ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

ASSIGNMENT # 01
Higher Education
COURSE CODE: (8625)
SUBMITTED BY: Maryam Khan
ID # (0000548747)
SUBMITTED TO: Wajid Khan
ACADEMIC PROGRAM: B. ED (1.5 YEARS)
SEMESTER: 02
ACADEMIC SESSION: SPRING 2024

Note: Each question starts from a new page.

Q1: Critically discuss the contributions of higher education to the socio-economic
development of the country. Support your answer with the help of some relevant data

Ans:

CONTRIBUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION TO THE SOCIO-

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY.

Uplifting Economic Growth:

Higher education institutions are instrumental in uplifting economic growth by producing

skilled human resources and conducting cutting-edge research. This contribution is evident
from the rapid growth in the number of higher education institutions in Pakistan, which
increased from 32 in 2001 to 160 in 2014. Higher education not only provides advanced
knowledge and skills but also fosters innovation, which is critical for economic
development.

Data Support:

 Growth of Institutions: The number of higher education institutions in Pakistan

grew from 32 in 2001 to 160 in 2014.
 Economic Impact: According to the World Bank, each additional year of
schooling raises earnings by about 10% on average worldwide.

Addressing Educational Challenges:

Despite significant growth, Pakistan faces several educational challenges, including limited
access to higher education, outdated pedagogical techniques, brain drain, and lack of
adaptability to changing academic paradigms. Only 5% of the population has access to
university-level education, highlighting the need for more inclusive and effective
educational policies.

Data Support:

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  Access to Education: Only 5% of Pakistan's population has access to higher
education.
 Job Creation Needs: By 2022, Pakistan needed 36 million new jobs to achieve 6%
annual economic growth.

Building Communities and Economies:

In the 21st century, universities have evolved from traditional roles of teaching and
learning to becoming central in building communities and economies. They play a key role
in developing human capital, which is essential for establishing robust economies and
harmonious societies.

Data Support:

 Community Impact: Universities contribute to social cohesion and community

development by fostering civic engagement and social responsibility among
students.

Establishing University-Community Partnership Centers:

The establishment of university-community partnership centers can address dominant

social problems, prepare outreach modules, and bridge knowledge-sharing linkages with
communities. These centers can operate as think tanks to develop practical solutions to
societal challenges.

Data Support:

 Community Partnerships: Effective university-community partnerships have

been shown to improve local economic and social conditions through collaborative
projects and research.

Providing Financial Assistance to Talented Individuals:

Higher education institutions should develop mechanisms to provide financial assistance to

talented individuals from low-income backgrounds. This can help reduce poverty and

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 unemployment, especially given that more than 30% of Pakistan's population lives below
the poverty line.

Data Support:

 Financial Aid: Providing scholarships and financial aid to underprivileged students

increases their access to higher education and improves their future earning
potential.

Effective Utilization of Public Funds:

The effective utilization of public funds allocated for higher education can ensure long-
term socio-economic development. Focus should be on building strong foundations in
primary education to support higher educational achievements.

Data Support:

 Public Funding: Countries with effective public funding models for education
show higher educational attainment and better socio-economic outcomes.

Creating an Entrepreneurial Culture:

Universities should foster an entrepreneurial culture among graduates by establishing

business incubation centers and encouraging industry-academia partnerships. This
approach can shift the focus from producing job seekers to job creators.

Data Support:

 Entrepreneurship: Universities that emphasize entrepreneurship education

produce graduates who are more likely to start their own businesses and contribute
to economic growth.

Prioritizing Education Investment:

The government should prioritize spending on education and research to address social,
political, environmental, and economic challenges. Universities can play a crucial role by

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 fostering partnerships with other educational organizations and community development
centers to tackle real-life issues.

Data Support:

 Education Investment: Investment in education has a high return, with studies

showing that each dollar invested in education yields multiple dollars in economic
returns.

Incorporating Disaster Management in Curriculum:

Given Pakistan's susceptibility to natural disasters, incorporating disaster management

training in university curricula can enhance community resilience and preparedness.

Data Support:

 Disaster Management: Educating students in disaster management helps reduce

the impact of natural calamities and improves community response and recovery.

