LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

Almiranor Siberia Seiz

Loraine Mae Asuncion Añasco

2021
 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

This instructional material is specifically designed during this time of the COVID -19 pandemic.
This will introduce students to the different concepts on leadership and decision-making.

The authors have devised a broad range of discussion and assessments that will entice students
to the challenges of leadership and decision making in an exciting way, but also worked to a material
that’s straightforward, current, relevant, and easy to learn from. The text is purposely brief and covers the
essentials without burdening students with unnecessary detail. The lessons are written using a course file
format that are self -directed and can help students learn on their own pace.

The authors have tried to build an instructional material package that is as supportive as possible
to students for them to understand leadership and decision making better, with the ultimate cultivating the
leader in every student.

As an epigraph for this IM, we have chosen a nugget from Jim Rohn:

“The challenge of leadership is to be strong but not rude; be kind, but not weak; be bold, but
not a bully; be humble, but not timid; be proud, but not arrogant; have humor, but without folly.”

The authors believe this quote encapsulates an important goal of this instructional material: to en-
courage students to be great leaders someday. The authors are hoping that students will find the call with-
in their inner self to lead and help others.

The Authors

Seiz &Añasco, 2021

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 UNIT 1

Defining Leadership

Course Outcome:
Explain the fundamental concepts and theories of leadership
and decision making
 Lesson 1 DEFINITIONS OF LEADERSHIP

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

Identify the different definitions of leadership and

Explain the definitions of leadership

LEADERSHIP
Is the ability of a superior to influence the behavior of subordinates and persuade the to
follow a particular course of action. (Barnard 1938).
Is the process of influencing activities of organized group toward goal achievement
(Rauch and Behling)
Is the role or function involving motivation, direction, supervision, guidance and
evaluation of others for the purpose of accomplishing a task ( Jose P. Leveriza)
Is refers to situations in which your’re working with others, accomplishing tasks and
reaching goals through the efforts of other people ( Dr. Paul Hersey)
Is the process of making sense of what people are doing together so that people will
understand and be committed ( Drooth and Palus)

LEADERSHIP AS INFLUENCE
These definitions describe leadership as a process of influencing others. It’s the ability of
the leader to build relationships and influence people’s behaviour as required to execute
the vision.The outcome of leadership is about changing the behaviour of people. This
perspective of leadership is focused on inspiring and motivating others, with an
emphasising the relationship between leaders and followers.
“Leadership is influence – nothing more, nothing less.” – John Maxwell, The 21 Irrefutable
Laws of Leadership
“Leadership is the incremental influence that a person has beyond his or her formal
authority” – Vecchio
“Leadership requires using power to influence the thoughts and actions of other people.”
– Zalenik, A., Managers and Leaders: are they different?
“Influencing people – by providing purpose, direction, and motivation – while operating
to accomplish the mission and improving the organization.” – US Army Manual
“Leadership is the capacity to influence others through inspiration motivated by
passion, generated by vision, produced by a conviction, ignited by a purpose.” –
Dr. Myles Munroe, The Spirit of Leadership
“Leadership is the art of influencing others to their maximum performance to accomplish
any task, objective or project.” – William Alan Cohen, The Art of a Leader
“Leadersip is an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real
changes that reflect their mutual purposes.” – Joseph Rost, Leadership in the 21st
Century
 “Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a group in
efforts toward goal achievement in a given situation.” – Hersey, P., Blanchard, K.,
Dewey, E.J., Management of Organizational B

LEADERSHIP AS CHANGE
These definitions describe leadership primarily as a process of change supported by social
influence and persuasion. Change is central to effective leadership. The greater the
change the greater the need for leadership. More change demands more leadership.
Therefore leadership requires leaders develop vision and future direction, to influence
LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

people to move towards the vision to achieve a shared goal.

“Leadership is the ability to step outside the culture to start evolutionary change processes
that are more adaptive.” – Edgar Schein
“Leadership defines what the future should look like, aligns people with that vision, and
inspires them to make it happen despite the obstacles.” – John Kotter, Leading
Change
“Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve
a common goal.” – Northouse, P. G., Leadership: Theory and Practice
“Leadership is the art of mobilizing others to want to struggle for shared aspirations.” –
Kouzes, J.M. and Posner, B.Z., The Leadership Challenge
“Leadership is the capacity to translate vision into reality.” – Warren G. Bennis
“Leadership is the process of persuasion or example by which an individual (or
leadership team) induces a group to pursue objectives held by the leader or shared
by the leader and his or her followers” – John W. Gardner, On Leadership
“Leadership is the capacity of individuals to spark the capacity of a human community –
people living and working together – to bring forth new realities.” – Peter Senge

LEADERSHIP AS SERVICE
Then there the definitions of leadership as being about service to others usually referred to
as “servant leadership”. This perspective of leadership speaks to the motives and intentions
of the leader, proposing that effective leaders act from the desire to be of service to
others.
“Leadership is about service to others and a commitment to developing more servants
as leaders. It involves co-creation of a commitment to a mission.” – Robert Greenleaf
“The first responsibility of a leader is to define reality. The last is to say thank you. In
between the two, the leader must become a servant and a debtor. That sums up
the progress of an artful leader.” – Max DePree
“All of the great leaders have had one characteristic in common: it was the willingness
to confront unequivocally the major anxiety of their people in their time. This, and
not much else, is the essence of leadership.” – John Kenneth Galbraith

LEADERSHIP AS CHARACTER
There are definitions leadership that refer to the importance of the leader’s character for
effective leadership. These recognize the important of integrity, trust and the character of
the leader. This is the recognition that without character and integrity, people will not trust
the leader and without trust leaders cannot influence others to follow them on a journey
of change.
“Leadership is a combination of strategy and character. If you must be without one, be
without the strategy.” – General H. Norman Schwarzkopf
“Leadership: The capacity and will to rally people to a common purpose together with
the character that inspires confidence and trust” – Field Marshal Montgomery
“Leadership is not a person or a position. It is a complex moral relationship between
people, based on trust, obligation, commitment, emotion, and a shared vision of
the good.” – Joanne Ciulla

LEADERSHIP AS DEVELOPMENT
There is number of definitions of leadership that focus on the responsibility of the leader to
grow and develop others into leaders. They highlight the importance of knowing and
expressing who you are as a leader. These definitions recognize the need for the personal
development of the leader and their constituents so they are able to effectively deal
LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

with the challenges of change brought about by a challenging vision.

“The function of leadership is to produce more leaders, not more followers.” – Ralph Nadar
“Before you are a leader, success is all about growing yourself. When you become a
leader, success is all about growing others.” – Jack Welch
“If your actions inspire others to dream more, learn more, do more and become more,
you are a leader.” — John Quincy Adams, American 6th US President (1825-
29)
“Leadership is a function of knowing yourself, having a vision that is well
communicated, building trust among colleagues, and taking effective action to
realize your own leadership potential.” – Warren Bennis
The above definitions provide an overview of some of the most widely reference definitions
of leadership.

LESSON 2 THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
Identify the theories of leadership and Analyze the theories of leadership

LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early
leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and follow,
while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill
level. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as
one of eight major types:

“GREAT MAN” THEORIES

Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great
leaders are born, not made.
These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic, and destined to rise to
leadership when needed.
The term “Great Man” was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily
as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

TRAIT THEORIES

Similar in some ways to “Great Man” theories, trait theory assumes that people inherit
certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership.
Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared
by leaders. But if particular traits are key features of leadership, how do we explain
people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the
difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.

CONTINGENCY THEORIES

Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the

environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited
for the situation.
According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends
upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers,
and aspects of the situation.

SITUATIONAL THEORIES

Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon
situational variable.
Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of
decisionmaking.

BEHAVIORAL THEORIES

Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are
made, not born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions
of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states.
According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and
observation.

PARTICIPATIVE THEORIES
 Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes
the input of others into account.
These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help
group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process.
In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

MANAGEMENT THEORIES

Management theories (also known as “Transactional theories”) focus on the role of

supervision, organization, and group performance.
These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment.
Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are
rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

RELATIONSHIP THEORIES

Relationship theories (also known as “Transformational theories”) focus upon the

connections formed between leaders and followers.
These leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the
importance and higher good of the task.
Transformational leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also
want each person to fulfill his or her potential.
These leaders often have high ethical and moral standards

Lesson 3 Leadership Styles

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
Identify the different leadership styles and
Analyze the leadership styles.

Different types of leadership styles exist in work environments. Advantages and

disadvantages exist within each leadership style. The culture and goals of an organization
determine which leadership style fits the firm best. Some companies offer several
leadership styles within the organization, dependent upon the necessary tasks to complete
and departmental needs.
Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans,
and motivating people. As seen by the employees, it includes the total pattern of explicit
and implicit actions performed by their leader (Newstrom, Davis, 1993).
The first major study of leadership styles was performed in 1939 by Kurt Lewin who led a
group of researchers to identify different styles of leadership (Lewin, Lippit, White, 1939). This
early study has remained quite influential as it established the three major leadership styles:
(U.S. Army, 1973):
LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING
Laissez-Faire
A laissez-faire leader lacks direct supervision of employees and fails to provide regular
feedback to those under his supervision. Highly experienced and trained employees
requiring little supervision fall under the laissez-faire leadership style. However, not all
employees possess those characteristics. This leadership style hinders the production of
employees needing supervision. The laissez-faire style produces no leadership or
supervision efforts from managers, which can lead to poor production, lack of control and
increasing costs.

Autocratic
The autocratic leadership style allows managers to make decisions alone without the input
of others. Managers possess total authority and impose their will on employees. No one
challenges the decisions of autocratic leaders. Countries such as Cuba and North Korea
operate under the autocratic leadership style. This leadership style benefits employees
who require close supervision. Creative employees who thrive in group functions detest
this leadership style.

Participative
Often called the democratic leadership style, participative leadership values the input of
team members and peers, but the responsibility of making the final decision rests with the
participative leader. Participative leadership boosts employee morale because
employees make contributions to the decision-making process. It causes them to feel as if
their opinions matter. When a company needs to make changes within the organization,
the participative leadership style helps employees accept changes easily because they
play a role in the process. This style meets challenges when companies need to make a
decision in a short period.

