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Object Oriented Modeling and Design

Module-1

1.1 Introduction to UML

The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a standardized visual language designed for
modeling the structure and behavior of software systems. It provides a comprehensive set of
diagrams and notation techniques to facilitate the visualization, specification, construction,
and documentation of software artifacts.

UML is distinct from programming languages, as it focuses on creating detailed

blueprints of software systems rather than executing code. It is versatile and can be applied
to a variety of system types, from enterprise-level applications and web-based systems to
real-time embedded systems, making it a crucial tool for developers and analysts in designing
and understanding complex software projects.

1.2 Importance of modeling

“A model is a simplification of reality.”

The statement “A model is a simplification of reality” underscores the fundamental

purpose of a model: to distill and represent complex, real-world systems or
phenomena into more manageable and understandable forms.

Models are abstractions that focus on essential aspects of reality while omitting or
simplifying less critical details. This simplification allows individuals to analyze, study,
and make decisions about complex systems without being overwhelmed by their full
complexity.

“Modeling is a proven and well-accepted engineering technique.”

The statement "Modeling is a proven and well-accepted engineering technique"

highlights that modeling has been established as a reliable and widely adopted method
in engineering for managing complexity and enhancing understanding across various
disciplines.

Why do we model?

“We build models so that we can better understand the system we are developing.”
Why do we model the large and complex systems?

“We build models of complex systems because we cannot comprehend such a system in its
entirety.”

4. No single model is sufficient. Every nontrivial system is best approached

through a small set of nearly independent models.

1.4 Object-Oriented Modeling

• Object-oriented perspective: Is the contemporary view of software development.

With Object-oriented perspective (diagrammatic representation) it is very easy to
visualize the system.
 No language dependent

No process dependent

➢ Building blocks of the UML: The vocabulary of the UML encompasses three kinds
of building:Things, Relationships and Diagrams.
Collaboration: Collaboration defines an interaction and is a society of roles and other
elements that work together to provide some cooperative behavior that's bigger than the
sum of all the elements. Therefore, collaborations have structural, as well as behavioral,
dimensions. A given class might participate in several collaborations.

Use case: Use case represents a set of actions performed by a system for a specific goal. A
use case is used to structure the behavioral things in a model
ii. Behavioral things: A behavioral thing consists of the dynamic parts of UML models.
Following are the behavioral things:

Interaction: Interaction is defined as a behavior that consists of a group of messages

exchanged among elements to accomplish a specific task.
Graphically, a realization relationship is rendered as a cross between a generalization and a
dependency relationship
3. UML Diagrams

A diagram is the graphical presentation of a set of elements, most often rendered as a

connected graph of vertices (things) and arcs (relationships).
The UML's extensibility mechanisms include:

Visual Paradigm software tool for UML

Visual Paradigm is a software tool designed for software development teams to model
business information system and manage development processes. Visual Paradigm supports
key industry modeling languages and standards such as Unified Modeling Language (UML),
SoaML, BPMN, XMI, etc.
Perform the steps below to create a UML diagram in Visual Paradigm.

1. Select Diagram > New from the application toolbar.

2. In the New Diagram window, select Diagram.

3. Click Next.

4. Enter the diagram name and description. The Location field enables you to select a
model to store the diagram.

5. Click OK.

Advanced Structural Modeling, Class, and Object Diagrams

Class

• A class is a description of a set of objects that share the same attributes, operations,
relationships, and semantics.
• A class implements one or more interfaces.
• The UML provides a graphical representation of class

Graphical Representation of a Class in UML

Terms and Concepts

Names

Every class must have a name that distinguishes it from other classes.
A name is a textual string that name alone is known as a simple name;
a path name is the class name prefixed by the name of the package in which that class lives.
 Simple Name Path Name

Attributes

Common Modeling Techniques

Modeling Primitive Types

At the other extreme, the things you model may be drawn directly from the programming
language you are using to implement a solution.
Typically, these abstractions involve primitive types, such as integers, characters, strings,
and even enumeration types
To model primitive types

Relationships

Dependencies

Generalization

o A generalization is a relationship between a general thing (called the super class or

parent)and a more specific kind of that thing (called the subclass or child).
o generalization means that the child is substitutable for the parent. A child inherits the
properties of its parents, especially their attributes and operations
o An operation of a child that has the same signature as an operation in a parent overrides
the operation of the parent; this is known as polymorphism.
o Graphically generalization is rendered as a solid directed line with a large open arrowhead,
pointing to the parent

Generalization
Association

Role

Multiplicity
 Aggregation

Common Modeling Techniques

Modeling Single Inheritance

Modeling Structural Relationships

Structural Relationships

Common Mechanisms

Stereotypes
Tagged Values

Constraints

A constraint specifies conditions that must be held true for the model to be well-formed.
A constraint is rendered as a string enclosed by brackets and placed near the associated
element
Graphically, a constraint is rendered as a string enclosed by brackets and placed near the
associated element or connected to that element or elements by dependency relationships.

