Module- 2 Part 1

Working Principles of MEMS

and Microsystems
Dr Narayan .K. Ph.D (IISc)
Senior Member IEEE
Dean (R&D) and Professor
Department of ECE
This Chapter will present the working principles of various micro
sensors and actuators in microsystems.

● Minute sensors are expected to detect a variety of signals associated

with:
Accelerations (velocity and forces),
Biological and biomedical
Chemical,
Forces (e.g., microaccelerometers and gyroscopes)
Optical,
Pressure,
Thermal (temperatures),
etc.

Input samples may be: motion of a solid, pressurized liquids or gases,

biological and chemical substances.

● Due to the minute sizes, microactuators work on radically different

principles than the conventional electromagnetic means, such as
solenoids and ac/dc motors.

Instead, electrostatic, thermal, piezoelectric and shape-memory

alloys are extensively used in microactuations.
 Working Principles for Microsensors

Power
Supply

Micro
Input Transduction Output
Sensing Unit
Signal Signal
Element
 Acoustic Wave Sensors

Acoustic wave sensor does not related to the sensing of acoustic waves transmitted in
solids or other media, as the name implies.

Primary application of these sensors is to act like “band filters” in mobile telephones and
base stations.

Other applications include:

• 2 sets of “Interdigital Transducers” (IDT)
• Sensing of torques and tire pressures are created on a piezoelectric layer
• Sensing biological and chemical substances attached to a tiny substrate as shown
• Sensing vapors, humidity and temperature • Energize by an AC source to the “Input IDT”
• Monitor fluid flow in microfluidics will close and open the gaps of the finger
electrodes, and thus surface deformation/
stresses transmitting through the piezo-
electric material
• The surface deformation/stresses will
cause the change of finger electrodes in
the “Output IDT”
• Any change of material properties (chemical
attacks) or geometry due to torques will
alter the I/O between the “Input IDT” and
“Output IDT.”
• The sensing of contact environment or
pressure can thus be accomplished
 BioMEMS

The term “BioMEMS” has been a popular terminology in the MEMS industry in
recent years due to the many break-through in this technology, which many
believe to be a viable lead to mitigate the sky-rocketing costs in healthcare costs
in many industrialized countries.

BioMEMS include the following three major areas:

(1) Biosensors for identification and measurement of biological substances,

(2) Bioinstruments and surgical tools, and

(3) Bioanalytical systems for testing and diagnoses.

Major Technical Issues in BioMEMS Products:

(1) Functionality for the intended biomedical operations.

(2) Adaptive to existing instruments and equipment.

(3) Compatibility with biological systems of the patients.

(4) Controllability, mobility, and easy navigation for operations

such as those required in laparoscope's surgery.

(5) Functions of MEMS structures with high aspect ratio

(defined as the ratio of the dimensions in the depth of the
structure to the dimensions of the surface)

Note: Almost all bioMEMS products are subjected to the approval

for marketing by the FDA (Food and Drug Administration)
of the US government.
 Biomedical Sensors and Biosensors

These sensors are extensively used in medical diagnosis, environmental protection,

drug discovery and delivery, etc.

Biomedcial Sensors

For the measurements of biological substances in the sample and also for medical
diagnosis purposes.

Input signal: Biological sample (e.g., blood samples or body fluids typically in
minute amount in µL or nL)

Microsensing element: a chemical that reacts with the sample.

Transduction unit: the product of whatever the chemical reactions between the
sample and the chemical in the sensing element will convert
itself into electrical signal (e.g. in milli volts, mV).

Output signal: The converted electrical signal usually in mV.

Example of a biomedical sensor:

A sensor for measuring the glucose concentration of a patient.

Pt electrode
Blood sample
Polyvinyl alcohol solution
V H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
i
Ag/AgCl Reference electrode

Working principle:

● The glucose in patient’s blood sample reacts with the O2 in the polyvinyl
alcohol solution and produces H2O2.

● The H2 in H2O2 migrates toward Pt film in a electrolysis process, and builds up

layers at that electrode.

● The difference of potential between the two electrodes due to the build-up
of H2 in the Pt electrode relates to the amount of glucose in the blood
sample.
 Biosensors

These sensors work on the principle of interactions between the

biomolecules in the sample and the analyte (usually in solution)
in the sensor.