Transactional
Managers using the transactional leadership style receive certain tasks to perform and provide
rewards or punishments to team members based on performance results. Managers and team
members set predetermined goals together, and employees agree to follow the direction and
leadership of the manager to accomplish those goals. The manager possesses power to review
results and train or correct employees when team members fail to meet goals. Employees receive
rewards, such as bonuses, when they accomplish goals.

Transformational
The transformational leadership style depends on high levels of communication from management
to meet goals. Leaders motivate employees and enhance productivity and efficiency through
communication and high visibility. This style of leadership requires the involvement of management
to meet goals. Leaders focus on the big picture within an organization and delegate smaller
tasks to the team to accomplish goals.
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LESSON 4 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
Identify the difference between a leader and a manager and
Differentiate leadership and management

The Leader “does the right things”while the Manager” does the things right”.

MANAGERS LEADERS
Managers administer Leaders innovate.
Managers control leaders inspire
Managers have a short-term view, Leaders have a long- term view

Managers ask how and when Leaders ask what and why

Managers imitate Leaders originate

Managers accept the status quo Leaders challenge it

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LESSON 5 POWER VS. INFLUENCE

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
Define power and influence; and
Differentiate power and influence

Power
defined as the capacity to produce ef-
fects on others (House, 1984) or the
potential to influence others (Bass,
1990). Power does not need to be ex-
ercised in order to have its effects
(Gardner, 1986)

Influence
the change in a target agent’s attitudes,
values, beliefs, or behavior as the re-
sult of the influence tactics.

Power is the capacity to cause change, in-

fluence is the degree of actual change in a
target person’s attitudes, values, beliefs, or
behaviors. Influence can be measured by
the behaviors or attitudes manifested by fol-
lowers as the result of a leader’s influence
tactics
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Sources of Leader Power

Expert Power
is the power of knowledge
Some people are able to influence others through their relative expertise in particular areas.
Referent Power
Refers to the potential influence one has due to the strength of the relationship between the
leader and the followers.
When people admire a leader and see her as a role model, we say she has referent power.
Legitimate Power
Depends on a person’s organizational role.
It can be thought of as one’s formal or official authority.
Some people make things happen because they have the power or authority to do so.
In other words, legitimate power means a leaders has authority because he or she has been
assigned a particular role in an organization.
A leader has this authority only as long as he or she occupies that position and operates with-
in the proper bounds of that role.
Reward Power
It involves the potential to influence others due to one’s control over desired resources.
This can include the power to give raises, bonuses, and promotions etc.
Coercive Power
It is the opposite of reward power, is the potential to influence others through the administra-
tion of the negative sanctions or the removal of positive events.
In other words, it is the ability to control others through the fear of punishment or the loss of
valued outcomes.

Instructions: This activity will help you identify the source of power of the different posi-

Position/Identity Source of Power

City Mayor

Parents

Doctor of Medicine

Teacher

President of the Philippines

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MAIN TASK: DISCUSSION PAPER

Name: __________________________________________________________________ Section Code: _______

Contact No.: _________________________

Instructions: This is a simplified requirement for the mid -term called as “Discussion Paper ”. It
will test your ability to analyze the different topics introduced in the previous lessons by answering
the questions.
Your answer in every question is rated based on the rubric below:

Criteria Description Equivalent Actual Points

Points Earned
Presentation Follows instructions 2
Shows neatness of the output
Analysis Responds to the question directly 5
Gives an accurate answer /Cites example
Organization Illustrates clarity of thoughts and ideas 3
consistent to the question
Total 10

Based on the different definitions and theories of leadership presented in the previous lessons,
do you see y

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

As a public administration student, why is it important to know the different leadership styles
of the leaders?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

If you become a great leader someday, what do you prefer to have power or influence?
Why?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 UNIT 2

Applying Basic Leadership and Decision-

Making Skills

Course Outcome:
Apply basic leadership and decision-making skills

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WARM-UP ACTIVITY: WHAT LEADERSHIP SKILLS DO I HAVE

Name: __________________________________________________________________ Section Code: _______

Contact No.: _________________________ Date: _______________

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Lesson 6 Basic Leadership Skills

Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
Identify the basic leadership skills and
Apply basic leadership skills

Assertiveness
Providing Constructive Feedback
Guidelines for Effective Stress Management
Building Technical Competence
Building Effective Relationships with Superiors and Peers

1. ASSERTIVENESS

What is Assertiveness?
Are able to stand up for their own rights (or their group rights) in a way that also rec-
ognizes the concurrent right of others to do the same.
It involves direct and frank statements of one’s own goals and feelings and a willing-
ness to address the interests of others in the spirit of mutual problem solving and a
belief that openness is preferable to secretiveness and hidden agenda.

What are the tips to be assertive?

Use “I” statements
Speak up for what you need
Learn to say No
Monitor your inner dialogue
Be persistent

Assertiveness Questionnaire

1. Do you let someone know when you think he or she is being unfair to you?
2. Can you criticize someone else ideas openly?
3. Are you able to speak up in a meeting?
4. Can you ask other for small favors or help?
5. Is it easy for you to compliment others?
6. Can you tell someone else you don’t like what he or she is doing?
7. When you are complimented, do you really accept the compliment without in-
wardly discounting it in your mind?
8. Can you look others in the eye when you talk to them?

If you could answer the most of these questions affirmatively for most situations, then
you behave assertively.

What is acquiescence?
is avoiding interpersonal conflict entirely either by giving up and giving in or by ex-
pressing one’s needs in an apologetic, self -effacing way.
Is not synonymous with politeness or helpfulness.
People who are acquiescent, or nonassertive, back down easily when challenged.

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What is aggression?
Is an effort to attain objectives by attacking or hurting others.
Aggressive people trample on others, and their aggressiveness can take direct forms
of threats, verbal attacks, physical intimidation, emotional outbursts, explosiveness,
bullying.
THE 6 SECRETS OF SUCCESSFULLY ASSERTIVE LEADERS
1. Connect and communicate with everyone
They make themselves accessible to everyone. They also spend the time to
communicate clearly and personally about changes.
2. Give honest feedback in a helpful way.
Feedback delivered in the wrong way can discourage, de-motivate, and anger an
employee.
Feedback that is offered with sensitivity can encourage and guide people to success.
3. Use good judgment to make decisions.
Gathering all the facts, careful analysis, and examination of the trends will help this
process but one of the best practices is involving others in the decision making
process.
4. Walk your talk
Sometimes assertive leaders see the need for other people to change their behavior,
but they themselves are immune from the change.
The most effective, assertive leaders model the changes they desire in others.
5. Maintain excellent relationships
An assertive leader that is respected, admired and liked by others can exert influence
and ask others to take on difficult tasks. An assertive leader who is disrespected and
disliked can try with all his or her might to exert influence, and all they will get is
resistance. Strong relationships can help to cover these gaps.
6. Look for opportunities to collaborate
Some assertive leaders make the assumption they can do things themselves without
the cooperation and support of other people or groups.
The motive is often personal recognition. This philosophy is doomed to fail. Taking the
time to get other groups or organizations on board with changes and improvements
ensures the success of any project or change.

Being an assertive leader is an excellent quality that compels people to achieve more.

2. PROVIDING CONSTRUCTIVE FEEDBACK

Giving Constructive Feedback

Involves sharing information or perceptions with another about the nature, quality, or
impact of that person’s behavior.
It can be range from giving feedback pertaining specifically to a person’s work (i.e.
performance feedback) to impressions of how aspects of that person’s
interpersonal behavior may be pervasively affecting relationships with others.

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Getting helpful feedback
Essential to a subordinates performance and development.
Without feedback, a subordinate will not be able to tell whether she’s doing a good
job or whether or not her abrasiveness is turning people off and hurting her chances
for promotions.

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Who needs constructive feedback to learn and grow?

Peers may seek feedback from peers
Leaders may seek feedback from subordinates
Effective supervisory feedback also plays a major role in building morale.

Giving good feedback

Depends on being clear about the purpose of the feedback and on choosing an ap-
propriate context and medium for giving it.
Depends on sending the proper nonverbal signals and trying to detect emotional sig-
nals from whoever may be receiving the feedback.
Depends on being somewhat assertive in providing it even when it may be critical of
person’s performance or behavior.

Feedback Skills
Are related to communication, listening, and assertiveness skills they are not the same
thing.
Someone may have good communication, listening, and assertiveness skills but poor
feedback skills.

Component of feedback
It concerns knowing when, where, and what feedback is to be given.

Example:
Knowing when, where, and how to give positive feedback may be different from
knowing when, where and how to give negative feedback.

The behavioral component of feedback

Concerns how feedback actually is delivered ( as contrasted with knowing when,
where, and how it should be delivered.

Good feedback is
Specific
Descriptive
Direct
Helpful
One way to evaluate feedback is to examine whether recipients actually modify their
behavior accordingly after receiving it.

This should not be the only way to evaluate feedback skills. Even when feedback is ac-
curate in content and delivered skillfully, a recipient may fail to acknowledge it or do an-
ything about it.

Although most leaders probably believe that feedback is an important skill, research has
shown that leaders also believe that they give more feedback than their subordinates
think they do (Greller, 1980).

There are many reasons leaders may be reluctant to give feedback .

Time pressures,
Doubts about the efficacy of feedback,
Lack of feedback skills (Komacki, 1982)

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Sometimes supervisors are hesitant to use positive feedback because they believe
subordinates may see it as politically manipulated, ingratiating, or insincere (Bass, 1990).

Leaders also may give positive feedback infrequently if they rarely

leave their desks, if their personal standards are too high they
believe good performance is performance is expected and should
not be recognized at all ( Deep& Sussman, 1990).
Fears of disrupting leader-follower relations (Harrison, 1982) or fear of employee
retaliation (Parsons, Herolds, & Leatherwood, 1985).

Although there are a number of reasons why leaders are hesitant to provide both positive
and negative feedback, leaders need to keep in mind that followers, committee
members, or team members will perform at a higher level if they are given accurate and
frequent feedback.