Diagram
Common Modeling Techniques

Modeling Different Levels of Abstraction

 Interaction Diagram at a High Level of Abstraction

Interaction at a Low Level of Abstraction

Modeling Complex Views

• To model complex views,

o First, convince yourself there's no meaningful way to present this information at a
higher level of abstraction, perhaps eliding some parts of the diagram and retaining
the detail in other parts.

o If your diagram is still complex, print it in its entirety and hang it on a convenient large
wall. You lose the interactivity an online version of the diagram brings, but you can
step back from the diagram and study it for common patterns.

Module-2

Advanced Structural Modeling

Advanced Classes

Advanced classes in UML (Unified Modeling Language) encompass more complex features and
relationships than the basic class diagrams. They help in modeling sophisticated systems with
intricate structures and interactions. Here’s an overview of advanced class modeling concepts
in UML:

1. Generalization and Specialization

Generalization:

• Definition: Represents an inheritance relationship where a subclass inherits attributes

and behaviors from a superclass.

• Notation: An arrow with a hollow triangle pointing from the subclass to the superclass.

• Example: A Vehicle class might be generalized into Car and Truck subclasses.
Specialization:

• Definition: The process of creating a subclass that extends or refines the behavior of
a superclass.

• Notation: Similar to generalization, where the subclass inherits properties and

behaviors from the superclass.

Use Case: Use generalization to define common features in a superclass and specific features
in subclasses, reducing redundancy and promoting reuse.

2. Realization

Definition:

• Represents an interface implementation by a class. It shows how a class fulfills the

contract specified by an interface.

Notation:

• An arrow with a dashed line and a hollow triangle pointing from the implementing class
to the interface.

Example: If you have an interface Drawable with methods like draw(), a class Circle that
implements this interface will show a realization relationship to Drawable.

Use Case: Use realization to define how classes implement the behavior specified by
interfaces, ensuring a consistent contract across different implementations.

3. Dependency

Definition:

• Indicates a relationship where a class depends on another class to function properly.

Changes in the dependent class may affect the class that depends on it.

Notation:

• A dashed arrow pointing from the dependent class to the class it depends on.

Example: A Printer class might depend on a Paper class to perform printing operations.

Use Case: Use dependency to show how classes interact or rely on each other, highlighting
areas where changes may have ripple effects.

4. Aggregation and Composition

Aggregation:

• Definition: Represents a whole-part relationship where the part can exist

independently of the whole. It indicates a weaker relationship than composition.

• Notation: A diamond at the end of the association line near the whole class.

• Example: A Library class and a Book class, where a library contains books but books
can exist independently.

Composition:
 • Definition: Represents a strong whole-part relationship where the part cannot exist
independently of the whole. It indicates a stronger relationship than aggregation.

• Notation: A filled diamond at the end of the association line near the whole class.

• Example: A House class and a Room class, where rooms cannot exist independently
of a house.

Use Case: Use aggregation for loosely coupled whole-part relationships and composition for
tightly coupled whole-part relationships where the lifecycle of the part is tied to the whole.

5. Association Classes

Definition:

• A class that represents an association between two or more classes. It allows you to
add attributes and methods to the association itself.

Notation:

• A class diagram where an association line is connected to a class representing the

association class.

Example: A Student and Course association with an association class Enrollment that holds
additional information like grade and enrollmentDate.

Use Case: Use association classes to model complex relationships that require additional
information or behavior beyond a simple association.

6. Multiplicity and Role Names

Multiplicity:

• Definition: Specifies the number of instances of a class that can be associated with
an instance of another class.

• Notation: Numbers or ranges at the ends of association lines (e.g., 1, 0..*, 1..5).

Role Names:

• Definition: Descriptive names for the roles that classes play in associations, helping
to clarify the purpose of the association.

• Notation: Names placed near the ends of association lines.

Example: In an association between Author and Book, multiplicity might show that an author
can write multiple books (e.g., 1..*), and a book can have multiple authors (e.g., 0..*). Role
names like writes and authoredBy clarify the association.

Use Case: Use multiplicity to define the number of allowed relationships and role names to
describe the nature of these relationships.

7. Interfaces and Abstract Classes

Interfaces:

• Definition: Define a contract that classes must adhere to. Interfaces specify methods
without implementing them.
 • Notation: Represented as a rectangle with the <<interface>> stereotype or as a
circle with the interface name.

Abstract Classes:

• Definition: Classes that cannot be instantiated and are used to provide common base
functionality for subclasses. They can have abstract methods (without implementation)
and concrete methods (with implementation).

• Notation: Represented as a class with the <<abstract>> stereotype or italicized

method names.

Example: An interface Shape with methods draw() and resize(), and an abstract class
Polygon with some concrete methods and abstract methods like calculateArea().

Use Case: Use interfaces to define common behavior across disparate classes and abstract
classes to provide shared functionality and a base for other classes.

8. Nested Classes

Definition:

• Classes defined within the scope of another class. They can be used to group related
classes and manage complexity.

