chapter 13 additional slides
chapter 13 additional slides
Nivaldo Tro
Chapter 13
Solutions
Roy Kennedy
Massachusetts Bay Community College
Wellesley Hills, MA
2009, Prentice Hall
Tragedy in Cameroon
• Lake Nyos
! Lake in Cameroon, West Africa.
! On August 22, 1986, 1,700 people
and 3,000 cattle died.
• Released carbon dioxide cloud.
! CO2 seeps in from underground
and dissolves in lake water to
levels above normal saturation.
! Though not toxic, CO2 is heavier
than air—the people died from
asphyxiation.
Solutions
• Homogeneous mixtures.
!Composition may vary from one sample to
another.
!Appears to be one substance, though really
contains multiple materials.
• Most homogeneous materials we encounter
are actually solutions.
!E.g., air and lake water.
Brass
Type Color % Cu % Zn Density MP Tensile Uses
g/cm3 °C strength
psi
Gilding Reddish 95 5 8.86 1066 50K Pre-83 pennies,
munitions, plaques
Commercial Bronze 90 10 8.80 1043 61K Door knobs,
grillwork
Jewelry Bronze 87.5 12.5 8.78 1035 66K Costume jewelry
Red Golden 85 15 8.75 1027 70K Electrical sockets,
fasteners, eyelets
Low Deep 80 20 8.67 999 74K Musical instruments,
yellow clock dials
Cartridge Yellow 70 30 8.47 954 76K Car radiator cores
Common Yellow 67 33 8.42 940 70K Lamp fixtures,
bead chain
Muntz metal Yellow 60 40 8.39 904 70K Nuts & bolts,
brazing rods
Common Types of Solution
Solute Solvent
Solution phase phase phase Example
Gaseous solutions Gas Gas Air (mostly N2 and O2)
Gas Liquid Soda (CO2 in H2O)
Liquid solutions Liquid Liquid Vodka (C2H5OH in H2O)
Solid Liquid Seawater (NaCl in H2O)
Solubility
• When one substance (solute) dissolves in another
(solvent) it is said to be soluble.
!Salt is soluble in water.
!Bromine is soluble in methylene chloride.
• When one substance does not dissolve in another it
is said to be insoluble.
!Oil is insoluble in water.
• The solubility of one substance in another
depends on two factors: nature’s tendency
towards mixing and the types of
intermolecular attractive forces.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 8
13
Will It Dissolve?
• Chemist’s rule of thumb:
Like dissolves like
• A chemical will dissolve in a
solvent if it has a similar structure
to the solvent.
• When the solvent and solute
structures are similar, the solvent
molecules will attract the solute
particles at least as well as the
solute particles to each other.
Classifying Solvents
Structural
Solvent Class feature
Water, H2O Polar O-H
Ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH Polar O-H
Acetone, C3H6O Polar C=O
Toluene, C7H8 Nonpolar C-C and C-H
Hexane, C6H14 Nonpolar C-C and C-H
Diethyl ether, C4H10O Nonpolar C-C, C-H,
and
C-O
Will It Dissolve in Water?
• Ions are attracted to polar solvents.
! Many ionic compounds dissolve in water.
" Generally, if the ions total charges < 4.
• Polar molecules are attracted to polar solvents.
! Table sugar, ethyl alcohol, and glucose all dissolve well in
water.
" Have either multiple OH groups or little CH.
• Nonpolar molecules are attracted to nonpolar solvents.
! β-carotene (C40H56) is not water soluble; it dissolves in fatty
(nonpolar) tissues.
• Many molecules have both polar and nonpolar structures
—whether they will dissolve in water depends on the
kind, number, and location of polar and nonpolar
structural features in the molecule.
11
Descriptions of Solubility
• Saturated solutions have the maximum
amount of solute that will dissolve in that
solvent at that temperature.
• Unsaturated solutions can dissolve more
solute.
• Supersaturated solutions are holding more
solute than they should be able to at that
temperature.
!Unstable.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 16
13
Supersaturated Solution
Saturated
Supersaturated
20
Solubility and Temperature, Continued
Warm soda pop fizzes more than cold soda pop because the
solubility of CO2 in water decreases as temperature increases.
Changing Temperature =
Changing Solubility
• When a solution is saturated, it is holding
the maximum amount of solute it can at that
temperature.
• If the temperature is changed, the solubility
of the solute changes.
!If a solution contains 71.3 g of NH4Cl in 100 g
of water at 90 °C, it will be saturated.
!If the temperature drops to 20 °C, the saturation
level of NH4Cl drops to 37.2 g.
