CATHODE RAY OSCILLISCOPE

Cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic instrument that can measured the shape ,amplitude
,frequency of AC signal and the amplitude of DC signal. Its allows the the user to see the
amplitude of electrical signal as function of time on the screen.
The internal section of CRO consist of following seven major sections:
1. Cathode Ray Tube
2. Vertical Amplifier
3. Delay Line
4.Trigger Circuit
5. Time base circuit
6. High Voltage Power Supply
7. Low Voltage Power Supply
8. Horizontal Amplifier
The arrangement of these section in a CRO is shown in the form of bock diagram given below
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A GENERAL PURPOSE CRO
CATHODE RAY TUBE
The heart of CRO is CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT) .Here the electron beam is generated
,accelerated and deflected in accordance with the input signal, and a visible trace is produce on
the phosphor screen.

Vertical Amplifier :-
This is also called Y- amplifier . The electron beam deflection in the Y- direction or the vertical
direction is proportional to the signal amplitude given to the Y- input or vertical plates. Hence
, this is called a Y- amplifier.
The gain can be varied externally with the help of amplitude control. The bandwidth of this
amplifier puts a limit to the maximum frequency of the input signal that can be measured using
the CRO. If the magnitude of the external signal is large , it can also attenuated in the potential
divider attenuator section.

DELAY LINE :-
A delay line is placed between output of vertical amplifier and y input of cathode ray tube, to delay
incoming unknown signal. Purpose of delay line is to synchronize unknown signal with sweep signal
such that complete signal portion will be displayed without any loss.

HV and LV Supply :-
To accelerate, deflect and sweep the electron beam , a large voltage in Kilovolts is required.
This is generated by the high voltage power supply circuits. VCC and other low voltage is
required for the heater of electron gun, which emit the electron is generated in the low-voltage
power supply circuits.

Triger Circuit :-
It is necessary that horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input
vertical signal, each time it sweeps. Hence to synchronize horizontal deflection
with vertical deflection a synchronizing or triggering circuit is used . It convert
the incoming signal into the triggering pulse which are used for synchronization.
Time base generator :-
This is saw-tooth waveform generator circuit used to deflect the electron beam linearly in X-
direction ( horizontal section ).This voltage deflect the spot at a constant time dependent rate.
Thus the X-axis of the screen can be represented as time , which helps to display and analyze
the time varying signals.
HORIZONTIAL AMPLIFIER
The sawtooth voltage produced by the time base generator may not be of sufficient strength.
Hence before giving it to the horizontal deflection plates, it is amplified using the horizontal
amplifier.

CATHODE RAY TUBE: -

Cathode ray tube is the heart of the C.R.O .The CRT generates the electron beam, accelerates
the beam and also has a screen where beam becomes visible as a spot, The main parts of the
CRT are
1. Electron Gun Assembly
2. Deflection Plate Assembly
3. Fluorescent Screen
4. Glass Body and Base
Electron Gun Assembly
The electron gun assembly consists of an :-
• Heater
• Cathode
• Control grid surrounding the cathode
• Pre- accelerating anode
• Focusing anode
• Accelerating anode

The cathode is nickel cylinder coated with an oxide coating of barium and strontium and emits
plenty of electrons, when heated. The emitting surface of cathode should be as small as
possible.
Rate of emission of electrons or say the intensity of electron beam depends upon the magnitude
of cathode current , which can be controlled by the controlled grid. The control grid is usually
a metal cylinder covered at one end but with a small hole in the cover.The grid is kept at
negative potential with respect to cathode an its function is to vary the electron emission and
so the brilliance of spot on the phosphor screen.
The hole in the grid is provided to allow the passage for electron through it and concentrate the
beam of electron along the axis of tube. Electron become come out from the control grid
through a small hole in it and enter a pre-accelerating anode, which is a hollow cylinder in
shape and is at a potential of few hundred volts more positive than the cathode so as to
accelerate the electron beam in the electric field. This accelerated beam would be scattered
know because of variation energy and would produce a broad ill defined spot on the screen.
.This electron beam is focused on the screen by an electrostatic lens consisting of two more
cylindrical from the pre-accelerating anode.. The function of these anodes is to concentrate and
focus the beam on the screen and also to accelerate the speed of elecrtons.The pre-accelerating
anode and the accelerating anode are connected to a common positive high voltage of about
1500 V.The focusing anode is connected to a adjustable voltage of 500 V.