It is difficult to imagine how work group or team performance could improve without
feedback. Positive feedback is necessary to tell followers they should keep doing well,
and negative feedback is needed to give followers or team ideas on how what to
change other behavior to improve their performance.

Although accurate and frequent feedback is necessary there are several aspects of
feedback that everyone can work on to improve their feedback skills including (a) making
sure it’s helpful,
(b) being direct,
(c) being specific,
(d) being descriptive,
(e) being timely, (f) being flexible,
(g) giving both positive and negative feedback, and
(h) avoiding blame and embarrassment when giving feedback.

6 Method in giving Constructive Feedback

1. State the constructive purpose of your feedback

State your purpose briefly by indicating what you'd like to cover and why it's important.
If you are initiating feedback, this focus keeps the other person from having to guess
what you want to talk about.
If the other person has requested feedback, a focusing statement will make sure that
you
direct your feedback toward what the person needs.

For example: "I have a concern about."

"I feel I need to let you know."
"I want to discuss."
"I have some thoughts about."

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2. Describe specifically of what you have observed
Have a certain event or action in mind and be able to say when and where it
happened, who was involved, and what the results were.
Stick to what you personally observed and don't try to speak for others.
Avoid talking vaguely about what the person "always" or "usually" does.
LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

For example: "Yesterday afternoon, when you were speaking with Mrs. Sanchez, I noticed
that you kept raising your voice."

3.Describe your reactions

Explain the consequences of the other person's behavior and how you feel about it.
Give examples of how you and others are affected.
When you describe your reactions or the consequences of the observed behaviors, the
other person can better appreciate the impact their actions are having on others
and on the organization or team as a whole.

For example: "The staff member looked embarrassed and I felt uncomfortable about
seeing the episode." "Shouting at our students is not acceptable behavior in this
department."

4. Give the other person an opportunity to respond

Remain silent and meet the other persons eye, indicating that you are waiting for
answer.
If the person hesitates to respond, ask an open ended question.

For example: "What do you think?"

"What is your view of this situation?"
"What are your reaction to this?"
"Tell me, what are your thoughts?"

5.Offer specific suggestion

Whenever possible make your suggestions helpful by including practical, feasible
examples.
Offering suggestions shows that you have thought past your evaluations and moved to
how to improve the situation.
Even if people are working up to expected standards, they often benefit from ideas
that could help them to perform better.
If your feedback was offered supportively or neutrally, in the "for your information"
mode, or depending on the situation's circumstances, suggestions may not be
appropriate.
Use your common sense and offer an idea if you think the other person will find it useful.
Don't drum up a suggestion for improvement just for the sake of it.

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For example: "Jennifer, I sometimes write myself notes or put up signs to remind myself to
do
something."
"Jill, rather than telling Ed that you're not interested in all the details, you might try asking
him specific questions about the information you are most interested in."

6.Summarize and express your support

Review the major points you discussed. Summarize the Action items, not the negative
points of the other person's behavior.
If you have given neutral feedback, emphasize the main points you have wanted to
convey.

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For corrective feedback, stress the main things you've discussed that the person could
do differently.
End on a positive note by communicating confidence in the person's ability to im-
prove the situation.

For example: "As I said, the way the group has figured out how to cover phone calls
has really lessened the number of phone messages to be returned. You've really
followed through on a tough problem.
Please keep taking the initiate on problems like that.
By summarizing, you can avoid misunderstandings and check to make sure that your
communication is clean.
This summary is an opportunity to show your support for the other person —a way to
conclude even an negative feedback situation on a positive note.

For example:
"At least we understand each other better since we've talked. I'll do what I can to make
sure your priorities are factored into the schedule, and I'll expect you to come straight to
me if the schedule is a problem.

3. GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT

What is stress?
Define as the whole process by which we appraise and respond to events that chal-
lenge or threaten us ( Myers, 1989)
It is in the eye of the beholder, what one person may see as challenging and poten-
tially rewarding, other may see as threatening and distressful.

Analogy:
Kites need an optimal amount of wind to fly, they will not fly on windless days,their strings
may break on a day that is too windy. (You can think of stress as like the wind for a kite)

Stress Symptoms

Questions Yes or No
Are you behaving “unlike” yourself?
Has your mood become negative, hostile, or depressed?
Do you have difficulty sleeping?
Are you defensive or touchy/sensitive?
Are your relationships suffering?
Have you made more mistakes or bad decisions lately?
Have you lost interest in normally enjoyable activities?
Are you using alcohol or other drugs?
Do you seem to have little energy?
Do you worry a lot?
Are you nervous much of the time?
Have you been under eating?
Have you been overeating
Have you had an increase in headaches or backpains?

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

Tip 1: Identify the sources of stress

Stress management starts with identifying the sources of stress in your life.

Start a Stress Journal

What caused your stress (make a guess if you’re unsure)
How you felt, both physically and emotionally
How you acted in response
What you did to make yourself feel better

Tip 2: Practice the 4 A's of stress management

A- avoid unnecessary stress

Learn how to say "no."
Avoid people who stress you out
Take control of your environment
Pare down your to -do list

A-alter the situation

If you can't avoid a stressful situation, try to alter it. Often, this involves changing the way
you communicate and operate in your daily life.
Express your feelings instead of bottling them up
Create a balanced schedule

A-Adapt to the stressor

If you can't change the stressor, change yourself. You can adapt to stressful situations
and regain your sense of control by changing your expectations and attitude.
Reframe problems
Review stressful situation
Look at the big picture
Take perspective of the stressful situation. Ask yourself how important it will be in the
long run. Will it matter in a month? A year? Is it really worth getting upset over? If
the answer is no, focus your time and energy elsewhere.
Adjust your standards
Practice gratitude
When stress is getting you down, take a moment to reflect on all the things you appre-
ciate in your life, including your own positive qualities and gifts. This simple strategy
can help you keep things in perspective.

A-accept the things you can’t change

Some sources of stress are unavoidable. You can’t prevent or change stressors such as
the death of a loved one, a serious illness, or a national recession. In such cases, the best
way to cope with stress is to accept things as they are. Acceptance may be difficult, but
in the long run, it’s easier than railing against a situation you can’t change.

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

Don't try to control the uncontrollable

Look for the upside-Learn from your mistakes
Learn to forgive
Share your feelings

Tip 3: Get Moving

Exercise
Walking
Dancing

Tip 4: Connect to others (Making Good Friend)

1. Reach out to a colleague at work
2. Help someone else by volunteering
3. Have lunch or coffee with a friend
4. Ask a loved one to check in with you regularly
5. Accompany someone to the movies or a concert
6. Call or email an old friend
7. Go for a walk with a workout buddy
8. Schedule a weekly dinner date
9. Meet new people by taking a class or joining a club
10. Confide in a clergy member, teacher, or sports coach

Tip 5: Make Time for Fun and Relaxation

Tip 6: Manage Your Time Better- Prioritize Tasks
Tip 7: Maintain Balance with a healthy lifestyle
Eat a healthy diet
Well-nourished bodies are better prepared to cope with stress, so be mindful
of what you eat. Start your day right with breakfast, and keep your energy
up and your mind clear with balanced, nutritious meals throughout the day.
Reduce caffeine and sugar
The temporary "highs" caffeine and sugar provide often end in with a crash
in mood and energy. By reducing the amount of coffee, soft drinks, choco-
late, and sugar snacks in your die t, you’ll feel more relaxed and you’ll sleep
better.
Avoid alcohol, cigarettes, and drugs
Self-medicating with alcohol or drugs may provide an easy escape from
stress, but the relief is only temporary. Don’t avoid or mask the issue at hand;
deal with problems head on and with a clear mind.
Get enough sleep
Adequate slee p fuels your mind, as well as your body. Feeling tired will in-
crease your stress because it may cause you to think irrationally.

Question to Ponder:
Who do you think typically experiences greater stress? Leaders or members?
As a leader why do you need to manage the stress of your members?

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

4. BUILDING TECHNICAL COMPETENCE

What is Technical Competence?

It concerns the knowledge and repertoire of behaviors one can bring to bear to
successfully complete a task.
Example:
A highly skilled surgeon possesses vast knowledge of human anatomy and
surgical techniques and can perform an extensive set of highly practiced
surgical procedures.
Individuals usually acquire technical competence through formal education or training
in special topics (i.e. law, medicine etc.), on-the-job training, or experience (Yukl,
1989), and many studies have documented the importance of technical
competence to a person’s success and effectiveness as both leader and a follower.
Why do followers need to have a high level of technical competence?

First
Performance is often a function of technical competence (Borman et al, 1193).
Research has shown that technical expertise plays a key role in supervisor’s
performance appraisal ratings of subordinates (Borman et al, 1991).
Second
Followers with high levels of technical competence have a lot of expert power, and at
times can wield more influence in their groups than the leader does (Bugental,1964)
Third
Individuals with high level of technical competence may be more likely to be a
member of a leader’s in-group ( Duchon, 1986)
Followers with high levels of technical competence may be more likely to be
delegated tasks and asked to participate in decision-making process.

Why it benefits leaders to have high levels of technical competence?

First
Technical competence has been found to be consistently related to managerial
promotion rates.
Managers having high levels of technical competence were more likely to rise to the
top managerial levels than managers with lower levels of technical competence (Howard,
1989). Second
Having a high level of technical competence is important because many leaders,
particularly first –line supervisors, often spend considerable time training the followers (
Wexley, 1981) Third
Leaders with high levels of technical competence seem to be able to reduce the level
of role ambiguity and conflict in their groups (Podsakoff, 1983).

Finally, leaders who have a high level of technical competence may be able to stimulate
followers to think about problems and issues in new ways, which in turn has been found to

29
be strongly related to organizational climate ratings and followers’ non motivation to
succeed (Curphy, 1991)

LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

PRACTICAL ADVICE FOR IMPROVING TECHNICAL COMPETENCE

Determining How the Job Contributes to the Overall Mission

The first step in building technical competence
Individuals can better determine what technical knowledge and which behaviors are
most strongly related to job and organizational success.
People should evaluate their current level of technical skills by seeking verbal feedback
from peers and superiors, reviewing past performance appraisal results, or reviewing
objective performance data.
These actions will help individuals get a better handle on their own strengths and
weaknesses, and in turn can help people be certain that any formal education or
training program they pursue is best suited to meet their needs.