Notation:

• Represented as a class within the boundaries of another class.

Example: A Bank class with a nested Account class that models different types of accounts.

Use Case: Use nested classes to logically group related classes and encapsulate them within
the context of another class.

9. Class Stereotypes

Definition:

• Stereotypes provide additional semantics to UML elements. They extend the basic UML
model with domain-specific concepts.

Notation:

• Represented with <<stereotype>> above the class name.

Example: A DataAccessObject class might be stereotyped as <<DAO>> to indicate its role

in data access.

Use Case: Use stereotypes to add domain-specific meanings to classes, enhancing the
expressiveness of your UML model.

10. Dynamic Class Modeling

Dynamic Class Modeling:

• Refers to capturing how classes change and interact over time, including their state
changes and interactions during runtime.

Notation:
 • Includes dynamic diagrams such as sequence and state diagrams linked with class
diagrams.

Example: A User class with methods that change state based on user actions and
interactions, illustrated through state diagrams and sequence diagrams.

Use Case: Use dynamic class modeling to represent and understand how classes interact and
evolve during system operation.

Advanced Relationships

* There are two stereotypes that apply to dependency relationships among packages.
* Two stereotypes apply to dependency relationships among use cases:

* There are three stereotypes when modeling interactions among objects.

* One stereotype you'll encounter in the context of state machines is

16 send Specifies that the source operation sends the target event

* We'll use trace when you want to model the relationships among elements in different
models
Common Modeling Techniques

Modeling Webs of Relationships

1. When you model the vocabulary of a complex system, you may encounter dozens, if not
hundreds or thousands, of classes, interfaces, components, nodes, and use cases.
2. Establishing a crisp boundary around each of these abstractions is hard
3. This requires you to form a balanced distribution of responsibilities in the system as a
whole, with individual abstractions that are tightly cohesive and with relationships that
are expressive, yet loosely coupled

Names

• Every interface must have a name that distinguishes it from other interfaces.
• A name is a textual string. That name alone is known as a simple name;
• A path name is the interface name prefixed by the name of the package

Simple and Path Names

Operations
Common Modeling Techniques

➢ Modeling the Seams in a Systemeling the Seams in a System

Modeling the Seams in a System

➢ Modeling Static and Dynamic Typeseling Static and Dynamic Types

Common Modeling Techniques

Class Diagrams
Modeling Techniques:

1. Modeling Simple Collaboration:

o Collaboration Diagram: Shows the interactions between objects in a system

and their relationships. It highlights how objects collaborate to achieve a
specific goal.

o Sequence Diagram: Often used alongside class diagrams to detail the

sequence of messages exchanged between objects.

2. Logical Database Schema:

o Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD): Represents data entities, their

attributes, and the relationships between them. Used for designing database
schemas.

o Class Diagram vs. ERD: While class diagrams are more about object-oriented
design, ERDs focus on database structure. However, both diagrams help in
structuring data and relationships.

3. Forward and Reverse Engineering:

o Forward Engineering: The process of creating code from models or diagrams.

For example, generating class code from a class diagram.

o Reverse Engineering: The process of creating models or diagrams from

existing code. It helps in understanding and documenting existing systems.

Object Diagrams

Introduction:

• Object Diagram: A snapshot of the instances of the classes at a particular point in

time. It represents the state of the system's objects and their relationships at a specific
moment.

• Purpose: Useful for illustrating the static structure of a system or showing how objects
interact at a given point in time.
 MODULE -III

BASIC BEHAVIORAL MODELING

Interactions

• An interaction is a behavior that comprises a set of messages exchanged among a set of

objects within a context to accomplish a purpose.
• A message is a specification of a communication between objects that conveys information
with the expectation that activity will ensue.

Links and Associations

Messages

Messages

Flat Sequence
 Flow of Control by Time

Flow of Control by Organization

Actors
Common Modeling Techniques

Modeling the context of a system involves drawing a line around the whole system and
asserting which actors lie outside the system and interact with it.Here, you'll apply use case
diagrams to specify the actors and the meaning of their roles.

Modeling the requirements of a system involves specifying what that system should do
(from a point of view of outside the system), independent of how that system should do it.
Here, you'll apply use case diagrams to specify the desired behavior of the system.
 Modeling the Context of a System

Modeling the Requirements of a System

Modeling a Workflow
 MODULE –IV

ADVANCED BEHAVIORAL MODELING

In the context of system modeling, events and signals are crucial concepts for capturing and
managing dynamic behaviors and interactions. Here’s a detailed look at these concepts,
including modeling a family of signals and handling exceptions.

Events and Signals

1. Events:

• Definition: An event is a significant occurrence in a system that may trigger certain

behaviors or responses. Events represent changes or actions that occur during the
system's operation.

• Characteristics:

o Trigger: An event typically causes or triggers a response or action within the

system.

o Types of Events:

▪ System Events: Generated by the system itself (e.g., timeouts, system

errors).

▪ User Events: Triggered by user actions (e.g., button clicks, input

submissions).