Signal transduction is carried out by the sensing element as shown

below:
ANALYTE

Biomolecule B
B Supply
Biomolecule Layer B B
Chemical
B B B B Optical
Output Thermal
Sensor
Signals Resonant
Electrochemical
ISFET (Ion Sensitive
Field Effect Transducer )
 Chemical Sensors

Work on simple principles of chemical reactions between the sample, e.g. ,O2
and the sensing materials, e.g., a metal.

Signal transduction is the changing of the physical properties of the sensing

materials after specific type of chemical reactions.

There are four (4) common types of chemical sensors:

(1) Chemiresistor sensors.

(2) Chemicapacitor sensors.
Chemically
Sensitive
Polyimide
Input current Output:
or voltage Metal Insert
Change of Resistance
Input Voltage Metal Electrodes Output:
Capacitance Change

Measurand Gas
 Chemical Sensors-Cont’d

(3) Chemimechanical sensors:

Work on certain materials (e.g. polymers) that change shapes when they
are exposed to chemicals. Measuring the change of the shape of the
sensing materials determines the presence of the chemical.

(4) Metal oxide gas sensors:

Sensing materials: certain semiconducting materials, e.g., SnO2 change
their electrical resistance when exposed to certain chemicals.

Measurand Gas

Electric Contact SnO2

SiO2
Silicon Substrate
 Chemical Sensors-Cont’d

Available metal oxide gas sensors:

Semiconducting Metals Catalyst Additives Gas to be Detected

BaTiO3/CuO La2O3, CaCO3 CO2

SnO2 Pt + Sb CO

SnO2 Pt Alcohols

SnO2 Sb2O3 H2, O2, H2S

SnO2 CuO H2S

ZnO V, Mo Halogenated hydrocarbons

WO3 Pt NH3

Fe2O3 Ti-doped + Au CO

Ga2O3 Au CO

MoO3 None NO2, CO

In2O3 None O3
 Optical Sensors
● These sensors are used to detect the intensity of lights.

● It works on the principle of energy conversion between the photons in

the incident light beams and the electrons in the sensing materials.

● The following four (4) types of optical sensors are available:

Photon Energy
Photon Energy
Semiconductor A
is more transparent R Semiconductor A
to photon energy in Junction

incident light
 Semiconductor B R

(a) Photovoltaic junction (b) Photoconductive device

Bias
Voltage Photon Energy
Photon Energy
Reverse _ R
Bias + p-Material
Voltage p n
Vout
n-Material Leads

(c) Photodiodes
 Optical Sensors-Cont’d

Photon Energy

Photon Energy
Collector p n p Emitter Collector p n p Emitter

Base Base

(d) Phototransistors

Silicon (Si) and Gallium arsenide (GaAs) are common sensing materials.
GaAs has higher electron mobility than Si- thus higher quantum efficiency.

Other materials, e.g. Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K) and
Rubidium (Rb) are used for this purpose.
 Pressure Sensors

● Micro pressure sensors are used to monitor and measure minute gas
pressure in environments or engineering systems, e.g. automobile intake
pressure to the engine.

● They are among the first MEMS devices ever developed and produced for
“real world” applications.

● Micro pressure sensors work on the principle of mechanical bending of

thin silicon diaphragm by the contact air or gas pressure.
Measurand
Fluid Inlet

Silicon Die
with
Diaphragm
Cavity Cavity
Constraint
Base

Measurand
Fluid Inlet

(a) Back sidepressurized (b) Front side pressurized

 Pressure Sensors-Cont’d
● The strains associated with the deformation of the diaphragm are
measured by tiny “piezoresistors” placed in “strategic locations” on
the diaphragm.
R , R , R , R = Piezoresistors
1 2 3 4
● These tiny piezoresistors are made
from doped silicon. They work on
the similar principle as “foil strain
gages” with much smaller sizes (in
Metal Pad R 4 MetalPad
R 3
R 1
R 2 µm), but have much higher
sensitivities and resolutions.
Top view of silicon die