Becoming an Expert in the Job

Becoming an expert in one’s primary field is often the spring board for further
development opportunities.
Enrolling in formalized education and training programs, watching others, asking
questions, and teaching others.
Attending pertinent education and training courses is one way to acquire technical
skills, and many companies often pay the tuition fees associated with courses.
Another way to increase expertise in one’s field is by being keen observer of human
behavior.
Individuals can learn a lot by observing how others handle work-coordination problems,
achieve production goals, discipline team members, or develop team members
with poor skills.
Finally, perhaps nothing can help a person become a technical expert more than
having to teach someone else about the equipment, procedures, strategies,
problems, resources, and contacts associated with a job, club, sport, or activity.
Teachers must have a thorough understanding of the job or position in order to
effectively teach someone else. By seeking opportunities to teach others, individuals
enhance their own technical expertise as well as that of others.

Seeking Opportunities to Broaden Experiences

Individuals can improve their technical competence by seeking opportunities to
broaden their experiences.
Similarly, people should visit other parts of the organization in order to gain an
understanding of its whole operation.
Moreover, by working on team projects, people get a chance to interact with
members of other work units and often get the opportunity to develop new skills.
Additionally, volunteering to support school, political, or community activities is another
way to increase one’s organization and planning, public speaking, fundraising, and

30
 public relation skills, all of which may be important aspects of technical
competence for certain jobs.

5. BUILDING EFFECTIVE RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERIORS AND PEERS

Who are the superiors?

Are those individuals with relatively more power and authority than the other members
of the group.
They could be:
Teachers

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

Band directors
Coaches
Team captains
Heads of committees
First-line supervisors
Etc.

Advantages to have a good working relationship with superiors:

Superiors and followers sharing the same values, approaches and attitudes will experi-
ence less conflict;
Provide higher levels of mutual support and be more satisfied with superior -follower
relationships than superiors and followers having poor working relationships
(Porter,1992)

Developing a Better Relationship With Your Boss ( Jim Belosic)

1. Take the Initiative to Set Up Monthly Meetings
2. Demonstrate Your Innovation and Initiative
3. Strive for Open Communication
4. Remember Your Boss Is Human, Too
5. Be Yourself
6. Recognize That Your Relationship With Every Boss Will Be Different
7. Don’t Wait For Praise
8. Get To Know Your Boss’s Communication Style
9. Be Loyal To Your Boss And Your Boss Will Be Loyal To You
10. Provide Advance Notice and Don’t Let Your Boss’s Mood Bug You

Building Effective Relationship with Peers

Tips to develop effective working relationship with your peers

(Salwani Ali and Joel Garfinkle)
1. Search for common goals
2. Establish trust and respect
3. No blame game
4. “When a man points a finger at someone else, he should remember that four of
his fingers are pointing at himself.”- Louis Nizer.
5. Make a time to bond with each other
6. Speak positively about the people you work with, especially to your boss
7. Write thank you notes
8. Share more of yourself at meetings
9. Ask others to become involved in your projects or activities
10. Share information
11. Improve your interpersonal skills by supporting other people’s work

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

Activity 7: APPLICATION MATRIX

Instructions: This activity will help you identify the basic leadership skills and analyze how these
basic leadership skills be applied. Simply provide the information asked in the matrix below.

Basic Leadership Application

Skills
(How will you apply these skills in your life as a public admin-
istration student?

1.

2.

4.

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

LESSON 7 DECISION MAKING SKILLS

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
Identify the definitions and models of decision-making and
Apply the decision-making skills

1. DEFINITIONS OF DECISION MAKING

What is Decision?
Is an action or series of action chosen from a number of possible alternatives.

What is Decision Making?

In its simplest sense, decision-making is the act of choosing between two or more courses
of action.

In the wider process of problem-solving, decision-making involves choosing between

possible solutions to a problem. Decisions can be made through either
an intuitive or reasoned process, or a combination of the two.
Decision making is a process of making a choice from a number of alternatives to
achieve a desired result (Eisenfuhr, 2011). This definition has three key elements. First, de-
cision making involves making a choice from a number of options. Second, decision
making is a process that involves more than simply a final choice from among alterna-
tives. Finally, the "desired result" mentioned in the definition involves a purpose or target
resulting from the mental activity that the decision maker engages in to reach a final de-
cision.

What is Intuition?
Intuition is using your ‘gut feeling’ about possible courses of action.
Although people talk about it as if it was a magical ‘sense’, intuition is actually a combi-
nation of past experience and your personal values. It is worth taking your intuition into
account, because it reflects your learning about life. It is, however, not always based on
reality, only your perceptions, many of which may have started in childhood and may

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

2. EFFECTIVE DECISION-MAKING

Decisions need to be capable of being implemented, whether on a personal or or-

ganisational level. You do, therefore, need to be committed to the decision person-
ally, and be able to persuade others of its merits.
An effective decision-making process, therefore, needs to ensure that you are able
to do so.

The 9 Characteristics of a Good Decision

The choices you make as an entrepreneur can have powerful impacts. The “chance
of a lifetime” can appear out of nowhere only to turn into something painful. Con-
versely, there are those opportunities that don’t seem worthy of a second glance at
the time but eventually wriggle their way on to your missed opportunity list. Bartend-
er, I think I’ll have another.

You don’t want to seize just any opportunity -- you want the right opportunity. After
all, this is your precious entrepreneurial -baby-of-an-idea that you want to succeed,
and that means seeing the light of day tomorrow based on the decision(s) you make
today.

Decision-making can be the single-greatest weight upon your shoulders if you don’t
know how to manage stress or if the consequences are less than ideal. So, how do
you know what a good decision looks like? Here are nine characteristics of a good
decision:

1. Good decisions positively impact others.

This statement may seem obvious, but if it were, bad decisions wouldn’t exist. After
all, anybody who is adversely affected by a decision immediately classifies that deci-
sion as bad. Of course, now you just need to find a common definition of "positive."

2. Good decisions are replicable.

People want to mimic a bad decision like a case of herpes. Enough said (and feel
free to tweet that).

3. Good decisions foster opportunity.

An effective decision empowers others to act.

4. Good decisions include others.

Arriving at a conclusion that serves the company is a process. There are boxes to
check off that ensure accountabilities are established and authorities are met.

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

5. Good decisions are executable.

Integral to any decision is clarity around what that decision is. If there’s ambiguity
about what to do next then that decision isn’t clear enough. Clarity minimizes
uncertainty, and although this may sound like an obvious statement, remember that
what’s apparent to you may be newfound insight to others.

6. A good decision is systematic.

Ruling out the good criteria from the bad requires time, resources, clear (there’s that
word again) requirements as to what the goal is and judgment to estimate the
probability of success.

7. Good decisions are accountable.

With clarity also comes accountability. It’s not easy hiding behind something that
outlines, in detail, the roles, responsibilities or expectations associated with a new
decision. Tack on the timeline, assets necessary and the conditions that define
success and you’re pretty much on a one-way highway to execution without any U-
turns (my metaphor for accountability avoidance).

8. Good decisions are pragmatic.

Humans are creatures of emotion, which means eliminating emotion from a decision
isn't feasible. However, what can be eliminated are self-serving emotional biases. In
the SEAL Teams, for example, there were three criteria upon which decisions were
made: The mission, the team, the individual. Namely, who does the decision serve?
Hint: The individual comes last.
When you're faced with another difficult decision, ask yourself, "Whom does it serve?"

9. Good decisions involve self-awareness.

If you’re tasked with deciding how to outline your company’s strategy for the next 10 years
but you’ve never made a strategic outline, chances are you should defer to the next
subject-matter expert. The point is, for a decision to positively impact others, foster
opportunity or any of the aforementioned characteristics, you need to be cognizant of
when you’re operating within your circle of influence and when you’re pushing its
boundaries. Don’t be that person who clutches to decision-making authority because it
makes you feel important -- defer to the person closest to the problem.

WHAT CAN PREVENT EFFECTIVE DECISION-MAKING?

There are a number of problems that can prevent effective decision-making. These include:

1. Not Enough Information

36
If you do not have enough information, it can feel like you are making a decision without
any basis.
Take some time to gather the necessary data to inform your decision, even if the time-
LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

scale is very tight. If necessary, prioritise your information-gathering by identifying which

information will be most important to you.

2. Too Much Information

The opposite problem, but one that is seen surprisingly often: having so much conflicting
information that it is impossible to see ‘the wood for the trees’.
This is sometimes called analysis paralysis, and is also used as a tactic to delay
organisational decision-making, with those involved demanding ever more information
before they can decide.
This problem can often be resolved by getting everyone together to decide what
information is really important and why, and by setting a clear timescale for decision-
making, including an information-gathering stage.

3. Too Many People

Making decisions by committee is difficult. Everyone has their own views, and their own
values. And while it’s important to know what these views are, and why and how they
are important, it may be essential for one person to take responsibility for making a
decision. Sometimes, any decision is better than none.

4. Vested Interests
Decision-making processes often founder under the weight of vested interests. These
vested interests are often not overtly expressed, but may be a crucial blockage. Because
they are not overtly expressed, it is hard to identify them clearly, and therefore address
them, but it can sometimes be possible to do so by exploring them with someone outside
the process, but in a similar position.
It can also help to explore the rational/intuitive aspects with all stakeholders, usually with
an external facilitator to support the process.

5. Emotional Attachments
People are often very attached to the status quo. Decisions tend to involve the prospect
of change, which many people find difficult.

6. No Emotional Attachment
Sometimes it’s difficult to make a decision because you just don’t care one way or the
other. In this case, a structured decision-making process can often help by identifying
some very real pros and cons of particular actions, that perhaps you hadn’t thought
about before.

37
Many of these issues can be overcome by using a structured decision-making process.
This will help to:
Reduce more complicated decisions down to simpler steps;
See how any decisions are arrived at; and
Plan decision making to meet deadlines.