▪ External Events: Occur due to interactions with external systems or

components (e.g., messages from other systems).

2. Signals:

• Definition: A signal is a specific type of event that carries information or data from
one object or component to another. It is a communication mechanism used to notify
or alert an object about some occurrence or change.

• Characteristics:

o Signal Sender: The object or component that generates the signal.

o Signal Receiver: The object or component that receives and processes the
signal.

o Signal Name: The name or identifier of the signal, which represents the type
of communication or data being conveyed.

Modeling a Family of Signals

• Definition: A family of signals refers to a group of related signals that share common
characteristics or serve a similar purpose. Modeling a family of signals involves
organizing and defining these signals in a way that reflects their relationships and
variations.

• Techniques:
 o Signal Classification: Categorize signals based on their types, purposes, or
sources. For example, you might classify signals into error signals, status
update signals, or control signals.

o Inheritance: Use inheritance to model relationships between signals. A base

signal can be defined, and more specific signals can inherit from it, allowing for
a structured hierarchy.

o Signal Diagrams: Use diagrams (e.g., sequence diagrams, communication

diagrams) to illustrate how different signals interact with objects or components
within the system.

Exceptions

1. Exceptions:

• Definition: Exceptions represent abnormal or unexpected conditions that occur during

the execution of a program or system. They typically require special handling to ensure
the system can recover or continue functioning correctly.

• Characteristics:

o Exception Handling: The process of managing and responding to exceptions.

This may involve logging the error, displaying an error message, or taking
corrective actions.

o Exception Types: Different types of exceptions may be defined, such as

runtime exceptions, logic errors, or system-specific exceptions.

2. Modeling Exceptions:

• Purpose: To represent potential error conditions and the mechanisms for handling
them within the system.

• Techniques:

o Exception Handling Diagrams: Use diagrams to show how exceptions are

propagated and handled within the system. Sequence diagrams and activity
diagrams can be useful for illustrating exception handling flows.

o Exception Classes: Define classes for different types of exceptions, including

base and derived classes. This allows for structured and specific exception
handling.

o Error Messages: Include information on error messages or codes associated

with exceptions to help diagnose and address issues.

State machines are a fundamental concept in modeling the behavior of systems and objects
by defining their states, transitions, and the events that trigger these transitions. They are
particularly useful for modeling the lifetime of an object, illustrating how an object moves
through different states over time. Here’s a detailed overview:

State Machines

1. State Machines:
 • Definition: A state machine is a model that describes the behavior of an object or
system in terms of its states, transitions between states, and the events that trigger
these transitions.

• Components:

o States: Distinct conditions or situations an object can be in. Each state

represents a specific stage in the object's lifecycle.

o Transitions: The movement from one state to another, usually triggered by

events or conditions.

o Events: Occurrences or actions that cause state transitions. Events can be

internal or external stimuli.

o Actions: Operations or activities that occur as a result of a state transition or

while in a state.

o Initial State: The starting state of the object when it is created or initialized.

o Final State: The state indicating the end of the object's lifecycle.

2. Modeling the Lifetime of an Object:

• Lifecycle: Represents the sequence of states through which an object passes from
creation to termination.

• State Diagram: A graphical representation of a state machine, showing states,

transitions, events, and actions. It helps visualize how an object transitions through
various states over its lifetime.

Techniques for Modeling the Lifetime of an Object

1. State Diagram:

• Purpose: Illustrates the different states an object can be in and how it transitions
between these states.

• Elements:

o States: Represented as rounded rectangles or ovals.

o Transitions: Arrows between states indicating the movement from one state
to another.

o Events: Labels on transitions indicating what triggers the transition.

o Actions: Activities that occur during state transitions or while in a state, often
noted near the transitions.

2. Example of State Diagram:

• Object: Consider a Document object.

o States: Draft, Under Review, Approved, Published, Archived.

o Transitions:

▪ From Draft to Under Review upon submission.

 ▪ From Under Review to Approved after review.

▪ From Approved to Published upon approval.

▪ From Published to Archived after a specified time or condition.

o Events: Submission, Review, Approval, Archiving.

o Actions: Save draft, Notify reviewer, Publish document, Archive document.

3. Hierarchical State Machines:

• Definition: A state machine where states can contain other states, allowing for a more
detailed and organized representation of complex behaviors.

• Purpose: To model complex objects that have nested states or sub-states, improving
clarity and manageability.

• Example: A ShippingOrder object might have a top-level state such as Processing

with sub-states like Packing, Shipped, and Delivered.

4. State Machine Diagram vs. Activity Diagram:

• State Machine Diagram: Focuses on the states and transitions of an object and is
particularly useful for modeling object lifecycles.

• Activity Diagram: Focuses on the flow of activities or actions and can be used to
represent workflows. It’s more about the flow of control rather than object states.

5. UML Notation:

• State: Represented by a rounded rectangle with the state name inside.

• Transition: Represented by an arrow from one state to another, often labeled with
the event that triggers the transition.

• Initial State: Represented by a filled circle.