R3 (+ve) R1(+ve)
Wire bond Piezoresistors
+
Metal film Vin a Vo
Dielectric layer b
-
R2(-ve) R4(-ve)
Silicone gel

Silicon Metal
Diaphragm Die Casing
Attach
Pyrex Glass Wheatstone bridge for signal transduction
Constraining
Base or Metal  R1 R3 
Header
Vo = Vin  − 
Passage for
 1
R + R 4 R 2 + R3 
Interconnect
Pressurized
Medium R1,R 3= resistance induced by longitudinal and transverse stresses
R2,R4 = reference resistors
 Pressure Sensors-Cont’d

● Other ways of transducing the deformation of the diaphragm to electronic

output signals are available, e.g.,

Metallic
Silicon Cover
Signal output: capacitance changes
Electrode
(for higher temperature applications)
A
C = r o
Metallic
V Electrode
d
Silicon Die
r = Relative permittivity = 1.0 with air
Cavity
Constraint o = Permittivity in vacuum = 8.85 pF/m
Base A = Overlap area
D = Gap between plate electrodes
Measurand
Fluid Inlet
Diffused p-type Vibrating beam:
electrode (n-type Si wafer,40 m wide
Silicon diaphragm x 600 m long x 6 m thick)
By resonant vibration 1200 m sq.x 100 m thick

(for higher resolutions) Silicon die

Signal output: Shift of (400 m thick)
resonance frequencies by
change of stresses in lower
plate electrode by applied
pressure loading
Pressurized medium Constraint base
 Two Common Types of Micro Pressure Sensors
Sensors using piezoresistors:
• Small in size • Linear I/O relation • Temperature sensitive

Sensors using capacitances:

• Tends to be bulky • Suited for elevated temperature application
• Nolinear I/O relations • Lower cost

Nonlinear I/O with plate pressure sensors using electrodes

Electric circuit bridge for converting capacitance changes to voltage output:
C
Vo =
2(2C + C )Vin
Variable
C capacitor 14
Change of Capacitance, pF

12
Vo Vin 10
8

C C 6
4
2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Gap,micrometer
 Pressure Sensors-Cont’d

● Major problems in pressure sensors are in the

system packaging and protection of the
diaphragm from the contacting pressurized
media, which are often corrosive, erosive,
and at high temperatures.
 Thermal Sensors

● Thermal sensors are used to monitor, or measure temperature in an

environment or of an engineering systems.

● Common thermal sensors involve thermocouples and thermopiles.

● Thermal sensors work on the principle of the electromotive forces (emf)

generated by heating the junction made by dissimilar materials (beads):
Metal Wire A
Heat
Heat Metal Wire A Cold
Junction i
i V Voltage Output
Hot
Junction
i i
Bead V
Metal Wire B Metal Wire B
Voltage Output

(a) A thermocouple (b) A dual junction thermocouple

The generated voltage (V) by a temperature rise at the bead (∆T) is:
V =  T
where β = Seebeck coefficient
 Thermal Sensors-Cont’d

The Seebeck coefficients for various thermocouples are:

Type Wire Materials Seebeck Coefficient Range (oC) Range (mV)

(V/oC)

E Chromel/Constantan 58.70 at 0oC -270 to 1000 -9.84 to 76.36

J Iron/Constantan 50.37 at 0oC -210 to 1200 -8.10 to 69.54

K Chromel/Alumel 39.48 at 0oC -270 to 1372 -6.55 to 54.87

R Platinum (10%)-Rh/Pt 10.19 at 600oC -50 to 1768 -0.24 to 18.70

T Copper/Constantan 38.74 at 0oC -270 to 400 -6.26 to 20.87

S Pt (13%)-Rh/Pt 11.35 at 600oC -50 to 1768 -0.23 to 21.11

Common thermocouples are of K and T types

 Thermal Sensors-Cont’d

Thermopiles are made of connecting a series of thermocouples in parallel:

Thermocouples

Hot Junction
Region, Th

Cold Junction
Region, Tc
V

The induced voltage (∆V) by the temperature change at the hot junction (∆T) is:

V = N  T
with N = number of thermocouple pairs in the thermopile.
 Thermal Sensors-Cont’d
A micro thermal sensor:
3.6 mm