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

3. TYPES OF DECISIONS

Organizational Decisions
> when an executive acts formally in his expected role as a company official.
> the official decisions of the company
> Can be and is frequently delegated to others.
>Usually call for supporting and elaborating decisions by other executives and
touch off chains of behavior to carry on the work of the organization

Personal Decisions
> pertains to the executive as the individual and not as a member of an organiza-
tion.
> cannot be delegated, and usually do not actuate organizational behaviour to
others

Basic Decisions
>involve:
1. Long-range commitments of relative permanence or
duration.
2. large investments or expenditure of funds.
3. a degree of importance such that a mistake would seriously
jeopardize the welfare of the business.

Routine Decisions
> those which require relatively little deliberation of which are made repetitively.
> tend to have minor effects on the welfare of the company

Programmed Decisions
> are repetitive and routine and to the extent that definite, systematic procedures
have been devised so that each one does not have to be treated as a unique case
each time it arises.

Non-programmed Decisions
>are novel, unstructured and consequential

* In other words, Programmed decisions are routine decisions and Non-Programmed decisions
are basic decisions.
Decision-making is one of the primary responsibilities of a manager. It is his commitment; both
organizational and personal. The stability of the organization depends on the types of man-
ager’s decisions. But, man has limitations, thus, participation of subordinates in decision -
making is encouraged. Therefore, decision-making is mostly done by the manager, but is not
absolutely made by him; depending on to what extent he allows participation.

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

MODELS OF DECISION-MAKING

The Rational Model

Administrative decision making is assumed to be rational. By this we mean that leaders
make decisions under certainty: They know their alternatives; they know their outcomes;
they know their decision criteria; and they have the ability to make the optimum choice
and then to implement it (Towler, 2010). According to the rational model, the decision
making process can be broken down into six steps (Schoenfeld, 2011), as shown in the
figure below.

After a problem is identified, alternative solutions to the problem are generated. These
are carefully evaluated, and the best alternative is chosen for implementation. The im-
plemented alternative is then evaluated over time to assure its immediate and contin-
ued effectiveness. If difficulties arise at any stage in the process, recycling may be ef-
fected.

Thus, we see that decision making is a logical sequence of activities. That is, before alter-
natives are generated, the problem must be identified, and so on. Furthermore, decision
making is an iterative activity. As shown in Figure 1, decision making is a recurring event,
and leaders can learn from past decisions. The paragraphs that follow elaborate on
each of these steps and explain their interrelationships.

Identifying the problem.

A decision is said to be effective if it helps a leader to achieve a specific objective or set
of goals for the organization. Failure to achieve a desired goal becomes a problem, and
the leader is ultimately responsible for solving it.
Effective decision makers are keenly aware of the importance of properly identifying the
problem and understanding the problem situation. Kepner and Tregoe (2005) developed
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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

a method of problem analysis that suggests that the first step in decision making,
identifying the problem, is the most important step. According to these authors, providing
a good definition of the problem affects the quality of the decision. Their method suggests
that it is often easier to define what the problem is not, rather than what it is. Also, the
problem—and its solution—are prioritized with other problems, to clarify its relative
importance. The final step is searching for cause-effect relationships. In summary, their
method of problem analysis includes: (1) problem identification, (2) definition of what the
problem is and is not, (3) prioritizing the problem, and (4) testing for cause-effect
relationships (Kepner & Tregoe).

The process of identifying problems requires surveillance of the internal and external
environment for issues that merit attention (Verschaffel, 2011). Leaders scan the world
around them to determine whether the organization is progressing satisfactorily toward its
goals.

For example, leaders survey employees and community members using instruments to
measure satisfaction, organizational climate, and the like. Other information may come
from formal information systems, such as periodic accounting reports, Management
Information System (MIS) reports, and organizational plans designed to discover problems
before they become too serious. Or the information may be gathered informally by talking
over the situation and by personal observation.

In addition to identifying problems, leaders must also define the situation, which is partly a
matter of determining how a specific problem arose. This is an important stage, because
the situation definition plays a major role in subsequent steps.

Generating alternatives.
Once the problem has been identified, the second step in the decision-making process is
to generate alternatives to the problem. In developing these alternative solutions, leaders
first must specify the goals that they hope to achieve through their decision.

Once the leader has determined their goals, they can search for alternative means of
reaching them. Information must be collected regarding each of the alternatives and their
likely consequences. More specifically, the leader must seek to learn as much as possible
concerning the likelihood that each alternative will result in the achievement of various
outcomes, and the extent to which those outcomes will contribute to the achievement of
the goals and objectives being sought.

Ideally, the leader should seek to generate as many alternatives as possible and should
attempt to ensure that the alternatives are relatively diverse — that is, not highly similar to
one another. The extent of the search for alternatives is limited by the importance of the
decision, the cost and value of additional information needed to evaluate alternatives,

41
and the number of people affected by the decision (Zopounidis, 2011a, b). The more
important the decision, the more attention is directed to developing alternatives.
LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

Evaluating alternatives.
The third step in the decision-making process is evaluating each of the alternatives
generated in step 2. In evaluating an alternative, leaders must ask the following three
questions: (1) “Is the alternative feasible?" (2) "Is it a satisfactory alternative?" (3) "What
impact will it have on people?” (Grant, 2011).

The first question—whether the alternative is feasible—simply means: Can it be done? For
example, if one alternative requires a general layoff of employee but the organization has
a collective bargaining agreement that prohibits such layoffs, that alternative is not
feasible. Similarly, if an organization has limited capital, alternatives that require large
capital outlays are not feasible, unless funds can be borrowed to meet the capitaloutlay
requirements.

The second question concerns the extent to which the alternative is satisfactory — that is,
the extent to which it addresses the problem. For instance, suppose a principal wants to
expand the curriculum by 25%. One alternative is to implement a trimester schedule. On
closer examination, however, the principal may discover that the plan would expand the
curriculum by only 15% and that such a modest expansion may also negatively affect the
quality of the program. The principal may decide to implement the trimester plan anyway
and search for other ways to achieve the remaining 10% expansion in the curriculum and
find ways to maintain the quality of the program. Or he may decide to drop the alternative
from consideration entirely.

The third question addresses the impact of an alternative on personnel. The alternative
that is chosen must be acceptable to those who must live with the consequences of the
decision. Failure to meet this condition is the single most likely reason for failure of the
decision-making process to solve problems (Hastie, 2010). For this reason, questions of
acceptability of a proposed alternative should be of great concern to the leader. On the
one hand, even a mediocre solution to the problem may prove effective if it is
implemented with enthusiasm and commitment. On the other hand, a technically correct
alternative may fail to succeed if implementation is halfhearted.

Choosing an alternative.
Once the leader has evaluated all of the alternatives, he attempts to choose the best
alternative. The evaluation phase will have eliminated some of the alternatives, but in most
cases two or more will remain.

How does a leader decide which alternative is the best? One approach is to select the
alternative that is feasible, satisfactory, and acceptable to the work group (Gilboa, 2011).
The basis of judgment should be how close the outcomes or consequences of the
alternatives come to achieving the desired goals of the organization.

42
Finally, the leader may be able to choose several alternatives simultaneously. Suppose,
LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

for example, a school is hiring an English teacher and has two strong candidates for the
position. One strategy that is frequently used is to offer the position to one candidate and
keep the other candidate on hold. Should the first offer be rejected, the principal still has
an acceptable alternative to filling the position.

Implementing the Decision

After choosing an alternative, the leader faces the challenge of implementing the
decision. A sound decision can fail if implemented poorly. It is useful, therefore, to consider
some suggestions for successful implementation (Ahmed, 2011).

Leaders need to make sure that the alternative is clearly understood. This is
accomplished by communicating the decision to all involved staff. Effective
communication is necessary for effectively implementing decisions.

Leaders need to encourage acceptance of the alternative as a necessary course of

action. Committees can help a leader achieve commitment. If the people who
must carry out a decision participate in the process, they are more likely to endorse
enthusiastically the outcome. Thus, the degree to which persons have or have not
been involved in prior steps may substantially affect the success of the total
decision-making process.

Leaders need to provide enough resources to make the alternative succeed. Leaders
set up budgets and schedules for the actions they have decided to undertake.
Specifically, the decision may require acquiring office space, hiring staff, procuring
funds, and the like.

Leaders need to establish workable timelines. The leader now faces a "how much" and
"how soon" decision. As part of the process of implementation, he must ask himself
whether to move forward step by step or whether to take the entire action at once.

Leaders need to assign responsibilities clearly. In other words, what should be done by
whom? Because the solution of most administrative problems requires the
combined effort of many members, each person should understand what role he
or she is to play during each phase of the implementation process.

Evaluating decision effectiveness.

The final step in the decision-making process is evaluating the effectiveness of the decision.
When an implemented decision does not produce the desired results, there are probably
a number of causes: incorrect definition of the problem, poor evaluation of alternatives,
and/or improper implementation. Among these possible causes, the most common and
serious error is an inadequate definition of the problem. When the problem is incorrectly

43
defined, the alternative that is selected and implemented will not produce the desired
result.
LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

Evaluation is important because decision making is a continuous, never-ending process.

Decision making does not end when a leader votes yes or no. Evaluation provides leaders
with information that can precipitate a new decision cycle. The decision alternative may
fail, thus generating a new analysis of the problem, evaluation of alternatives, and
selection of a new alternative. Some experts suggest that many large problems are solved
by attempting several alternatives in sequence, each providing a modest improvement
(Hicks, 2005). Evaluation is the part of the decision-making process that assesses whether
a new decision needs to be made.

The Bounded Rationality Model

The rational decision making model, discussed above, characterizes the decision maker
as completely rational. If a decision maker were completely rational, she would have
perfect information: know all alternatives, determine every consequence, and establish a
complete preference scale. Moreover, the steps in the decision-making process would
consistently lead toward selecting the alternative that maximizes the solution to each
decision problem.

