: Information:
Calculate the freezing point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: FP (°C)
solution.

• Collect needed equations:

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 132

13
Example: Information:
Calculate the freezing point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: FP (°C)
solution. Equations:
( (ΔTf = m · Kf;
FPsolution = FPsolvent - ΔTf

• Design a solution map:

Molality ΔTf FPsolution

ΔTf = m · Kf FPsolution = FPsolvent - ΔTf

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 133

13

Example: Information:
Calculate the freezing point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: FP (°C)
solution. Equation: ΔTf = m · Kf;
FPsolution = FPsolvent – ΔTf
Solution Map: m → ΔTf → FPsolution

• Apply the solution map:

134
Example: Information:
Calculate the freezing point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: FP (°C)
solution. Equation: ΔTf = m · Kf;
FPsolution = FPsolvent – ΔTf
Solution Map: m → ΔTf → FPsolution

• Check the solution:

Freezing point of solution = −3.2 °C.

The units of the answer, °C, are correct.

The magnitude of the answer makes sense
since the freezing point of the solution is
less than the freezing point of H2O.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 135
13

Practice—What Is the Freezing Point of a Solution

that Has 0.20 moles of Sulfur Dissolved in 0.10 kg
of Cyclohexane?
(FPcyclohexane = 6.5 °C, Kf = 20.0 °C/m)

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 136

13
Practice—What Is the Freezing Point of a Solution that Has
0.20 moles of Sulfur Dissolved in 0.10 kg of Cyclohexane?,
Continued
Given: 0.20 mol S, 0.10 kg cyclohexane
Find: Tf, °C
Solution Map: mol S, kg solvent m ΔTf FP
FPsolv − FPsol’n = ΔT

Relationships: ΔTf = m ·Kf, Kf = 20.0 °C/m, FP = 6.5 °C, m = mol/kg

Solve:

Check: The unit is correct, the freezing point being lower

than the normal freezing point makes sense.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 137
13

Boiling Points of Solutions

• The boiling point of a solution is always
higher than the boiling point of a pure
solvent.
!Boiling point elevation.
• The difference between the boiling points of
the solution and pure solvent is directly
proportional to the molal concentration.
• ΔTb = m x Kb
!Kb = boiling point constant.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 138

13
 Example 13.10—What Is the Boiling Point of a 1.7-m
Aqueous Ethylene Glycol Solution, C2H6O2?
Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2(aq)
Find: Tb, °C
Solution Map: m ΔTb BP
BPsol’n − BPsolv = ΔT

Relationships: ΔTb = m ·Kb, Kb H2O = 0.512 °C/m, BPH2O = 100.00 °C

Solve:

Check: The unit is correct, the boiling point being higher

than the normal boiling point makes sense.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 139
13

Example 13.10:
• Calculate the boiling point of a 1.7 m ethylene glycol
solution.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 140

13
Example:
Calculate the boiling point of
a 1.7-m ethylene glycol
solution.

• Write down the given quantity and its units.

Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 141

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Example: Information:
Calculate the boiling point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol
solution.

• Write down the quantity to find and/or its units.

Find: boiling point (°C)

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 142

13
Example: Information:
Calculate the boiling point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: BP (°C)
solution.

• Collect needed equations:

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 143

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Example: Information:
Calculate the boiling point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: BP (°C)
solution.
Equations: ΔTb = m · Kb;
BPsolution = BPsolvent + ΔTb

• Design a solution map:

Molality ΔTb BPsolution

ΔTb = m · Kb BPsolution = BPsolvent + ΔTb

144
Example: Information:
Calculate the boiling point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: BP (°C)
solution. Equation: ΔTb = m · Kb;
BPsolution = BPsolvent + ΔTb
Solution Map: m → ΔTb → BPsolution

• Apply the solution map:

145

Example: Information:
Calculate the boiling point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: BP (°C)
solution. Equation: ΔTb = m · Kb;
BPsolution = BPsolvent + ΔTb
Solution Map: m → ΔTb → BPsolution

• Check the solution:

Boiling point of solution = 100.87 °C.

The units of the answer, °C, are correct.

The magnitude of the answer makes sense
since the boiling point of the solution is
higher than the boiling point of H2O.
146
 Practice—What Is the Boiling Point of a Solution
that Has 0.20 moles of Sulfur Dissolved in 0.10 kg
of Cyclohexane?
(BPcyclohexane = 80.7 °C, Kb= 2.79 °C/m)

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 147

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Practice—What Is the Boiling Point of a Solution that Has

0.20 moles of Sulfur Dissolved in 0.10 kg of Cyclohexane?,
Continued
Given: 0.20 mol S, 0.10 kg cyclohexane
Find: Tb, °C
Solution Map: mol S, kg solvent m ΔTb BP
BPsol’n − BPsolv = ΔT

Relationships: ΔTb = m ·Kb, Kb= 2.79 °C/m, BP =80.7 °C, m = mol/kg

Solve:

Check: The unit is correct, the boiling point being higher

than the normal boiling point makes sense.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 148
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 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
• Osmosis is the process in which solvent molecules pass
through a semipermeable membrane that does not allow
solute particles to pass.
! Solvent flows to try to equalize concentration of solute on
both sides.
! Solvent flows from side of low concentration to high
concentration.
• Osmotic pressure is pressure that is needed to prevent
osmotic flow of solvent.
• Isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions.
! Hemolysis.

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Drinking Seawater
Because seawater has
a higher salt concentration
than your cells, water flows
out of your cells into the
seawater to try to decrease
its salt concentration.

The net result is that, instead

of quenching your thirst,
you become dehydrated.

Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 150

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 Osmotic Pressure

Solvent flows through a semipermeable membrane to make the

solution concentration equal on both sides of the membrane.
The pressure required to stop this process is osmotic pressure.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 151
13

Hemolysis and Crenation

Normal red blood Red blood cell in Red blood cell in

cell in an isotonic a hypotonic hypertonic
Solution. solution. solution. Water
Water flows into flows out
the cell, eventually of the cell,
causing eventually causing
the cell to burst. the cell to distort
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter and shrink. 152
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