32 Thermocouples
● 32 polysilicon-gold thermocouples
16 m wide

Cold Junction ● dimension of thermopile is:

Region 3.6 mm x 3.6 mm x 20 µm thick
3.6 mm

Hot
Junction
Region
● Typical output is 100 mV
Diaphragm: 1.6 mm dia
x 1.3 m thick ● Response time is 50 ms

Top view

Hot Junction
Region
Thermocouples
20 m

Silicon Rim
Diaphragm Support

Elevation
Working Principles for Microactuators
Power
Supply

Micro
Output Transduction
Actuating Unit
Action
Element

Power supply: Electrical current or voltage

Transduction unit: To covert the appropriate form of power supply

into the desired form of actions of the actuating
element

Actuating element: A material or component that moves with power

supply

Output action: Usually in a prescribed motion

 Actuation Using Thermal Forces

● Solids deform when they are subjected to a temperature change (∆T)

● A solid rod with a length L will extend its length by ∆L = α∆T, in which
α = coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) – a material property.

● When two materials with distinct CTE bond together and is subjected to a
temperature change, the compound material will change its geometry
as illustrated below with a compound beam:
Heat
1   2
1

2

●These compound beams are commonly used as microswitches and relays

in MEMS products.
 Actuation Using Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)

● SMA are the materials that have a “memory” of their original geometry (shape)
at a typically elevated temperature of production.

● These alloys are deformed into different geometry at typically room temperature.

● The deformed SMA structures will return to their original shapes when they are
heated to the elevated temperature at their productions.

● Ti-Ni is a common SMA.

● A microswitch actuated with SMA:

Shape Memory Alloy Strip
e.g. TiNi or Nitinolor
Resistance Heating Strip

Silicon Cantilever Beam

Constraint Base
 Actuation Using Piezoelectric Crystals

● A certain crystals, e.g., quartz exhibit an interesting behavior when subjected

to a mechanical deformation or an electric voltage.

● This behavior may be illustrated as follows:

Induced Mechanical
Mechanical Deformation
Forces

Applied Voltage, V
V

Mechanical force induced Electric voltage induced

electric voltage mechanical deformation

● This peculiar behavior makes piezoelectric crystals an ideal candidate for

microactuation as illustrated in the following case:
 Actuation Using Piezoelectric Crystals-Cont’d

A micro relay or microelectrical switch

Electrodes

V
Piezoelectric

Silicon Cantilever Beam

Constraint Base
 Actuation Using Electrostatic Forces

● Electrostatic Force between Two Particles – The Coulomb’s Law:

A
(with charge q)

B
(with charge q’)

1 qq'
The attraction or repulsive force: F =
4 r 2
where ε = permittivity of the medium between the two particles
= 8.85 x 10-12 C2/N-m2 or 8.85 pF/m in vacuum (= εo) r
= Distance between the particles (m)
 Actuation Using Electrostatic Forces-Cont’d

● Electrostatic Force Normal to Two Electrically Charged Plates:

Length, L

V
Gap, d

A WL
● The induced capacitance, C is: C = r o =  r o
d d
● The induced normal force, Fd is:

1  r o WL 2
Fd = − 2
V
2 d
in which εr = relative permittivity of the dielectric material between the two plates
(see Table 2.2 for values of εr for common dielectric materials).
 Actuation Using Electrostatic Forces-Cont’d

● Electrostatic Force Parallel to Two Misaligned Electrically Charged Plates:

Fd
Fw

L FL
V d W

● Force in the “Width” direction:

1 r o L 2
Fw = − V
2 d
● Force in the “Length” direction:
1 r o W 2
FL = − V
2 d
 Applications of Microactuations

Microgrippers An essential component in microrobots in assembly microassemblies

and surgery

Two gripping methods:

Gripping Arms
Closing
The normal plate electrodes
V Electrodes the gap,d V - Not practical b/c requiring
more space.