Frequently, leaders are not aware that problems exist. Even when they are, they do not
systematically search for all possible alternative solutions. They are limited by time
constraints, cost, and the ability to process information. So they generate a partial list of
alternative solutions to the problem based on their experience, intuition, advice from
others, and perhaps even some creative thought. Rationality is, therefore, limited. Herbert
Simon (1982, 1997, 2009) coined the term bounded rationality to describe the decision
maker who would like to make the best decisions but normally settles for less than the
optimal. In contrast to complete rationality in decision making, bounded rationality implies
the following (Simon, 1982, 1997, 2009):

1. Decisions will always be based on an incomplete and, to some degree, inadequate

comprehension of the true nature of the problem being faced.
2. Decision makers will never succeed in generating all possible alternative solutions for
consideration.
3. Alternatives are always evaluated incompletely because it is impossible to predict
accurately all consequences associated with each alternative.
4. The ultimate decision regarding which alternative to choose must be based on some
criterion other than maximization or optimization because it is impossible to ever determine
which alternative is optimal.

Intuition.
Another aspect of bounded rationality, mentioned previously, is intuition. Intuition
represents a quick apprehension of a decision situation based on past experiences and
the reinforcement associated with these experiences, which is devoid of conscious

44
thought (Myers, 2002). For example, when you are driving an automobile the decision to
apply the brakes is intuitive because it comes almost automatically and without reasoning.
LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

Years of driving experience have taught us precisely when to apply the brakes. The same
type of intuition often guides a leaders's decisions. The decision to discipline a staff
member or to buy an item for inventory may be quite intuitive for theleadersand is based
on years of experience.

Research on administrative behavior in schools is consistent in identifying the demands on

the principal as fragmented, rapid fire, and difficult to prioritize (Lunenburg & Irby, 2006;
Matthews & Crow, 2010; Sergiovanni, 2009; Ubben, Hughes, & Norris, 2011). Half of the
activities of principals last less than ten minutes and only 8 percent exceed an hour.
Researchers conclude that principals are action-oriented and do not like reflective
activities. These data support the observation that much decision making is intuitive. The
fast and hectic pace of a principal's job makes the use of intuition almost a necessity.

Incrementalizing.
Another approach to decision making, sometimes referred to as muddling through,
involves making small changes (increments) in the existing situation. Charles Lindblom
(1993), its author, distinguishes between completely rational decision making and
incrementalizing, which is based on successive limited comparisons. On the one hand, the
rational approach to decision making involves determining objectives, considering all
possible alternative solutions, exploring all conceivable consequences of the alternative
solutions, and finally choosing the optimal alternative solution that will maximize the
achievement of the agreed-on goals.

Incrementalizing, on the other hand, does not require agreement on goals, an exhaustive
search of all possible alternatives and their consequences, or selection of the optimal
alternative. Instead, Lindblom argues that no more than small or incremental steps, that is,
“muddling through”, is all that is possible. In other words, incrementalizing is a process of
successive limited comparisons of alternative courses of action with one another until
decision makers arrive at an alternative on which they agree.

The garbage-can model

Earlier we noted that while leaders want to make optimal decisions, the realities of
organizational life — including politics, time constraints, finances, and the inability to
process information — limit purely rational decision making. Applying rational decision
making is particularly troublesome for schools. The technologies of teaching are varied
and not well understood. Moreover, schools have multiple and conflicting goals that are
vague and ambiguous. And schools lack clearly defined success criteria (Fullan, 2010;
Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008). Thus, problems and solutions cannot be translated easily into
a logical sequence of steps (rational decision-making model).

45
In accordance with this view, David Cohen, James March, and Johan Olsen (1972)
conceptualized this decision-making process as a garbage-can model. As members of an
organization generate problems and alternative solutions to problems, they deposit them

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

into the garbage can. The mixture is seen as a collection of solutions that must be
matched to problems. Participants are also deposited into the garbage can. Mixing
problems, solutions, and decision participants’ results in interaction patterns leading to
decisions that often do not follow purely rational decision making.

Conclusion
Decision making is one of the most important activities in which leaders engage daily.
The success of a school is critically linked to effective decisions. Decision making is a pro-
cess involving choices. The process generally consists of several steps: identifying prob-
lems, generating alternatives, evaluating alternatives, choosing an alternative, imple-
menting the decision, and evaluating decision effectiveness.

Two major approaches to decision making have been identified. The rational model
characterizes decision makers as completely rational - searching through perfect infor-
mation to make optimal decisions. The inherent imperfections of decision makers and
the social and organizational systems in which they are imbedded impose limitations on
decision makers' ability to process information needed to make complex decisions
(bounded rationality) that restrict decision makers to finding solutions that are less than
optimal.

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

Activity 8: APPLICATION MATRIX

Instructions: This activity will help you identify the models of decision -making and how these mod-
els be applied. Just simply provide the information asked in the matrix below.

Models of Decision Application

Making
(How these model be applied in making your decision?)

1.

2.

3.

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

MAIN TASK: APPLICATION PAPER

Name: __________________________________________________________________ Section Code: _______

Contact No.: _________________________ Date: _______________

Instructions: This is a simplified requirement for the final term called as “Application Paper”. It will test
your ability to apply the basic leadership and decision-making skills you learned from the previous
topics. Your answer in every question is rated based on the rubric below:
Criteria Description Equivalent Actual Points
Points Earned
Presentation Follows instructions 2
Shows neatness of the output
Analysis Responds to the question directly 5
Gives an accurate answer /Cites example
Organization Illustrates clarity of thoughts and ideas 3
consistent to the question
Total 10

On Basic Leadership Skills

SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS: This test will measure your ability to apply the basic leadership skills
you learned from previous topics presented. Just analyze the given situation below and
answer the question. You may write your answer on the space provided.

Mr. B is an employee in one of the Local Government Units in Bukidnon, his being tardy
in coming to work was noticed by their Head of Office. If you are the Head of Office
what will you do?

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Ms. D is an employee who is very hardworking and passionate in her work. She has a
lot of skills like communication and technological skills. But, because of her skills
many tasks are delegated to her. Her colleagues felt that Ms. D is the most favorite
employee in the office. If you are the Head of that office what will you do?

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________________________________

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

On Decision Making Skills

SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS: This test will measure your ability to apply the decision -making
skills you learned from previous topics presented. Just analyze the given situation below
and answer the question. You may write your answer on the space provided.

There are three (3) applicants of the same vacant position in the Municipal Government
of Quezon, Bukidnon.

Applicant 1 is a fresh graduate with a bachelor’s degree fit to the position, shows willing-
ness to learn, however, she is not a Civil Service Eligible.
Applicant 2 is a fresh graduate with a Civil Service Eligibility. Her bachelor’s degree does
not match with the position.
Applicant 3 has a Civil Service Eligibility with work experience not related to the position.
She also portrays inappropriate behavior.

Who are you going to choose? Applicant 1, 2 or 3. Why?

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

In making decision, what do you think is the most challenging part? Why?
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

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 UNIT 3

Assessing Leadership Practices

Course Outcome:
Assess the practices of leadership and decision -making of the
leaders in the Philippines.

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

WARM-UP ACTIVITY: MY MOST ADMIRED LEADER

Name: __________________________________________________________________ Section Code: _______

Contact No.: _________________________ Date: _______________

Instructions: Given below is an image about a great leader. Reflect and answer the questions that fol-
low.

What are your thoughts on the picture?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Do you know someone who is like this? Can you tell more about him or her?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

Lesson 8 SOME GREAT LEADERS

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lessons, you are expected to:
- Identify the personalities of some great leaders internationally and
- Highlight their leadership characteristics/styles.

Some leaders became great because of how they persevered with a dream in spite of
their circumstances, only to go on and achieve such extraordinary things that they con-
tinue to be revered long after their deaths.

While others stuck by their values and protested for the rights of others, even when it
jeopardized their own freedom… not mention their lives.

Whereas some leaders are truly inspirational and well -respected because of their natural
flair to innovate, empower and influence others to act in meaningful ways and ultimately
change the world.

So the list below isn’t exhaustive by any means. But it certainly contains some of the most
influential leaders who have shaped the world for the better and inspired positive chang-
es among millions, if not billions. Not a bad litmus test when you’re measuring the true
merit of a leader, we think.

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

1. Mahatma Gandhi – The Anti -War Activist

With A Global Legacy
Mahatma Gandhi left his mark on the world in
more ways than one.
The leader of India’s independence movement
achieved remarkable feats through a form of
non-violent civil disobedience that would inspire
millions around the world, including many of the
people on this list.
World leaders, scientists, philosophers and even entrepreneurs have drawn inspiration from Gan-
dhi, whose spiritual significance was just as profound as his role in liberating India.

Gandhi was born in India in 1869, a country that was then part of the British Empire. His youth was
perhaps uncharacteristic of the Gandhi the history books remember.

After an arranged marriage at the age of 13, Gandhi rebelled against his deeply religious up-
bringing by smoking, eating meat and even stealing. By age 18, he set sail to London to study
law.
A fledgling law career in India would eventually send the 24 -year-old Gandhi to South Africa. It
was here that he witnessed the deep -seated discrimination and racial segregation of South Afri-
can society.
Perhaps the biggest turning point in young Gandhi’s life occurred on June 7, 1893, where he was
thrown off a train station by a white man after he refused to move to the back of the car. That
would prove to be Gandhi’s first, but certainly not last, act of civil disobedience.

By 1906, Gandhi had organized his first mass civil disobedience campaign in South Africa. He
would spend the next 9 years fighting for Indian rights in the country before returning home to
fight for Indian liberation.
Over the years Gandhi would become a leading figure in the liberation movement. After years
of struggle and multiple arrests, Gandhi’s “Quit India” movement in 1942 paved the way for Brit-
ain’s eventual withdrawal from the country.
Although a pacifist, Gandhi was murdered by a Hindu extremist who resented the leader’s toler-
ance of Muslims following the declaration of Indian independence.

A man who had spent his life preaching nonviolence was killed by a semiautomatic pistol at
point-blank range.

Gandhi is today remembered for his commitment to pacifism, peaceful protest and simple living.
He single-handedly inspired millions of people to action, preaching a message of love, tolerance
and avoiding greed.

For those reasons he inspired civil rights movements from Apartheid South Africa to the United
States and is today remembered as one of the greatest leaders of the 20th century.

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2. Winston Churchill – Resolute Leadership During

One Of The Most Painful Episodes In
Human History
Winston Churchill is long remembered as one of
the greatest leaders in modern history and the
savior of democracy.