Enhancing University Leadership and Management:

Effective leadership and management are crucial for steering universities in the right
direction. The Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HECP) can initiate leadership
and administration programs to build the capacity of university administrators.

Data Support:

 Leadership Training: Universities with strong leadership programs are better

equipped to implement strategic initiatives and improve educational outcomes.

Ensuring Quality Education:

Improving the quality of education at every stage is essential for laying a solid foundation
for advancements in various fields. Quality education prepares young minds to solve
complex problems, contributing to socio-economic, political, and strategic stability.

Data Support:

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  Quality Education: Research shows that higher quality education leads to better
academic performance, higher graduation rates, and greater socio-economic
mobility.

Q2: What is meant by the philosophy of higher education? Explain the philosophy of
higher education in Pakistan.

Ans:

PHILOSOPHY OF HIGHER EDUCATION:

The philosophy of higher education refers to the underlying principles, beliefs, and values that
guide the purpose, objectives, and practices of higher education institutions.

The word ‘education’ is derived from one or both of the following concepts:

 ‘Educare’ – to draw out and realize potential.

 ‘Educere’ – to bring up and nurture.

Both concepts fuse in Kant’s famous statement that the objective of education is to empower
humanity to grow and to progress: ‘Man can only become man by education’ (Kant 1803/1960:
6).

The philosophy of higher education seeks to address questions such as:

 What should be the primary aims of higher education?

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  How should universities balance the pursuit of knowledge with societal needs?
 What is the role of higher education in fostering critical thinking, ethical reasoning,
and civic responsibility?
 How can higher education institutions contribute to personal and professional
development?

Historical Context and Evolution:

Sharing of knowledge and experiences has been one of the major keys for human success and
survival for millennia. The sense of shared responsibility of community begins from homes:
from parent to child, from scholar to learner, and from craftsman to apprentice. In this age of the
internet, where human understanding is often sought through a quick Google search, the role and
philosophy of education still need to be well defined.

Contemporary Needs in Education:

To cater to the needs of today’s learners, education is proposed to be distilled into four
categories:

1. Curriculum
2. Teaching Staff
3. Learning Environment
4. Learning Community/Cadre

These four pillars emerge from the theory or philosophy of education, and they are crucial in
defining and shaping educational practices and goals.

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 Figure 1: Four Pillars of Philosophy of Higher Education

Application and Interpretation:

Philosophy of education can refer either to the application of philosophy to the problem of
education, examining the definition, goals, and meaning of education, or to any vision of or
approach to education. As an academic field, philosophy of education is "the philosophical study
of education and its problems...its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those
of philosophy."

IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION:

The importance of the philosophy of education lies in its foundational role in guiding educational
practices, policies, and outcomes.

1. Defining Goals and Objectives:

Philosophy of education helps articulate the fundamental goals and objectives of

education. It clarifies what society hopes to achieve through its educational endeavours,
whether it's fostering critical thinking, promoting social justice, or preparing individuals
for the workforce.

2. Shaping Curriculum and Pedagogy:

It influences the design of curriculum and teaching methods. Different philosophical

perspectives (e.g., perennialism, progressivism, constructivism) advocate for different
approaches to teaching and learning, emphasizing various aspects such as content
mastery, student-cantered learning, or hands-on experiences.

3. Guiding Educational Policies:

Philosophy of education informs educational policies at institutional, national, and

international levels. It helps policymakers make decisions about curriculum standards,
assessment practices, teacher training, and resource allocation based on their educational
beliefs and values.

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 4. Promoting Critical Reflection:

It encourages educators to critically reflect on their practices and beliefs. By examining

philosophical underpinnings, educators can evaluate the effectiveness and relevance of
their teaching methods and make informed adjustments to meet the needs of diverse
learners.

5. Fostering Ethical and Moral Development:

Philosophy of education addresses ethical and moral dimensions of education. It prompts

discussions about values, ethics, citizenship, and social responsibilities, helping to
cultivate individuals who are not only knowledgeable but also ethical and socially
responsible.