Deflection plate Assembly

Deflection plate assembly consists of two pair of parallel plated referred to as the vertical and
horizontal deflection plates. One of the plates is connected to the permanently connected to a
ground, whereas the other plate of each set connected to the input signals or triggering signal
of the CRO.
As shown in figure, the electron passes through these plates. A positive voltage applied to the
Y input terminal ( Vy) cause the beam to deflect vertically upward due to attraction force ,while
a negative is applied to the Y input terminal will cause the electron beam to deflect vertically
downward, due to repulsion force.
Similarly, a positive voltage applied ti X- input terminal (Vx) will cause the electron beam to
deflect horizontally toward the right, while a negative voltage applied to the X-input terminal
will cause the electron beam to deflect horizontally towards the left of the screen. The amount
of vertical or horizontal deflection is directly proportional to the corresponding applied voltage.
When the voltage are applied simultaneously to vertical and horizontal deflecting plates , the
electron beam is deflected due to the resultant of these two voltage.

Fluorescent Screen

The front face of the CRT called the face plate is the picture screen of oscilloscope . The face
is usually a flat surface for tube with display area windows of 100 * 100 mm or less.
This screen is coated with a fluorescent material called phosphor which emits light when
bombarded by electrons. This is called FLUORESCENCE characteristics of materials. These
fluorescent materials continue emit light even after radiation exposure is cut off. This is called
PHOSPHORESCENCE characteristic of the materials. The length of the time during which
phosphorescence occurs is called the PERSISTENCE of the phosphor.

Phosphor P 31 is used commonly for general purpose Oscilloscope due to following

characteristics
1. It give colour to which human eye response is maximum.
2. It has high burn resistance to avoid the accidental damage
3. Its illumination level is high
4. It provide high writing speed
Glass Body

The whole assembly is protected in a conical highly evacuated glass housing through suitable
supports. The inner walls of CRT between neck and screen are usually coated with a conducting
material known as AQUADAG (GRAPHITE COATING) and this coating is electrically
connected to the accelerating anode. The coating is provided in order to accelerated the electron
beam after passing between the deflecting plated and to collect the electrons produced by
secondary emission when electron strike the screen. Thus, the coating prevents the formation
of -ve charge on the screen and state of equilibrium of screen is maintained

Base
The base is provided to CRT through which the connection is made to the various parts.

Electrostatic Focusing
Electrostatic Focusing

Fig 1
The fundamental diagram of an electrostatic focusing shown in fig 1.
The pre-accelerating anode, and accelerating anode are connected to
the same potential while the focusing anode is connected to a lower
potential.
On account of difference of potential between focusing anode and the
two accelerating anode a non-uniform electric field exit on each ends
of focusing anode. The equipotential surface, thus, form a “double
concave lens “.
It can be seen in Fig 1 that because of middle anode at a lower potential
, electron beam coming from the cathode and passing from the first
concave lens tends to become more aligned with the axis of CRT and
when it enter at second concave electrostatic lens, formed between two
anode at different potential, it is focused at phosphor screen. Focal
length of the electrostatic lens can be adjusted by varying potential of
middle anode with respect to other two anode. Thus the electron beam
can be made to focus at the screen very precisely

Fig 2
In Fig 2 show two concentric cylinders with a potential applied between
them so the an electric field is generated between them. Spreading of
electric field is caused because of repulsion between electric line. If
equipotential line are drawn , as shown in fig 2. , they would bulge at
center of two anode.
As we know that electrons move in a direction opposite to that of
electric field lines and equipotential surface are perpendicular to
electric field lines so force on the electron is exerted in the direction
normal to the equipotential surface.
Electron entering at the center line of the two anodes experience no
force but electron displaced from the center line experience a force
normal to the direction of equipotential surface and deflect as shown in
Fig 3.