He was tasked with the daunting task of leading Britain and the Allied powers to
victory against the Nazis during the Second World War. His wisdom, upright
character and persistence led Britain from the brink of defeat to victory in the
most brutal war of the 20th century.

Winston Churchill was born to an aristocratic family in 1874 and served in the British military. He
would go on to become a prolific writer before entering into politics. Churchill became British Prime
Minister in 1940 during the height of the Second World War.

His long political career is also remembered for its persistence. It took Churchill a staggering 40
years to finally become Prime Minister. But when he finally took the helm, he became arguably the
greatest leader of the 20th century.
He was not only instrumental in working with the United States and Russia to defeat the Axis powers,
he helped establish the post-war peace that would lead the western world through one of its
greatest periods of prosperity.
Churchill’s leadership style would prove so powerful that he would be elected Prime Minister again
in 1951. Among Churchill’s greatest strengths was his power of oratory, which helped him connect
with an entire nation. His life was filled with memorable quotes that leaders to this day use for
inspiration. Phrases like, “We will never surrender,” “The Iron Curtain” and “This was their finest hour”
have withstood the test of time. Among his many honors include a Nobel Prize for Literature and
being the first person to become an honorary US citizen.
Churchill’s inspirational leadership style is especially notable when you consider his bitter struggle
with depression – the so-called “black dog” of his existence. In fact, historians attribute many of
Churchill’s successes to his ability to use his manic depression and bipolar personality to his
advantage. These are just some of the reasons that make Winston Churchill truly special.

The following Churchill quote still serves as a powerful motivational nudge to stick with your
convictions even when the going gets tough:

“Never give in. Never give in. Never, never, never, never – in nothing, great or small, large or petty
– never give in, except to convictions of honor and good sense. Never yield to force. Never yield
to the apparently overwhelming might of the enemy.”

Now you know why they called Winston Churchill “The Bulldog.”

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3. Martin Luther King Jr. – Celebrated Civil

Rights Activist That Forever Changed America
“I have a dream that my four children will one
day live in a nation where they will not be judged
by the color of their skin but by the content of
their character.” – Martin Luther King Jr.
Very few Americans are as celebrated as Martin
Luther King Jr., the Baptist minister and social ac-
tivist who led the Civil Rights Movement in the
United States until his tragic death in 1968.

As an African -American born in the rural south in 1929, MLK faced an uphill battle all his life.
Growing up in Atlanta, Georgia, the young Martin was considered a precocious student who
paid little attention to his studies and found great discomfort in religion.

That all began to change in his junior year, when he took a Bible class and renewed his faith. By
1948, he had earned a degree from Morehouse College before moving on to the Crozer Theo -
logical Seminary in Pennsylvania. It was at Morehouse College that MLK opened his eyes to racial
inequality.

Following years of successful civil rights activism, MLK and 61 other activists founded the Southern
Christian Leadership Conference in 1957. Two years later, MLK visited Mahatma Gandhi’s birth-
place in India, which emboldened him to continue down the path of peaceful activism.

On August 28, 1963, MLK would leave his mark on American history by delivery the famous “I
Have a Dream” speech during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.

King had such a profound impact on American race relations that his efforts resulted in the pas-
sage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which authorized the federal government to desegregate
public accommodations. The same year, MLK received the Nobel Peace Prize.

MLK would continue his activism until his assassination on April 4, 1968. His killer, James Earl Ray,
was eventually apprehended after a two -month manhunt. King’s assassination was a tragic end
to a remarkable life that had a seismic impact on an entire nation.

He proved, just like Gandhi, that non -violent protests can influence tremendous change. MLK
gave his life to the civil rights movement.

Nearly 50 years after his death, his legacy is stronger than ever. The third Monday of every Janu-
ary is Martin Luther King Jr. Day, an observed federal holiday in the United States.

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4. Nelson Mandela – A Man Whose Cause For

Freedom Proved Triumphant
Very few individuals personify dedication and
patience like Nelson Mandela, South Africa’s first
democratically elected President. Getting there
was a story so epic that it was made into a
Hollywood biopic in 2013.

Much like Martin Luther King, Jr., Mandela was one

of the great transformative civil rights leaders of the
20TH century. He not only directed peace-
ful demonstrations against the deeply racist South African government, he went on to claim the
Nobel Prize in 1993 for helping to end apartheid.
Mandela was neither a politician nor an opportunist, but a man deeply committed to improving
the lives of his people and applying the same message of freedom and equality to all nations.
“I hate race discrimination most intensely and in all its manifestations. I have fought it all during my
life; I fight it now, and will do so until the end of my days.”

Born in 1918, Mandela became involved in the civil rights movement as a young man, and spent
20 years leading a peaceful defiance against the apartheid government. His commitment to
ending apartheid landed him and 150 others in prison in 1956 on charges of treason. Although they
were acquitted, Mandela began to recognize that an armed struggle was necessary to achieve
real change. His involvement with the MK movement, an armed wing of the African National
Congress (ANC), landed him back in prison in 1961 after organizing a 3-day national workers’ strike.

Mandela was eventually sentenced to life in prison in 1963 for political offenses. He would spend
the next 27 years in jail, where he endured cruel punishment and contracted tuberculosis.
During that time, Mandela was offered early release if he renounced armed struggle – a condition
he flat-out refused to consider.

It wasn’t until February 11, 1990 that the now 72-year old prisoner was released under South Africa’s
new President, Frederik Williem de Klerk, who helped broker the deal to end apartheid.

One year later, Mandela was elected leader of the African National Congress after it was also
unbanned by de Klerk. Mandela would become the South Africa’s first black president in 1994
after the country’s first democratic elections.

The title of Mandela’s autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom, aptly describes his lifelong journey
to ending apartheid. It’s hard to think of many leaders in history who gave more to his cause than
Nelson Mandela. For that reason, he is one of the most celebrated people in modern history.

Mandela died on December 5, 2013, at the age of 95.

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5. Albert Einstein – Rewriting The Laws Of Nature

For The Betterment Of Humanity
Albert Einstein is perhaps the most famous scientist of
the 20th century. The prized physicist had a pro-
found impact on our understanding of the universe,
including basic concepts such as time, light and
gravity.

To this day, his work is being used to guide physicists

to new frontiers, helping us to understand our significance on the grandest scale.

Born in Germany in 1879, Einstein was slightly different than all the boys. His head was a little big-
ger and he hardly spoke a word, which led at least one housekeeper to label him “retarded.”
Little did she know, this “retarded” boy would eventually go on to reshape the world through his
ideas.

By age 26, Einstein had obtained his PhD. The same year he published 4 important papers on
topics ranging from the nature of light to mass -energy equivalence. While largely ignored at first,
these papers would eventually make a tremendous contribution to the scientific community, in-
cluding the famous E= MC2 equation for mass energy equivalence.

These papers also contained the seeds of Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, one of the most revolu-
tionary ideas in history. Although it’s impossible to pinpoint exactly the nature of Einstein’s bril-
liance, he had all of the characteristics of a genius.

He had a vivid imagination, questioned everything and found new ways of thinking about old
problems. He also had an unrelenting work ethic that pushed him to action even on the day of
his death, where he was reportedly working on a speech for a television program.

The final picture of Einstein’s office taken hours before his passing showed a man who was deep-
ly consumed in his work right up until the very end.

In addition to his timeless quotes and deep sense of humour, Einstein is remembered for over-
coming adversity. From physical setbacks as a young boy to spending two frustrating years look-
ing for work as a teaching assistant after graduating, Einstein’s life was filled with challenges.

His ability to keep a positive attitude and provoke creative thought experiments were at the cen-
tre of his genius. More than 60 years after his death, the world remembers not a man who spent
years working at a patent office, but a man who changed the world.

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

6.Abraham Lincoln – The Embodiment Of

Liberty And Great Emancipator Of Slaves
Abraham Lincoln was more than just an Ameri-
can hero; he represented the dawn of a new
era in human civilization based on freedom, self
-government and equality.
Lincoln was born in a log cabin in Kentucky in
1809. He knew his mother all of 9 years before
she died of milk sickness at the age of 34.
Her death devastated young Abraham and fur-
ther alienated him from his father. One year after his mother’s death, Abraham’s father married
a woman who had a significant impact on Abraham’s life by encouraging him to read. As one
might expect, there was little time or need for a formal education in the Indiana wilderness.
Abraham’s formal education began much later in his life and amounted to a mere 18 months.
That said, Abraham was incredibly talented. Largely self -taught, he eventually became a lawyer
before getting elected to the Illinois House of Representatives in 1846. It was here that his bril-
liance influenced what would become the freest and most prosperous nation on earth.

Lincoln rapidly modernized the economy without sacrificing his values. By 1860, he secured the
Republican Party presidential nomination and was elected president. Lincoln’s victory prompted
southern slave states to form the Confederate States of America.
Abraham became leader of the Union during the American Civil War, where he used his power
of oratory to deliver the Gettysburg Address and other powerful speeches to win over support of
the American people.

To this day, Lincoln is synonymous with the principles of liberty, democracy, equal rights and unifi-
cation. His willingness to stand alone on issues he believed in made him one of the most beloved
and memorable leaders in modern history.

His refusal to compromise on the issue of slavery and instrumental role in leading the north to vic-
tory during the Civil War made him the target of Confederate plotters and sympathizers.

Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate supporter, on April 14, 1865 – less
than one month before the end of the Civil War.

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7. St. Teresa of Calcutta (Mother Teresa) –

Nobel Lauriat Determined To Ease Suffer-
ing In The World
Mother Teresa’s unforgettable devotion to
help the world’s poorest, most impoverished
and vulnerable people left a lasting dent in
the world.
Her remarkable leadership was even power-
ful enough to cut across conflicts and enemy
lines — a strength clearly exemplified during
the 1982 Siege of Beirut.
Mother Teresa managed to broker a temporary cease -fire between the Israeli army and Palestin-
ian guerrillas to rescue 37 children trapped in a front-line hospital. Teresa then travelled through
the war zone alongside Red Cross workers to evacuate the young patients.