6. Supporting Educational Research and Innovation:

Philosophical inquiry stimulates educational research and innovation. It encourages

scholars to explore theoretical frameworks, test hypotheses, and develop new educational
theories and practices that advance the field and respond to emerging challenges.

7. Enhancing Professional Identity:

Understanding the philosophy of education contributes to the professional identity of

educators. It helps them articulate their educational beliefs, align their teaching practices
with their values, and engage in meaningful dialogue with colleagues and stakeholders.

PHILOSOPHY OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN:

The philosophy of higher education in Pakistan encompasses a range of objectives, principles,
and strategies aimed at enhancing the quality, accessibility, and relevance of higher education to
meet the socio-economic and cultural needs of the country. This philosophy is shaped by both
global trends and local realities, including the digital revolution, globalization, and the demand
for life-long learning.

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 Digital Revolution and Demand for Educated Personnel:

The rapid growth of the digital revolution has significantly impacted the demand for highly
educated personnel in Pakistan. This shift necessitates a focus on developing digital literacy and
technical skills within the higher education curriculum. Higher education institutions are tasked
with preparing graduates who can navigate and contribute to a digitally driven economy. This
includes:

 Integrating technology into teaching and learning processes.

 Offering programs in emerging fields such as artificial intelligence, data science, and
cybersecurity.
 Promoting digital entrepreneurship and innovation.

Globalization and Life-Long Learning:

Globalization and the concept of life-long learning have introduced new perspectives on higher
education, emphasizing the need for continuous personal and professional development. In the
Pakistani context, this translates to:

 Encouraging international collaborations and partnerships.

 Facilitating student and faculty exchanges to promote cross-cultural understanding
and global competencies.
 Offering flexible and modular programs that cater to diverse learning needs and
career paths.

Role of Higher Education Institutions:

Higher education institutions in Pakistan, particularly universities, play a critical role in shaping
the country's educational landscape and contributing to its socio-economic development. Their
responsibilities include:

 Providing high-quality education that meets international standards.

 Conducting research that addresses local and global challenges.
 Fostering an environment that promotes critical thinking, creativity, and innovation.

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  Engaging with industry and community stakeholders to ensure that educational
programs are relevant and responsive to societal needs.

Education Policy of 1998:

The Education Policy of 1998 is a foundational document that underscores the importance of
higher education in Pakistan. It outlines the philosophy of higher education as a cornerstone for
the country's socio-economic and cultural development. Key aspects of this policy include:

 Accessibility of Computer-Based Education: Ensuring that all students have access

to modern technological tools and resources, thus bridging the digital divide.
 International Mobility: Promoting the international mobility of students and
teachers to enhance global exposure and knowledge exchange. This includes
facilitating scholarships, study-abroad programs, and international collaborations.
 Pursuits of Scholarships and Research: Encouraging scholarly pursuits and
research activities that contribute to academic excellence and innovation. This
involves providing funding and support for research initiatives and promoting a
culture of inquiry and discovery.

Challenges and Opportunities:

While the philosophy of higher education in Pakistan is ambitious and forward-looking, several
challenges need to be addressed to realize its full potential:

 Funding and Resources: Adequate funding and resources are essential to support
high-quality education and research. This includes investments in infrastructure,
faculty development, and student support services.
 Quality Assurance: Ensuring the quality of education through robust accreditation
and evaluation mechanisms is crucial. This involves setting and maintaining high
academic standards and regularly assessing the performance of institutions and
programs.
 Equity and Inclusion: Promoting equity and inclusion in higher education by
providing opportunities for marginalized and disadvantaged groups. This includes

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 implementing affirmative action policies and offering financial aid and scholarships
to needy students.

Q3: Critically examine the role of Higher Education commission in the development and
growth of higher education in Pakistan.

Ans:

ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION COMMISSION IN THE

DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN
PAKISTAN:
Pakistan's universities have significantly expanded in recent years. Recognizing the importance
of higher education for research and economic development, the government replaced the

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University Grants Commission (UGC) with the Higher Education Commission (HEC) in 2002 to
strengthen higher education and focus on research in applied science and technology.