The sliding plate electrodes

V V - Popular method. Can have
many sets to make “Comb drive”
actuators
Aligning the
electrodes,L
A Typical Microgripper with “Comb drive” Actuators:
400 µm

100 µm
Drive Arm

Arrangement of electrodes:
10 µm
V

Closure Arm

160
Drastic reduction in required
140
actuation voltage with increase
Required Voltage, v
120
of number of pairs of electrodes: 100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Number of Electrode Pairs
 Applications of Microactuations

A niche market in mobile telecommunications and

Miniature Microphones
intelligent hearing aides

Acoustic Wave Input dB = unit of noise level:

(air pressure wave)
dB→ MPa
P 
Electrical signal output: dB = 20 log10  
Diaphragm:
≈ 1µm thick Backplate (≈2 µm)
Po 
Air gap (≈2 µm)
∆C
where P = Air pressure (Pa)
Acoustic holes Po = Reference air pressure
at threshold sound level
Pressure equalization hole

Most microphones are designed for 20-80 dB in the frequency range of 150-1000 Hz

A major challenge in MEMS microphone design and manufacture is the packaging

and integration of MEMS and CMOS integrated circuits for signal conditioning
and processing
 Applications of Microactuations

Micromotors

Unlike traditional motors, the driving forces for micro motors is primarily the parallel
electrostatic forces between pairs of misaligned electrically charged plates
(electrodes), as will be demonstrated in the following two cases:

Linear stepping motors:

● Two sets of electrodes in the form of plates separated by dielectric material

(e.g. quartz film).
● One electrode set is fixed and the other may slide over with little friction.
● The two sets have slightly different pitch between electrodes
Pitch:
W w+w/3 Step Movements
W/3
Moving set A’ B’ C’ D’
electrodes:
Dielectric material
Fixed set
electrodes: A B C D
W W
 Applications of Micro Actuations-Cont’d
Pitch:
W w+w/3 Step Movements
W/3
Moving set A’ B’ C’ D’
electrodes:
Dielectric material
Fixed set
electrodes: A B C D
W W

● Energize the set A-A’ will generate a force pulling A’ over A due to initial misalignment.

● Once A and A’ are aligned, the pair B and B’ become misaligned.

● Energize the misaligned B-B’ will generate electrostatic force pulling B’ over B.

● It is now with C’ and C being misaligned.

● Energize C’ and C will produce another step movement of the moving set over the
stationary set.

● Repeat the same procedure will cause continuous movements of the moving sets

● The step size of the motion = w/3, or the size of preset mismatch of the pitch
between the two electrode sets.
 Applications of Micro Actuations-Cont’d
Rotary stepping motors:

● Involve two sets of electrodes- one set for the rotor and the other for the stator.
● Dielectric material between rotor and stator is air.
● There is preset mismatch of pitches of the electrodes in the two sets.
 Applications of Microactuations-Cont’d

● Working principle of this rotary motor is similar to that in linear motors.

A micro motor produced by Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center, Germany:

Rotor
Gear for
Stator transmitting
torque
Microvalves

● A special microvalve designed by Jerman in 1990.

● Circular in geometry, with diaphragm of 2.5 mm in diameter x 10 µm thick.
● The valve is actuated by thermal force generated by heating rings.
● Heating ring is made of aluminum films 5 µm thick.
● The valve has a capacity of 300 cm3/min at a fluid pressure of 100 psig.
● Power consumption is 1.5 W.

Electric Resistance
Heating Rings
Flexible Silicon Diaphragm INLET FLOW

Silicon
Base

Constraint Base

FLOW OUTLET
Centerline
Micropumps
Electrostatically actuated micropump:

● An electrostatic actuated pump in 1992.

● The pump is of square geometry with 4 mm x 4mm x 25 µm thick.
● The gap between the diaphragm and the electrode is 4 µm.
● Pumping rate is 70 µL/min at 25 Hz.
Deformable
Silicon
Diaphragm

Electrode V

Pumping Chamber
Inlet
Check
Valve

Outlet
Check
Valve Constraint
Base

Low Pressure High Pressure

Fluid Inlet Fluid Outlet
Piezoelectrically actuated pump:

● An effective way to pump fluid through capillary tubes.