What inspired Mother Teresa’s tireless drive to help others? Born in 1910 as Anjezë Gonxhe Bojax-
hiu, she grew up in present day Macedonia. Perhaps influenced by her father’s death when she
was only 8 years old, Mother Teresa already decided to commit herself to a religious life by the
time she was 12.

Her real journey began in 1929 when she arrived in India where she became a nun and taught at
a convent in Eastern Calcutta for several decades.
The 1943 Bengal famine which killed a staggering 2.1 million people was a life changing moment
for Teresa and left an unshakable impression on her. After 20 years of teaching at the convent,
she felt a “calling within a calling” and left her position as headmistress to aid the poor.

Teresa then moved into the slums where she faced hunger, poverty and homelessness. Despite
the lack of equipment and supplies, she found a way to open a school for poor children teach-
ing them to read and write using sticks in the dirt.

Her efforts didn’t go unnoticed. A new community soon formed around Mother Teresa opening
hospices, clinics and orphanages throughout India. Within a few years the mission went global.

By the 1970s, the congregation was helping orphans and those afflicted by addiction, poverty,
disability, old age and disaster around the world. In 1979, Teresa received the Nobel Peace Prize
for her work to overcome poverty and suffering.

Mother Teresa’s passed away in 1997 but congregation continues to live on to this day spreading
Mother Teresa’s vision and serving those in need.

In 2016, the Catholic Church recognized Mother Teresa as a saint and canonized her as St. Tere-
sa of Calcutta for her heroic virtue.

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8. Stephen Hawking – The Physicist Who

Proved That Determination And Positive
Thinking Can Triumph Over Even The Most
Severe Limitations
Stephen Hawking probably had every reason
to give up on life.

Diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

(ALS) at the age of 21, he would spend most
of his life severely disabled to the point where
he controls his communication device through movement of his cheek muscles.
Despite his debilitating condition, Hawking became arguably the most well -known theoretical
physicist since Albert Einstein. Hawking is known for his groundbreaking work on cosmology,
quantum physics and black holes.
Hawking came from humble beginnings. The eldest of 4 children, Stephen was born in England
during the Second World War. By his own admission, Hawking didn’t spend a lot of time studying.

That didn’t stop him from graduating with full honours before pursuing a PhD in cosmology at
Cambridge University.

Much has been written about Hawking and

his thought -provoking theories on the uni-
verse. He has received worldwide acclaim
not only for his work, but for his determina-
tion in overcoming a severe disability.

When he was originally diagnosed with ALS,

he was given only two years to live. That
was over 50 years ago. On overcoming his
disability, Hawking provides this brilliant
quote:

Hawking’s attitude comes from his sheer

refusal to make excuses for his disabilities.
His ex -wife Jane Hawking attributed his out-
look on the world to a combination of de-
termination and stubbornness. As Hawking
clearly demonstrates, both traits have their pedigree.

As does his humor and humble nature, which has been evident throughout his career. For in-
stance, when asked what it feels like when he makes a significant scientific discovery, Hawking
replied:

“I wouldn’t compare it to sex, but it lasts longer.”

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9. Bill Gates – Entrepreneur And Philanthro-

pist Who Inspired An Entire Generation Of
Innovators
Very few people are as synonymous with their
industry as what Bill Gates is with information
technology (IT).

It wasn’t until the age of 13 that Bill saw his first

computer at school. He actually paid to use it,
and when his money ran out, he hacked into
the computer to use it for free. At this point you
could say young Bill was destined for an innovative career in IT.
Bill Gates grew up in an upper middle class family in Seattle, Washington and had a very close
relationship with his mother. From an early age he showed flashes of brilliance, including a knack
for business and entrepreneurship.

By the age of 15, he had already started a business with his friend Paul Allen. Little did they know
that just 5 years later they would be on the path to changing the way the world does business
and even communicates.
In 1975, Gates and Allen co -founded Microsoft. And the two poured everything they had into it.
Gates’ incredible vision, aggressive business strategy and unrivaled work ethic made Microsoft
the world’s biggest technology company. In the process, he became incredibly wealthy.
By the time Gates and Allen decided to incorporate Microsoft in 1981, the company already had
128 employees and generated $16 million in revenue. Just two years later, the company went
global.

However, it wasn’t until 1985 that Gates would truly leave his mark on the world. That was the
year Microsoft launched Windows, its flagship software. For more than two decades, Gates has
routinely ranked among the richest people in the world, and in 2016, Forbes trumped this by rank-
ing him as the richest man in the world. But those riches didn’t come without sacrifice.
Gates worked tirelessly to build Microsoft and ensure its leadership pace in an increasingly com-
petitive market. It wasn’t until 2014 that Gates stepped down as Chairman only to remain active
as a technology advisor.

Today, Microsoft generates nearly $100 billion annually in revenue and employs 120,000 people
worldwide.

Incredibly, the founding of Microsoft isn’t Gates’ only legacy. As a committed philanthropist, Bill
and his wife Melinda Gates have established a $44 billion endowment designed to improve
healthcare and reduce extreme poverty around the world.

It is by far the largest private foundation of its kind in the world. By 2013, Bill Gates had personally
donated $28 billion to the foundation, a testament to his generosity and moral character.

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

10. Oprah Winfrey – Overcoming The

Odds To Empower An Entire Genera-
tion Of Women To Succeed
Oprah Winfrey is much more than a televi-
sion talk show host. She is one of the
world’s most powerful business leaders
who exerts a great deal of influence on
popular culture and mainstream society.

Valued at over $3 billion, Oprah has come

a long way from the rural in Mississippi,
where she was born. To say that Oprah, a
black woman from the south, overcame the odds would be a huge understatement.

Very few people with her background and double -minority status would ever dream of making it
in show business during the 1970s and 1980s.

Oprah’s battles didn’t begin with her race or gender. Her youth was filled with horrible sexual
abuse at the hands of relatives and family friends.
After a turbulent adolescence in the small farming community of Kosciusko, she moved to Nash-
ville to live with her father. She would eventually enter Tennessee State University in 1971 before
moving to Baltimore, Maryland 5 years later to begin her career in television.
By 1986, Oprah had her own nationally syndicated television program, Oprah Winfrey Show. This
was the platform that catapulted her to critical acclaim and global recognition.
During the 1990s, when talk shows like Jerry Springer were dominating the ratings with trashy top-
ics, Oprah promised to keep her show respectful and free of exploitive topics.
Although ratings fell initially, Oprah stuck to her guns. Oprah’s integrity would lead her to more
fame and prosperity over the years, as she became a mainstay in an industry filled with cheap
tricks.

In addition to her television show and media celebrity, Oprah has made incredible contributions
to the publishing world through Oprah’s Book Club. This segment of her show not only promoted
literacy, it helped unknown authors become recognized for their work.
Her generosity didn’t stop there. Through various charities, she has raised hundreds of millions of
dollars to help children and underprivileged youth all over the world.

According to Forbes, Oprah was the richest African American of the 20th century. Life Magazine
also recognized her as the most influential woman of her generation, a testament to this media
icon who has not only done it all, but inspired an entire generation of young women to pursue
their dreams – regardless of their race or ethnicity.

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Activity 8: MATRIX COMPLETION

Instructions: This activity will help you identify some of the great leaders internationally with their
leadership characteristics/styles and contributions. Simply provide the information asked on the
matrix.

SOME GREAT LEADERS INTERNATIONALLY LEADERSHIP CHARACTERISTICS/STYLES

(What specific characteristic/styles or contribution you

admired most of these leaders?)

Instructions: This activity will help you identify some of the great leaders locally with their lead-
ership characteristics/styles and contributions. Simply provide the information asked on the
matrix.

YOUR ADMIRED LEADERS LOCALLY LEADERSHIP CHARACTERISTICS/STYLES

(President, Teacher, Barangay Kagawad, Mayor etc) (What specific characteristic/styles or contribution you
admired most of these leaders?)

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 LEADERSHIP & DECISION-MAKING

MAIN TASK: CRITIQUE PAPER

Name: __________________________________________________________________ Section Code: _______

Contact No.: _________________________ Date: _______________

Instructions: This is a simplified requirement for the final-term called as “Critique Paper”. This will test
your ability to analyze and critique the Leadership and Decision Making by reading the articles provided
on the next page.

Criteria Description Equivalent Actual Points

Points Earned
Presentation Follows instructions 2
Shows neatness of the output
Analysis Responds to the question directly 5
Gives an accurate answer /Cites example
Organization Illustrates clarity of thoughts and ideas 3
consistent to the question
Total 10

SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS: This activity will help you to analyze the article on the leadership
practices of one of the most influential leader in the Philippines. Just read and analyze the
article and answer the questions. You may write your answer on the space provided.

Duterte's Leadership Style Praised by Panelo

Published June 28, 2020, 4:29 PM

by manilabulletin_admin By
Genalyn Kabiling

As he marks his fourth year in office on June 30, President Duterte has so far earned an
“excellent” grade for showing “unparalleled leadership skills,” according to Chief Presidential
Legal Counsel Salvador Panelo.
Panelo said the President has acted decisively and effectively in governing the country and will
continue to help Filipinos overcome challenges including the coronavirus pandemic.
“Excellent,” Panelo told the Manila Bulletin when asked to rate the President’s performance in
the past year.
“Prior to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak, the Philippines experienced
unprecedented growth despite various calamities, both natural and man-made. Among them
were the eruption of the Taal Volcano and the Marawi siege,” he said.
He said the President remained “on top of the situation” by visiting these troubled places and
personally issuing directives to address these concerns. “This is a testament to the
unparalleled leadership skills of the President who can act decisively and effectively in times
of crisis,” he said.
In the past 12 months, the Philippine leader dealt with a string of challenges, from the
problematic contracts of two Metro Manila water concessionaires, loopholes in good conduct
passes for inmates, and the campaign against tax-evading offshore gaming firms. Duterte
also sought to end the country’s visiting forces agreement with the United States early this
year but recently deferred the plans in light of political and other developments in the region.
He is now confronted by the mounting opposition to the controversial anti-terror bill, weakened
economic growth, and the alarming coronavirus pandemic.

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Are you in favor of the decision made by the President? Why or why not?

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What do you want to suggest on the decision made by the President?

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