Higher Education Commission: Background:

Establishment of the University Grants Commission (UGC) in 1974:

In 1974, the University Grants Commission (UGC) was established to improve the
quality of higher education and develop a central policy for all higher education
institutes.

Responsibilities of UGC:

Moreover, the commission was also responsible for assessing the financial
requirements of the universities and providing them funds for development.
However, the commission could only relay funds from the government. In most
cases, the funds provided to universities were less than their demands/needs
(Jahangir, 2008:41-42).

Task Force on Higher Education and Society in 2000:

In the year 2000, The Task Force on Higher Education and Society, funded by the
World Bank and UNESCO, reported on the issues, problems, and opportunities for
improving higher education in developing countries. The report was based on
research conducted by experts from thirteen countries with the aim of studying the
possibilities of developing higher education in developing countries.

Formation of the Task Force in Pakistan:

Based on the findings of this report, a task force was formed in Pakistan to
focus on issues related to higher education in Pakistan.

Recommendations of the Task Force:

The task force recommended that a central Higher Education body should also
be responsible for ensuring the quality of education and education institutes,
not only in public sector institutes but also in the private sector. They
recommended that funding be provided to the universities in accordance with

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 their performance, as is done in the U.K. by the Higher Education Funding
Councils (Pakistan Task Force Report, 2002). The name of the Higher
Education Commission was suggested for this central body.

Conceptual Differences Between HEC and UGC:

Conceptually, HEC works differently than its predecessor (University Grants

Commission). Although HEC’s main areas of concern were like the ones looked after
by UGC, it functions differently in its operations (Higher Education Commission,
2008:23).

Main Functions of the Higher Education Commission:

According to the Pakistan Task Force Report (2002) the main purposes and functions of
HEC are to:

a. Provide support for enhancement of the quality of higher education and

research.
b. Facilitate funding for higher education based on the quality of performance
and needs.
c. Serve as a national resource for higher education, based on its comprehensive
nation-wide information, and data on experience in other countries.
d. Participate in the formulation of Federal Government policy on matters of
higher education.
e. Advise institutions, the Provincial Governments and the Federal Government
on planning and development of higher education.
f. Advise the Federal and Provincial Governments on all proposals for granting
a charter to award degrees, in both public and private sectors.
g. Co-ordinate the initial and subsequent periodic assessment of the quality of
academic programs in established and new institutions of higher education, to
support accreditation and maintenance of academic standards.
h. Guide the public, the Provincial Governments and the Federal Government,
on the legal status and functional value of degrees and other certification of

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 academic achievement given by public and private institutions of higher
education and recommend appropriate action.
i. Support the cause of national integration and cohesion through co-curricular
activities.
j. Perform such other functions incidental or consequential to the discharge of
the aforesaid functions.

Important Role of Higher Education Commission:

Higher education is crucial for developing skilled human resources in a country. To

address 21st-century challenges, Pakistan established the Higher Education Commission
(HEC) in 2002, replacing the University Grants Commission (UGC). The HEC's main role
is to reform the higher education system to meet the country's economic needs, introducing
various significant reforms since its inception.

1. Introduction of the Semester System:

Semester System in India:

Although both India and Pakistan gained independence from British rule in 1947,
India adopted the semester system in universities in the 1960s. Research by Akhtar
(1980) found that Indian teachers favored the semester system for its flexibility and
continuous student evaluation.

Implementation in Pakistan:

In contrast, Pakistan is still implementing the semester system. According to Khattak

et al. (2011), the Higher Education Commission (HEC) introduced this system
without involving teachers in the planning process.

Differences Between Semester and Annual Systems:

The semester system, introduced by HEC, divides the academic year into 2 or 3
semesters, unlike the annual system that assesses students at the end of the year.
Semester assessments use various techniques, including presentations and
assignments, while the annual system focuses mainly on year-end exams. This
change has increased the risk of plagiarism.

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2. Anti-plagiarism policy:

The Higher Education Commission (HEC) introduced an anti-plagiarism policy, making

Turnitin software available to university teachers to check for plagiarism in students' work.

Function of Turnitin:

Turnitin detects plagiarism by comparing submitted documents against billions of

others, reducing the risk of plagiarism.