!Therefore, 24.1 g of NH4Cl will precipitate.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 22
13
Purifying Solids:
Recrystallization
• When a solid precipitates from a solution, crystals
of the pure solid form by arranging the particles in
a crystal lattice.
• Formation of the crystal lattice tends to reject
impurities.
• To purify a solid, chemists often make a saturated
solution of it at high temperature; when it cools,
the precipitated solid will have much less impurity
than before.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 23
13
Solubility of Gases:
Effect of Temperature
• Many gases dissolve in water.
!However, most have very limited solubility.
• The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases
as the temperature increases.
!Bubbles seen when tap water is heated (before
the water boils) are gases that are dissolved,
coming out of the solution.
!Opposite of solids.
Solution Concentrations
Concentrations—Quantitative
Descriptions of Solutions
• A more precise method for describing a
solution is to quantify the amount of solute
in a given amount of solution.
• Concentration = Amount of solute in a
given amount of solution.
!Occasionally amount of solvent.
Example:
Calculate the mass percent of
a solution containing 27.5 g
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175
mL of H2O. (Assume the
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.)
Example: Information:
Calculate the mass percent of Given: 27.5 g C2H6O; 175 mL H2O
a solution containing 27.5 g Find: % by mass
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175
mL of H2O. (Assume the
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.)
Example: Information:
Calculate the mass percent of Given: 27.5 g C2H6O; 175 mL H2O
a solution containing 27.5 g Find: % by mass
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175 Equation:
mL of H2O. (Assume the Conversion Factor:
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.) 1.00 g H2O = 1 mL H2O
density
Information:
Example: Given: 27.5 g C2H6O; 175 mL H2O
Calculate the mass percent of Find: % by mass
a solution containing 27.5 g Equation:
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175 Conversion Factor:
mL of H2O. (Assume the 1.00 g H2O = 1 mL H2O
Solution Map:
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.) mass solution and volume solvent →
mass solvent → mass solution → mass percent
= 13.5802%
= 13.6%
40
Information:
Example: Given: 27.5 g C2H6O; 175 mL H2O
Calculate the mass percent of Find: % by mass
a solution containing 27.5 g Equation:
of ethanol (C2H6O) and 175 Conversion Factor:
mL of H2O. (Assume the 1.00 g H2O = 1 mL H2O
Solution Map:
density of H2O is 1.00 g/mL.) mass solution and volume solvent → mass solvent
→ mass solution → mass percent
Relationships:
Solve:
Using Concentrations as
Conversion Factors
• Concentrations show the relationship between
the amount of solute and the amount of solvent.
! 12% by mass sugar (aq) means 12 g sugar ≡ 100 g solution.
• The concentration can then be used to convert
the amount of solute into the amount of
solution or visa versa.
Example 13.2:
• A soft drink contains 11.5% sucrose (C12H22O11) by
mass. What volume of soft drink in milliliters contains
85.2 g of sucrose? (Assume the density is 1.00 g/mL.)
Example: Information:
A soft drink contains 11.5% Given: 85.2 g C12H22O11
sucrose (C12H22O11) by mass.
What volume of soft drink in
milliliters contains 85.2 g of
sucrose? (Assume the density
is 1.00 g/mL.)
• Write down the quantity to find and/or its units.
Find: volume of solution, mL
Example: Information:
A soft drink contains 11.5% Given: 85.2 g C12H22O11
sucrose (C12H22O11) by mass. Find: mL solution
What volume of soft drink in Conversion Factors:
milliliters contains 85.2 g of 11.5 g C12H22O11 ≡ 100 g solution
sucrose? (Assume the density 1.00 g solution = 1 mL solution
is 1.00 g/mL.)
• Design a solution map:
Mass
Density
percent
Mass Solution
= 740.87 mL
= 741 mL
Example: Information:
Given: 85.2 g C12H22O11
A soft drink contains 11.5%
Find: mL solution
sucrose (C12H22O11) by Conversion Factors:
mass. What volume of soft 11.5 g C12H22O11 ≡ 100 g solution
drink in milliliters contains 1.00 g solution = 1 mL solution
85.2 g of sucrose? (Assume Solution Map:
the density is 1.00 g/mL.) g sucrose → g solution → mL solution
Check Answer:
Units are correct. Number makes sense because lactose is a
component of the mixture, therefore, its amount should be less.
Preparing a Solution
• Need to know amount of solution and
concentration of solution.
• Calculate the mass of solute needed.
!Start with amount of solution.
!Use concentration as a conversion factor.