• Final State: Represented by a filled circle with a border.

Processes

1. Definition:

• A process is an instance of a program in execution. It includes the program code,

current activity, and associated resources such as memory, file descriptors, and
environment variables.

2. Key Characteristics:

• Isolation: Each process runs in its own memory space and is isolated from other
processes. This ensures that processes do not interfere with each other's memory or
resources.

• Context: A process maintains its own execution context, including its own stack, heap,
and registers.
 • Creation and Termination: Processes are created by the operating system through
system calls (e.g., fork in Unix-like systems). They can terminate by completing their
execution or by being terminated by other processes or the operating system.

3. Process Management:

• Process Scheduling: The operating system manages the execution of processes by

scheduling them to use the CPU. Various scheduling algorithms (e.g., round-robin,
priority-based) determine the order in which processes are executed.

• Process States: Processes typically go through several states, including New, Ready,
Running, Waiting, and Terminated.

• Inter-Process Communication (IPC): Mechanisms like pipes, message queues,

shared memory, and sockets are used for communication between processes.

Threads

1. Definition:

• A thread is the smallest unit of execution within a process. Threads within the same
process share the same memory space and resources, but each thread has its own
execution stack and program counter.

2. Key Characteristics:

• Lightweight: Threads are often referred to as lightweight because they share

resources within the process, reducing the overhead compared to processes.

• Concurrency: Multiple threads within the same process can run concurrently,
enabling parallel execution of tasks.

• Context Switching: Threads within the same process share the same context, which
can make context switching between threads faster compared to switching between
processes.

3. Thread Management:

• Creation and Termination: Threads are created within a process by thread libraries
or APIs (e.g., POSIX threads, Java threads). They can terminate by completing their
execution or being explicitly terminated.

• Synchronization: Since threads share the same memory space, synchronization

mechanisms (e.g., mutexes, semaphores) are necessary to prevent concurrent access
issues and ensure data consistency.

• Thread Scheduling: The operating system or thread library schedules threads within
a process, determining how and when threads are executed.

Comparison: Processes vs. Threads

• Isolation:

o Processes: Have separate memory spaces and are isolated from each other.

o Threads: Share the same memory space within a process and can directly
access shared data.
 • Overhead:

o Processes: Higher overhead due to context switching and resource

management.

o Threads: Lower overhead due to shared resources and faster context

switching.

• Communication:

o Processes: Inter-process communication (IPC) mechanisms are required for

communication.

o Threads: Easier communication through shared memory within the same

process.

• Fault Tolerance:

o Processes: Failures in one process typically do not affect others due to

isolation.

o Threads: Failures in one thread can potentially impact other threads in the
same process due to shared resources.

Use Cases

• Processes:

o Suitable for running independent applications or services that require isolation

(e.g., running different applications simultaneously).

o Useful for security and fault isolation, as failures in one process are less likely
to impact others.

• Threads:

o Ideal for tasks that require concurrent execution within the same application
(e.g., handling multiple client requests in a web server).

o Useful for improving performance by performing multiple operations in parallel.

Time and Space Constraints

1. Time Constraints:

• Definition: Time constraints specify the timing requirements for various operations
and interactions within a system. These constraints can include deadlines, periodic
tasks, response times, and latency.

• Types of Time Constraints:

o Deadlines: The latest time by which a task must be completed.

o Response Time: The time it takes for a system to respond to a request or

event.

o Latency: The delay between the initiation of an action and its effect.

o Periodic Constraints: Tasks or events that need to occur at regular intervals.

2. Space Constraints:

• Definition: Space constraints refer to limitations on memory, storage, or physical

space within a system.

• Types of Space Constraints:

o Memory Usage: The amount of RAM or other memory resources a process or

object consumes.

o Storage Requirements: The amount of disk space required for data storage.

o Physical Space: Constraints related to the physical placement and

organization of components.

Modeling Timing Constraints

1. Timing Constraints in UML:

• Timing Diagrams: Used to show the behavior of objects over time, including state
changes and interactions. Timing diagrams represent time on the horizontal axis and
events or states on the vertical axis.

• Sequence Diagrams: Can include timing constraints by specifying the time

constraints on message exchanges or interactions between objects.

2. Techniques for Timing Constraints:

• Annotations: Use annotations in diagrams to specify timing constraints. For example,

in a sequence diagram, you can annotate messages with timing constraints like "must
be completed within 200ms."

• Formal Verification: Use formal methods and tools to verify that timing constraints
are met. These methods can help analyze and ensure that the system behaves
correctly under timing constraints.

• Real-Time UML: An extension of UML for modeling real-time systems, incorporating

timing constraints and scheduling information.

Distribution of Objects

1. Distributed Systems:

• Definition: A distributed system consists of multiple components located on different

networked computers that communicate and coordinate their actions by passing
messages.

• Challenges: Includes network latency, data consistency, fault tolerance, and

synchronization.

2. Techniques for Modeling Distributed Objects:

• Deployment Diagrams: Show the physical distribution of system components,

including where objects or processes are deployed across different nodes or servers.