Fig 3
In Fig 3. An equipotential surface is shown , in which an electron with
velocity v1 and at an angle θ1 to the normal of equipotential surface
enter and experience a force in a direction normal to equipotential
surface. Thus the velocity of electron increase by v2 This force on the
electron is exerted in the direction normal to equipotential surface so
only the normal component of the electron velocity v1N increase and the
tangential component of velocity v1T remains the same

From Fig 3.
v1T = v1 Sin θ1
v2T = v2 Sin θ2
But v1T = v2T
v1 Sin θ1 = v2 Sin θ2
v1 Sin θ1
=
v2 Sin θ2

From the above expression it is obvious that equipotential surface acts

as a concave lens in geometrical optics . That is why, this focusing
system is named as an electrostatic lens.
Time Base Operation

Most of the CRO application involve measurement or display of a

quantity which varies with respect to time.
This require that the CRT spot moves across the screen with a constant
velocity .
For this a voltage which varies linearly with time has to be applied to
one of the deflection plates.
This voltage is used to sweep the electron beam across the screen is
called a Sweep or Ramp voltage. The time base generator is required
to provide this Sweep,Ramp or Sawtooth volage.

During the sweep time , Tr , the beam moves from left to right across
the CRT . The beam is deflected to the right by the increasing amplitude
of the ramp voltage and the fact the positive voltage attract the negative
electrons. During the retrace time Tf , the beam return quickly to the left
side of screen The control grid is generally “gated off “ ,which blanks
out the beam during retrace time and prevents an undesirable retrace
pattern from appearing on screen.

Time Base Circuits

To deflect a beam from left to right on the screen
1. The right -hand horizontal deflection plate is supplied with a free-
running ramp voltage
2. The left hand horizontal deflection plate is grounded.
A basic RC circuit is used to obtain a saw-tooth wave form as shown
in Fig 2

FIG 2
The circuit shown in Fig 2 is a simple sweep circuit in which the
capacitor C charge through the resistor R. The capacitor discharge
periodically through the transistor ,Q1 which cause the waveform
shown in Fig 2 (b) to appear across the capacitor.
The signal, Vi , which must be applied to the base of the base of the
transistor to turn it “on” for short interval of time is also shown in figure
2 (b).
When the transistor is turned completely “on” it present a low
resistance discharge path through which the capacitor discharges
quickly.
If the transistor is not turned “on” , the capacitor will charge
exponentially to the supply voltage Vcc according to the equation

𝑡
Vo = Vcc [ 1 - ⅇ − 𝑅𝐶 ]
Vo = Instantaneous voltage across the capacitor at time t
Vcc = Supply voltage
T = Time of interest
R = value of series resistor
C = Value of Capacitor
Electrostatic deflection of Moving Electron in CRO tubes
and Deflection Sensitivity
We know that a force is experienced by an electron when it is kept in a uniform
electric field. This Principle is the basis for the deflection of electron beam owing
to deflection plates
Let us consider an electron having initial velocity of u m/s along X -axis at point
o in the space between plate A and B each of length l meters and separated by
distance if d meters.
Let the pd across the plates be V volts. For simplicity, Let us assume that the field
is uniform and does not extend beyond the end of the plates.
The period during which an electron remains in the region between the two plates
is given by expression.
 T= l/u

There is no initial velocity along Y -axis but has an acceleration along Y-axis
given by the expression.
𝑞𝐸 𝑞 𝑣
ay = = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑑 m/s2
𝑚

The velocity of electron along Y- axis after time t is given by

𝑞 𝑣 𝑙
Vy = 0 + ayt = ∗ *
𝑚 𝑑 𝑢
After the electron leaves the region between the deflection plates, it travel in a
straight line , because there is no field acting on it
A simple extension of this development will show that if this line is extended
backward, it intercepts the X-axis at the centre of the plates at x = L/2 .
Let S be the distance along the X -axis from the point to the screen.
Then the deflection y can be determined by similar TRIANGLS. Thus
From the above expression we can concluded that for a fixed accelerating voltage
Va and the dimension of CRT , te defelction of electron beam on the screen is
directly proportional to the deflection voltage Vd . So CRT can be employed as a
linear voltage indication device.
The deflection sensitivity of a cathode ray tube , which is defined as the vertical
deflection of the beam on the screen per unit deflecting voltage , is given bty the
expression.