"5% by mass ⇒ 5 g solute ≡ 100 g solution.
!“Dissolve the grams of solute in enough solvent to
total the total amount of solution.”
Answer:
Dissolve 67.5 g of ethanol in enough water to total 450.0 g.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 58
13
Solution Concentration
Molarity
• Moles of solute per 1 liter of solution.
• Used because it describes how many molecules
of solute in each liter of solution.
• If a sugar solution concentration is 2.0 M , 1 liter
of solution contains 2.0 moles of sugar, 2 liters =
4.0 moles sugar, 0.5 liters = 1.0 mole sugar:
moles of solute
Molarity =
liters of solution
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 59
13
Example 13.3:
• Calculate the molarity of a solution made by putting
15.5 g of NaCl into a beaker and adding water to make
1.50 L of NaCl solution.
Example: Information:
Calculate the molarity of a Given: 15.5 g NaCl; 1.50 L solution
solution made by putting
15.5 g of NaCl into a beaker
and adding water to make
1.50 L of NaCl solution.
Example: Information:
Calculate the molarity of a Given: 15.5 g NaCl; 1.50 L solution
solution made by putting Find: molarity, M
15.5 g of NaCl into a beaker
Conversion Factors: 58.44 g = 1 mol
and adding water to make
NaCl;
1.50 L of NaCl solution.
Molarity
= 0.177 M NaCl
Example: Information:
Calculate the molarity of a Given: 15.5 g NaCl; 1.50 L solution
solution made by putting Find: molarity, M
15.5 g of NaCl into a beaker
Conversion Factors: 58.44 g = 1 mol
and adding water to make
NaCl;
1.50 L of NaCl solution.
Example:
How many liters of a
0.114 M NaOH solution
contains 1.24 mol of
NaOH?
Example: Information:
How many liters of a Given: 1.24 mol NaOH
0.114 M NaOH solution Find: L solution
contains 1.24 mol of
NaOH?
Example: Information:
How many liters of a Given: 1.24 mol NaOH
0.114 M NaOH solution Find: L solution
contains 1.24 mol of Conversion Factor:
NaOH? 0.114 mol = 1 L
Solution Map: mol → L
Check Answer:
Units are correct.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 81
13
Answer:
Dissolve 2.9 g of NaCl in enough water to total 250 mL.
84
Practice—How Would You Prepare 100.0 mL
of 0.100 M K2SO4 (MM = 174.26)?
Answer:
Dissolve 1.74 g of K2SO4 in enough water to total 100.0 mL.
86
Molarity and Dissociation
• When strong electrolytes dissolve, all the
solute particles dissociate into ions.
• By knowing the formula of the compound
and the molarity of the solution, it is easy to
determine the molarity of the dissociated
ions. Simply multiply the salt concentration
by the number of ions.
Solve:
• 0.25 M MgBr2(aq).
• 0.33 M Na2CO3(aq).
• 0.0750 M Fe2(SO4)3(aq).
Example—Dilution Problems
• What is the concentration of a solution made by
diluting 15 mL of 5.0% sugar to 135 mL?
M1 = 5.0 % M2 = ? %
V1 = 15 mL V2 = 135 mL
(5.0%)(15 mL) = M2 x (135 mL)
M2 = 0.55%
• How would you prepare 200 mL of 0.25 M
NaCl solution from a 2.0 M solution?
M1 = 2.0 M M2 = 0.25 M (2.0 M) x V1 = (0.25 M)(200 mL)
V1 = ? mL V2 = 200 mL V1 = 25 mL
Dilute 25 mL of 2.0 M NaCl solution to 200 mL.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 96
13
Practice—Determine the Concentration of
the Following Solutions.
• Made by diluting 125 mL of 0.80 M HCl to 500 mL.
Solution Stoichiometry
• We know that the balanced chemical equation
tells us the relationship between moles of
reactants and products in a reaction.
!2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l) implies that for every 2
moles of H2 you use, you need 1 mole of O2 and will
make 2 moles of H2O.
• Since molarity is the relationship between moles
of solute and liters of solution, we can now
measure the moles of a material in a reaction in
solution by knowing its molarity and volume.
Tro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 102
13
Example 13.7—How Many Liters of 0.115 M KI Is
Needed to React with 0.104 L of a 0.225 M Pb(NO3)2?
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)→ 2 KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)
Given: 0.104 L Pb(NO3)2
Find: L KI
Solution Map: L mol mol L
Pb(NO3)2 Pb(NO3)2 KI KI
Example 13.7:
• How much 0.115 M KI solution, in liters, is required to
completely precipitate all the Pb2+ in 0.104 L of 0.225 M
Pb(NO3)2?