• Communication Diagrams: Illustrate interactions between distributed objects and

the flow of messages in the system.
3. Considerations for Distributed Objects:

• Location Transparency: The ability to access objects regardless of their physical

location.

• Fault Tolerance: Mechanisms to handle failures and ensure reliability in a distributed

environment.

• Scalability: Designing systems that can handle increasing loads by distributing

objects across more resources.

Objects that Migrate

1. Object Migration:

• Definition: Refers to the movement of objects from one location or server to another
within a distributed system. Migration can be for load balancing, fault tolerance, or
resource optimization.

• Types of Migration:

o Process Migration: Moving an entire process, including its state and

resources, to another node.

o Object Migration: Moving individual objects or components between different

nodes or servers.

2. Techniques for Modeling Object Migration:

• State Diagrams: Show how the state of an object changes during migration, including
any transitions or interactions required for the migration process.

• Deployment Diagrams: Illustrate how objects are distributed across nodes and how
migration affects their placement.

• Sequence Diagrams: Detail the interactions involved in the migration process,

including communication between objects before, during, and after migration.

3. Considerations for Object Migration:

• Consistency: Ensuring that the object's state remains consistent before and after
migration.

• Serialization: The process of converting an object’s state to a format that can be

transmitted and reconstructed at the destination.

• Reactivation: Restoring the object's functionality and state after migration to ensure
seamless operation.

State chart diagrams (also known as state diagrams or state machine diagrams) are a key
tool in modeling the behavior of reactive objects in software systems. They help illustrate how
objects respond to various events by transitioning between different states. Here’s a detailed
overview of state chart diagrams, their use in modeling reactive objects, and the processes
of forward and reverse engineering.

State Chart Diagrams

1. Definition:
 • State Chart Diagram: A graphical representation that depicts the states an object or
system can be in, the transitions between these states, and the events that trigger
these transitions. It shows the dynamic behavior of the object in response to events.

2. Components:

• States: Represent distinct conditions or situations of an object, depicted as rounded

rectangles.

• Transitions: Arrows connecting states, indicating how an object moves from one state
to another, typically triggered by events.

• Events: Triggers for transitions, such as user actions, messages, or other stimuli.

• Actions: Activities that occur as a result of a transition or while in a state, often noted
alongside transitions.

• Initial State: Denoted by a filled circle, representing the starting point of the object's
lifecycle.

• Final State: Represented by a filled circle within a larger circle, marking the end of
the object's lifecycle.

Modeling Reactive Objects

1. Reactive Objects:

• Definition: Objects that respond to external events by changing their state or

behavior. They are often found in systems that need to react to user inputs,
environmental changes, or other stimuli.

2. Techniques for Modeling Reactive Objects:

• Identify States: Determine the different states an object can be in based on its
behavior and requirements.

• Define Events: Identify the events that cause state changes, such as user
interactions, system signals, or other triggers.

• Map Transitions: Draw transitions between states to show how the object moves
from one state to another in response to events.

• Detail Actions: Specify any actions or activities that occur as part of state transitions
or while the object is in a particular state.

3. Example:

• Object: A TrafficLight object.

o States: Red, Green, Yellow.

o Events: Timer expiry, manual override.

o Transitions:

▪ From Red to Green when the timer expires.

▪ From Green to Yellow when the timer expires.

 ▪ From Yellow to Red when the timer expires.

o Actions: Change light color, update display.

Forward and Reverse Engineering

1. Forward Engineering:

• Definition: The process of creating code or models from higher-level specifications or

designs. In the context of state chart diagrams, forward engineering involves
generating executable code or system behavior from a state diagram.

2. Techniques for Forward Engineering:

• Code Generation: Use tools or frameworks that can automatically generate code from
state chart diagrams. This involves translating states, transitions, and actions into
programming constructs such as classes, methods, and event handlers.

• Behavioral Implementation: Implement the behavior described in the state chart

diagrams by writing the corresponding code to handle state transitions, events, and
actions.

3. Reverse Engineering:

• Definition: The process of creating models or diagrams from existing code or systems.
In the context of state chart diagrams, reverse engineering involves analyzing existing
code to create or update state diagrams.

4. Techniques for Reverse Engineering:

• Code Analysis: Examine the source code to identify the states, transitions, and events
used in the system. Tools or manual analysis can be used to infer the state machine
from the code.

• Model Extraction: Use reverse engineering tools that can generate state chart
diagrams from existing codebases, helping to visualize and understand the system's
behavior.

5. Tools and Techniques:

• UML Tools: Software tools like Enterprise Architect, Visual Paradigm, or IBM Rational
Rose can assist in both forward and reverse engineering by providing features for
generating state diagrams from code and vice versa.