Plagiarism Guidelines:

HEC’s guidelines for plagiarism, based on Leeds Metropolitan University UK's

"The Little Book of Plagiarism," aim to help students understand and avoid
plagiarism. Teachers are responsible for ensuring students are aware of these
policies.

Benefits and Challenges:

Monitoring plagiarism helps improve students' creative thinking and originality.

While Turnitin is appreciated by teachers and students, some students are reluctant
to use the online database. In Pakistan, only teachers have access to Turnitin, and
they share the reports with students.

3. Quality Enhancement Cells (QECs):

Global Emphasis on Academic Quality:

Emphasis on academic quality has increased worldwide over the last few decades
(Dill and Beerkens, 2010:1). From 1990 to 2009, the International Network of
Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE) grew its membership
from 17 to 79 nations. Recently, policymakers in Pakistan have also recognized the
importance of enhancing academic quality in higher education.

Establishment of Quality Assurance Agency (QAA):

In 2005, the Higher Education Commission (HEC) established the Quality

Assurance Agency (QAA) to monitor university performance in Pakistan. The

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 QAA's scope and function have evolved to meet international standards, facilitating
universities in setting up their own Quality Enhancement Cells (QECs).

Internal and External Quality Assurance:

Quality assurance in universities is conducted both internally and externally. Internal

quality assurance is managed within the university by QECs, while external quality
assurance involves outside authorities or agencies. Teachers are central to
maintaining quality due to reform agendas, which hold them accountable through
decentralization. In Pakistani universities, QECs ensure accountability through
teacher ranking and student evaluations, with findings reported to university
management and the QAA at HEC.

4. Extending The Time Duration Of The Bachelor’s Degrees:

The importance of increasing the duration of bachelor's degrees was recognized in 1959 by
the Government of Pakistan, persisting in subsequent policy documents.

Implementation by HEC:

Following its establishment in 2002, HEC facilitated the implementation of

extending bachelor's degrees to four years to meet international education standards.

5. Grading System:

HEC's new guidelines offer universities flexibility, including the choice between two grading
systems: relative grading (Norm-Referenced) and absolute grading (Criterion-Referenced).
Relative grading evaluates students in comparison to peers, while absolute grading uses a set
criterion.

6. Information Technology Reforms:

The following reforms have been brought into the system - also known as e-reforms.
1. Development of country wide educational research network
2. Bringing in the reach of the scholars the use of digital sources
3. Developing a research repository for the potential researchers
4. Making learning possible through e-resources
5. Making available the opportunity of video conferencing

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7. Achievements of Higher Education Commission:

The establishment of HEC yielded a substantial effect on the higher education in Pakistan.
For instance:

a. Each student at the public sector universities has been given access to textbooks and
research articles from international research journals.
b. Enrolment to the universities has quadrupled over a span of five.
c. Promotion of research culture has resulted in the enhanced number of research
publication giving birth to new knowledge and courage to others to write and
contribute to the world of knowledge.
d. Even a long span could not get any Pakistani university some place among the high
ranked universities of the world. Five Pakistani universities including National
University of Science and Technology could get a standing position among the top
300 universities of the world.
e. UNESCO supported a project to initiate internationally recognized B.Ed. elementary
honors programs. HEC financed around 5,000 PhD scholars to study abroad,
leveraging the prestigious Fulbright Scholarship with joint HEC/USAID funding.
f. HEC has given affiliation to around fifty universities for offering new novel market-
oriented programs.
8. HEC Programs and Projects:

The running of following programs may be credited to HEC:

1. Capacity building of the faculty

2. Undertaking of revision of curriculum
3. Development of infrastructure of higher education
4. Award of indigenous scholarships
5. Grant of foreign scholarships
6. Patent filing support
7. Travel grant for participation in the conferences
8. Increasing collaboration between industry and university research
9. Bringing in technology reforms

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Q4: Compare the systems of higher education in Pakistan and Japan. What are the
implications of the Japanese System of Higher Education for Pakistan?