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
Example: Information:
How much 0.115 M KI Given: 0.104 L Pb(NO3)2
solution, in liters, is required
to completely precipitate all
the Pb2+ in 0.104 L of
0.225 M Pb(NO3)2?
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) →
PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
Example: Information:
How much 0.115 M KI Given: 0.104 L Pb(NO3)2
solution, in liters, is required Find: L KI
to completely precipitate all Conversion Factors:
the Pb2+ in 0.104 L of 0.115 mol KI ≡ 1 L solution
0.225 M Pb(NO3)2? 0.225 mol Pb(NO3)2 ≡ 1 L solution
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → 2 mol KI ≡ 1 mol Pb(NO3)2
PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
mol KI L KI
108
Information:
Example:
Given: 0.104 L Pb(NO3)2
How much 0.115 M KI Find: L KI
solution, in liters, is required Conversion Factors:
to completely precipitate all 0.115 mol KI ≡ 1 L solution
the Pb2+ in 0.104 L of 0.225 mol Pb(NO3)2 ≡ 1 L solution
0.225 M Pb(NO3)2? 2 mol KI ≡ 1 mol Pb(NO3)2
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → Solution Map:
L Pb(NO3)2 → mol Pb(NO3)2 →
PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
mol KI → L KI
= 0.40696 L
= 0.407 L
Information:
Example:
Given: 0.104 L Pb(NO3)2
How much 0.115 M KI Find: L KI
solution, in liters, is required Conversion Factors:
to completely precipitate all 0.115 mol KI ≡ 1 L solution
the Pb2+ in 0.104 L of 0.225 mol Pb(NO3)2 ≡ 1 L solution
0.225 M Pb(NO3)2? 2 mol KI ≡ 1 mol Pb(NO3)2
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → Solution Map:
L Pb(NO3)2 → mol Pb(NO3)2 →
PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
mol KI → L KI
Colligative Properties
• The properties of the solution are different
from the properties of the solvent.
• Any property of a solution whose value
depends only on the number of dissolved solute
particles is called a colligative property.
!It does not depend on what the solute particle is.
• The freezing point, boiling point, and osmotic
pressure of a solution are colligative properties.
Example:
Calculate the molality of a
solution containing 17.2 g of
ethylene glycol (C2H6O2)
dissolved in 0.500 kg of
water.
Example: Information:
Calculate the molality of a Given: 17.2 g C2H6O2; 0.500 kg H2O
solution containing 17.2 g of Find: molality, m
ethylene glycol (C2H6O2)
dissolved in 0.500 kg of
water.
Molality
Example: Information:
Calculate the molality of a Given: 17.2 g C2H6O2; 0.500 kg H2O
solution containing 17.2 g of Find: molality, m
ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) Conversion Factors:
dissolved in 0.500 kg of 62.08 g C2H6O2 = 1 mol
water.
= 0.554 m C2H6O2
Example:
Calculate the freezing point of
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol
solution.
Example: Information:
Calculate the freezing point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: FP (°C)
solution.
Example: Information:
Calculate the freezing point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: FP (°C)
solution. Equation: ΔTf = m · Kf;
FPsolution = FPsolvent – ΔTf
Solution Map: m → ΔTf → FPsolution
134
Example: Information:
Calculate the freezing point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: FP (°C)
solution. Equation: ΔTf = m · Kf;
FPsolution = FPsolvent – ΔTf
Solution Map: m → ΔTf → FPsolution
Example 13.10:
• Calculate the boiling point of a 1.7 m ethylene glycol
solution.
Example: Information:
Calculate the boiling point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol
solution.
Example: Information:
Calculate the boiling point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: BP (°C)
solution.
Equations: ΔTb = m · Kb;
BPsolution = BPsolvent + ΔTb
144
Example: Information:
Calculate the boiling point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: BP (°C)
solution. Equation: ΔTb = m · Kb;
BPsolution = BPsolvent + ΔTb
Solution Map: m → ΔTb → BPsolution
145
Example: Information:
Calculate the boiling point of Given: 1.7 m C2H6O2 in H2O
a 1.7 m ethylene glycol Find: BP (°C)
solution. Equation: ΔTb = m · Kb;
BPsolution = BPsolvent + ΔTb
Solution Map: m → ΔTb → BPsolution
Drinking Seawater
Because seawater has
a higher salt concentration
than your cells, water flows
out of your cells into the
seawater to try to decrease
its salt concentration.