• Manual Methods: In cases where automated tools are not available, manual
extraction and modeling may be necessary, involving detailed code review and
diagram creation.
 MODULE -V

ARCHITECTURAL MODELING

In system design and software engineering, understanding how to model components,

executables, libraries, tables, files, documents, and APIs is crucial for creating well-structured
and efficient systems. Here’s a detailed overview of these concepts and their modeling
techniques:

Component Modeling

1. Terms and Concepts:

• Component: A modular part of a system that encapsulates a set of related

functionalities or responsibilities. Components interact with each other through well-
defined interfaces.

• Interface: A contract that defines the services a component offers and expects. It
includes the methods or operations that other components can use.

• Dependency: A relationship indicating that one component relies on another to

function correctly.

• Deployment: The process of placing components into an environment where they can
interact and execute.

2. Modeling Components:

• Component Diagram: A UML diagram that represents the physical components of a

system, including their relationships and dependencies.

o Components: Represented as rectangles with the component’s name and a

stereotype (e.g., <<component>>).

o Interfaces: Represented as small circles or lollipop symbols connected to the

component.

o Dependencies: Shown as dashed arrows pointing from the dependent

component to the component it relies on.

Modeling Executables and Libraries

1. Executables:

• Definition: Files or programs that can be executed by a computer, such as .exe files
on Windows or binary files on Unix-like systems.

• Modeling Executables:

o Deployment Diagrams: Show how executables are deployed on hardware

nodes. They can illustrate the distribution of executables across different
servers or devices.

o Component Diagrams: Can include executable components to indicate the

software modules that are deployed and executed.
2. Libraries:

• Definition: Collections of reusable code or resources that can be linked to executables

or other components. Libraries provide functionality that can be used by multiple
programs.

• Modeling Libraries:

o Component Diagrams: Represent libraries as components, showing how they

interact with other components or executables.

o Dependency Diagrams: Show dependencies between libraries and other

components or executables.

Modeling Tables

1. Tables:

• Definition: Structured data representations used in databases. Tables consist of rows

and columns where each row represents a record and each column represents a field.

• Modeling Tables:

o Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD): Represents tables as entities with

attributes (columns) and relationships between tables (e.g., foreign keys).

o Class Diagram: Can be used to model tables in an object-oriented manner,

where classes represent tables and attributes represent columns.

Modeling Files and Documents

1. Files:

• Definition: Collections of data stored on a storage medium. Files can be of various

types, including text, binary, and configuration files.

• Modeling Files:

o Component Diagrams: Show how different files are used by components or

systems.

o Deployment Diagrams: Illustrate the physical storage and management of

files on hardware nodes.

2. Documents:

• Definition: Files that contain formatted text, images, or other content, such as
reports, user manuals, or configuration files.

• Modeling Documents:

o Component Diagrams: Represent documents as components, especially in

systems where documents are a part of the software architecture.

o Data Flow Diagrams (DFD): Show how documents flow through the system,
including creation, processing, and storage.

Modeling an API (Application Programming Interface)

1. API:

• Definition: A set of rules and tools for building software applications. An API defines
how different software components should interact and can include functions,
procedures, and protocols.

2. Modeling APIs:

• Interface Diagrams: Depict the functions and methods exposed by the API, including
the input and output parameters.

o API Specifications: Document the API’s methods, parameters, return values,

and error codes. This can be represented in detailed diagrams or text formats.

o Sequence Diagrams: Show how API calls are made between components or
systems, illustrating the flow of messages and interactions.

o Component Diagrams: Represent APIs as components with interfaces,

detailing how they integrate with other components or systems.

3. Tools and Techniques:

• UML Tools: Use tools like Enterprise Architect or Visual Paradigm to create detailed
component diagrams and deployment diagrams.

• API Documentation Tools: Tools like Swagger/OpenAPI or Postman for documenting

and visualizing API endpoints and interactions.

Deployment and component diagrams are vital for understanding and designing how software
components are distributed and interact across different physical and logical environments.
They help in modeling the architecture of a system, including how components are deployed
and how they interact. Here’s an in-depth look at these concepts:

Deployment Diagrams

1. Modeling Processors and Devices:

• Processors: Represent the computational resources (CPU, cores) on which software

components run.

• Devices: Represent physical hardware like servers, workstations, mobile devices, or

embedded systems.

2. Components of Deployment Diagrams:

• Nodes: Physical elements that can host software components, such as servers,
desktops, or mobile devices. Nodes are depicted as 3D boxes.

• Artifacts: Physical pieces of software that are deployed on nodes. Artifacts include
executables, libraries, and databases.

• Associations: Represent communication paths or dependencies between nodes, such

as network connections or data links.

3. Modeling the Distribution of Components:

 • Deployment Diagram: Used to show how software components are distributed
across hardware nodes. It illustrates which components are deployed on which devices
and how they interact over a network.

o Nodes: Represent physical hardware or virtual machines.

o Artifacts: Show software units like executables, libraries, or databases

deployed on these nodes.

o Connections: Depict communication paths between nodes.

4. Example:

• System: An online e-commerce application.

o Nodes: Web server, application server, database server.

o Artifacts: Web application executable, application logic library, database

schema.

o Connections: HTTP connections between the web server and application

server, and database connections between the application server and the
database server.