Ans:

COMPARISON OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN AND

JAPAN:

Structure and Administration:

Pakistan:

 Higher Education Commission (HEC): Established in 2002, the HEC oversees

higher education, ensuring quality and fostering research.
 Degree System: Includes bachelor’s (4 years), master’s (2 years), and PhD programs.
 Affiliations: Universities often have affiliated colleges which follow the universities'
curriculum and examination systems.
 Funding: Public universities receive funding from the government, while private
universities rely on tuition fees and private funding.

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  Challenges: Issues include insufficient funding, outdated curricula, and a lack of
research facilities.

Japan:

 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT):

Regulates higher education, ensuring standardization and quality.
 Degree System: Comprises bachelor’s (4 years), master’s (2 years), and doctoral
programs (3-4 years).
 University Types: Includes national, public (prefectural and municipal), and private
universities.
 Funding: National and public universities are primarily funded by the government,
while private universities rely heavily on tuition and private donations.
 Focus: Emphasizes research, innovation, and maintaining global standards in
education.

Curriculum and Pedagogy:

Pakistan:

 Curriculum: Often theoretical with a growing emphasis on research and practical

skills, but still lagging in modernized content.
 Teaching Methods: Predominantly lecture-based with limited use of technology and
interactive methods.
 Assessment: Typically involves annual or semester-end exams, with some
universities adopting continuous assessment methods.

Japan:

 Curriculum: Balanced between theoretical knowledge and practical application, with

a strong emphasis on research and technological advancements.
 Teaching Methods: Utilizes interactive and student-centered learning approaches,
incorporating advanced technology and lab work.

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  Assessment: Continuous assessment through projects, presentations, and exams,
focusing on comprehensive understanding and practical application.

Research and Innovation:

Pakistan:

 Research Facilities: Limited resources and infrastructure for research, though initiatives by
HEC are improving the situation.
 Research Output: Gradually increasing but still not on par with international standards due
to lack of funding and facilities.
 Collaboration: Emerging collaborations with international institutions and industries, but
still in the early stages.

Japan:

 Research Facilities: World-class research facilities and infrastructure, heavily funded by

both the government and private sector.
 Research Output: High research output with significant contributions to global knowledge,
particularly in science and technology.
 Collaboration: Strong collaborations with international universities, industries, and research
institutions, fostering innovation and technological advancements.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE JAPANESE SYSTEM OF HIGHER

EDUCATION FOR PAKISTAN:

Structure and Administration:

Pakistan:

 Higher Education Commission (HEC): Established in 2002, the HEC oversees

higher education, ensuring quality and fostering research.
 Degree System: Includes bachelor’s (4 years), master’s (2 years), and PhD programs.
 Affiliations: Universities often have affiliated colleges which follow the universities'
curriculum and examination systems.

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  Funding: Public universities receive funding from the government, while private
universities rely on tuition fees and private funding.
 Challenges: Issues include insufficient funding, outdated curricula, and a lack of
research facilities.

Japan:

 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT):

Regulates higher education, ensuring standardization and quality.
 Degree System: Comprises bachelor’s (4 years), master’s (2 years), and doctoral
programs (3-4 years).
 University Types: Includes national, public (prefectural and municipal), and private
universities.
 Funding: National and public universities are primarily funded by the government,
while private universities rely heavily on tuition and private donations.
 Focus: Emphasizes research, innovation, and maintaining global standards in
education.

Curriculum and Pedagogy:

Pakistan:

 Curriculum: Often theoretical with a growing emphasis on research and practical

skills, but still lagging in modernized content.
 Teaching Methods: Predominantly lecture-based with limited use of technology and
interactive methods.
 Assessment: Typically involves annual or semester-end exams, with some
universities adopting continuous assessment methods.

Japan:

 Curriculum: Balanced between theoretical knowledge and practical application, with

a strong emphasis on research and technological advancements.

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  Teaching Methods: Utilizes interactive and student-centered learning approaches,
incorporating advanced technology and lab work.
 Assessment: Continuous assessment through projects, presentations, and exams,
focusing on comprehensive understanding and practical application.