Component Diagrams

1. Modeling Source Code:

• Component Diagram: Represents high-level components and their relationships,

abstracting the underlying source code.

o Components: Represent source code modules or classes.

o Interfaces: Show the exposed functionalities and interactions between

components.

o Dependencies: Indicate how components rely on each other.

2. Modeling Executable Release:

• Component Diagram: Can be used to illustrate how different software modules (e.g.,
executables, libraries) are released and deployed.

o Components: Represent different executables or libraries.

o Dependencies: Show relationships and dependencies between these

executable units.

3. Modeling Physical Database:

• Component Diagram: Represents the database as a component, including its

interactions with other system components.

o Database Component: Show the database as a component, with interfaces

or operations exposed to other components.

o Dependencies: Indicate how other components interact with or rely on the

database.
4. Modeling Adaptable Systems:

• Component Diagram: Can be used to model systems that need to adapt to changing
environments or requirements.

o Components: Represent adaptable modules or services.

o Interfaces: Show how components can be plugged into or replaced by other

components.

o Dependencies: Illustrate flexible interactions and dependencies.

5. Forward and Reverse Engineering:

Forward Engineering:

• Definition: The process of creating detailed designs, code, or documentation from

high-level models.

• Techniques:

o Code Generation: Automatically generating source code from component

diagrams using tools that support forward engineering.

o Deployment Planning: Developing deployment plans from deployment

diagrams, including deployment scripts and configuration settings.

Reverse Engineering:

• Definition: The process of deriving models, diagrams, or documentation from existing

code or systems.

• Techniques:

o Code Analysis: Analyzing source code to create component diagrams that

represent the system's architecture.

o Deployment Analysis: Examining existing deployment configurations and

setups to create deployment diagrams.

Deployment diagrams are a powerful tool in UML (Unified Modeling Language) for visualizing
the physical distribution of software components across hardware nodes and their
interactions. They help model various types of systems, including embedded systems,
client/server systems, and fully distributed systems. They also play a crucial role in forward
and reverse engineering processes.

Deployment Diagrams

1. Modeling an Embedded System

Embedded System:

• Definition: An embedded system is a computer designed to perform specific tasks

within a larger system, often with real-time constraints. Examples include
microcontrollers in appliances, automotive control systems, and medical devices.

Modeling Techniques:
 • Nodes: Represent the hardware components such as microcontrollers, sensors, and
actuators.

• Artifacts: Depict the software components, such as firmware or embedded

applications, that are deployed on these nodes.

• Connections: Illustrate communication paths between hardware components, often

using serial or parallel communication protocols.

Example:

• System: A smart thermostat.

o Nodes: Thermostat microcontroller, temperature sensor, heating element.

o Artifacts: Firmware for the microcontroller, configuration data, control

algorithms.

o Connections: Data lines between the microcontroller and sensors, control

signals to the heating element.

2. Modeling a Client/Server System

Client/Server System:

• Definition: A system architecture where clients request services from servers, which
process the requests and return the results. This model is common in web applications,
databases, and network services.

Modeling Techniques:

• Nodes: Represent servers (e.g., web servers, application servers) and clients (e.g.,
user workstations, mobile devices).

• Artifacts: Include the server-side applications, client applications, and databases.

• Connections: Show network communication paths, such as HTTP or TCP/IP

connections, between clients and servers.

Example:

• System: A web-based email service.

o Nodes: Web server, application server, email server, client devices (e.g.,
desktops, smartphones).

o Artifacts: Web application code, email server software, client email

application.

o Connections: HTTP connections between clients and the web server, SMTP
connections between the email server and clients.

3. Modeling a Fully Distributed System

Fully Distributed System:

• Definition: A system where components are spread across multiple networked nodes
without a central server. Examples include distributed databases, peer-to-peer
networks, and blockchain systems.
Modeling Techniques:

• Nodes: Represent distributed nodes or peers in the network.

• Artifacts: Include distributed services, databases, or computation units deployed

across these nodes.

• Connections: Illustrate the communication protocols and data flow between

distributed components.

Example:

• System: A peer-to-peer file sharing network.

o Nodes: Multiple peer nodes participating in file sharing.

o Artifacts: File sharing application, index databases, peer-to-peer protocols.

o Connections: P2P connections for file transfers and metadata exchanges

between peers.

4. Forward and Reverse Engineering

Forward Engineering:

• Definition: The process of creating detailed designs, code, or deployment

configurations from high-level models.

• Techniques:

o Code Generation: Automatically generating deployment configurations or

scripts from deployment diagrams using tools or frameworks.

o Deployment Planning: Developing detailed deployment plans from

deployment diagrams, including resource allocation and configuration.

Reverse Engineering:

• Definition: The process of deriving models, diagrams, or documentation from existing

code or systems.

• Techniques:

o Code Analysis: Analyzing existing code or system configurations to create

deployment diagrams that represent the current architecture.

o System Analysis: Examining deployment setups and network configurations

to create or update deployment diagrams.