Research and Innovation:

Pakistan:

 Research Facilities: Limited resources and infrastructure for research, though

initiatives by HEC are improving the situation.
 Research Output: Gradually increasing but still not on par with international
standards due to lack of funding and facilities.
 Collaboration: Emerging collaborations with international institutions and industries,
but still in the early stages.

Japan:

 Research Facilities: World-class research facilities and infrastructure, heavily

funded by both the government and private sector.
 Research Output: High research output with significant contributions to global
knowledge, particularly in science and technology.
 Collaboration: Strong collaborations with international universities, industries, and
research institutions, fostering innovation and technological advancements.

Q5: Identify the important functions of the university. Give examples related to each
function from your context.

Ans:

IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY:

Universities serve multiple important functions that are crucial for the development of
individuals and society. Here are some key functions of universities.

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1. Academic Leadership:
Significance and Occurrence:
Academic leadership is vital but uncommon in universities, characterized by quality
faculty, sophisticated research, graduate education, and selective undergraduate
education.
Resource Requirements:
Fulfilling the academic leadership function requires significant resources, both human
and physical. Research, graduate education, and overall academic quality are costly
endeavors that demand considerable investment.
Need for Autonomy:
Academic leadership requires significant autonomy, ensuring key aspects of
university education are well-resourced and free from excessive government or
market influences. Intellectual activities need protection, with the best controls being
internal or based on international peer review.
Challenges and Misconceptions:
Proper identification of true academic leadership is vital to prevent resource
misallocation and misuse of autonomy. Many policy papers on international higher
education in developing countries fail to address the specific needs of academic
leadership, treating all university education uniformly. This oversight hampers the
growth and support of genuine academic leadership.
Example:
Requires significant resources and autonomy to maintain intellectual activity and
ensure academic quality.
2. Professional Development:
Professional Development in University Education:
The professional development function of university education prepares students for
specific job markets, emphasizing practical skills and industry engagement in fields
like law and computer science. While aiming to bridge academia and industry, its
effectiveness varies and often faces criticism for job mismatches.
Adjusting Professional University Education:

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 Improving professional university education involves incorporating industry
professionals into teaching, aligning curricula with job market demands, and using
market feedback for policy adjustments to reduce graduate underemployment.
Example:
Fields like law and computer science, blending full-time professors with professionals
who teach individual courses.
3. Technological Training and Development:

The technological function in higher education is relatively new and was previously either
missing or found at lower educational levels or in on-the-job training.

Focus on Applied Research and Training:

This function emphasizes applied research and short-term training programs designed
to directly prepare students for the job market.
Strong Ties to the Job Market:
It is crucial for technological education to have strong connections with the job
market, influencing curriculum development, faculty selection, and outcome
evaluation.
Importance of Rapid Responsiveness:
Rapid responsiveness to industry needs is vital and should not be hindered by
excessive authority or bureaucracy.
Quality of Technical Education:
Technical education must not be of poor quality; it should be respected and
considered a significant and growing form of university education.
Example:
Technical education should be respected and serve as a growing form of university
education.
4. General Higher Education:

General higher education is often the least recognized function of university education. It is
typically structured as professional education, but many students end up in jobs unrelated to their
field of study. This mismatch can make general higher education seem like a failure, particularly
when compared to academic leadership.

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Misconceptions
General higher education is often mistakenly viewed as quasi-professional and
unsuccessful. This perception arises when graduates do not work directly in their
studied subject matter or when the program does not align with traditional notions of
academic leadership.
Importance of Design
General higher education should be intentionally designed and appreciated for its
value. It enables students in large education systems to develop crucial analytical
skills in reading, writing, and thinking. These skills are essential for various jobs and
broader civic roles.
Curriculum and Pedagogy
When employment outcomes do not align with rigid study plans, curriculum and
pedagogy need to be redesigned. This flexibility ensures that education remains
relevant and beneficial to students' future careers.
Accreditation and Alternatives
Accreditation systems may be most appropriate for general higher education.
Additionally, it offers possibilities for distance education and other alternatives to
traditional higher education, making it more accessible and adaptable to diverse
learning needs.
Example:
Quasi-professional education, adaptable curriculum and pedagogy, suitable for
accreditation systems, and possibilities for distance education.

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