● Tube wall is flexible.
● Outside tube wall is coated with piezoelectric crystal film, e.g. ZnO
with aluminum interdigital transducers (IDTs).
● Radio-frequency voltage is applied to the IDTs, resulting in mechanical
squeezing in section of the tube (similar to the squeezing of toothpaste)
● Smooth flow with “uniform” velocity profile across the tube cross section.
Piezoelectric coating
with transducer

Flow F V

Flexible Tube
Wall
 Micro Heat Pipes
Heat pipes = Closed systems that transport heat from heat source @ higher temperature to
heat sink @ lower temperature. They are often referred to as “Heat pumps.”
Micro heat pipes provide promising solution to effective heat dissipation in micro and molecular
electronics circuits as will be presented in Chapter 12.
● A pipe with triangular or trapezoidal
x-section (dp ≈ 100 µm) is in contacts with
heat source, e.g., IC and a heat sink, e.g.,
ambient cool air with cooling air by a fan.
● The pipe contains liquid, e.g., Ethanol
● Liquid vaporizes near the heat source
● The vapor flows towards heat sink due to
temperature difference
● The vapor condenses in the motion due to
drop in temperature
Cross-Sections
● Vapor turns into liquid near the heat sink
Heat ● The condensed liquid moves in the sharp
LIQUID Sink
corners towards the heat sink due to the
Heat capillary effect
VAPOR
Source ● The liquid vaporizes upon arriving at the
heat sink
Elevation ● The heat transport cycle repeats itself
as long as temperature differences
between the heat source and sink maintain.
 Microaccelerometers

● Accelerometers are used to measure dynamic forces associated

with moving objects.
● These forces are related to the velocity and acceleration of the moving
objects.
● Traditionally an accelerometer is used to measure such forces.
● A typical accelerometer consists of a “proof mass” supported by a spring and
a “dashpot” for damping of the vibrating proof mass:
The accelerometer is
attached to the vibrating
solid body

Spring
k

Mass
M Dashpot
with
damping
C
Vibrating
Solid Body
 Microaccelerometers-Cont’d
The accelerometer is
attached to the vibrating
solid body

●The instantaneous displacement of the mass

y(t) induced by the attached moving solid Spring
k

body is measured and recorded with respect Mass

to time, t. M Dashpot
with
damping
C
Vibrating
Solid Body
● The associated velocity, V(t) and the acceleration
α(t) may be obtained by the following derivatives:

dy(t) dy(t) d 2 y(t)

V (t) = and  (t) = =
dt dt dt 2
● The associated dynamic force of induced by the moving solid is thus obtained
by using the Newton’s law, i.e. F(t) = M α(t), in which M = the mass of the
moving solid.

♦ In miniaturizing the accelerometers to the micro-scale, there is no room for the

coil spring and the dashpot for damping on the vibrating mass.

♦ Alternative substitutes for the coil spring, dashpot, and even the proof mass
need to be found.
Microaccelerometers-Cont’d

● There are two types micro accelerometers available.

(1) The cantilever beam accelerometer:

Silicon Cantilever
Beam Piezoresistor

Mass, M
Casing

Constraint Base
Constraint Base

Vibrating Base

In this design: Cantilever beam = coil spring;

Surrounding viscous fluid = dashpot for damping of the proof mass

The movement of the proof mass is carried out by the attached piezoresistor.
 Microaccelerometers-Cont’d

(2) Balanced force micro accelerometer:

● This is the concept used in the “air-bag” deployment sensor in automobiles

● In this design: Plate beam = proof mass;

Two end tethers = springs
Surrounding air = dashpot

Stationary
electrodes
Moving electrode

● The movement of the proof mass is carried out by measuring the change of
capacitances between the pairs of electrodes.
 Microgyroscopes

Gyroscope is a form of accelerometer that measures angular rotation rates.

The change of the rotational speed (Ω) of a solid can induce Coriolis force (Fc).
For a moving solid with a linear velocity v, any rotation at the rate Ω can be
related to the induced Coriolis force Fc by the following expression:
r Ω z
Fc = 2mv x  Ω z
x
y x V Fc
y
where m = the mass of the y V
Fc y
moving solid x
x
z
z
(a) (b)
The sense and direction of the
vectorial quantities in the above
expression are illustrated to the z Ω z
Ω
right x Fc x V
y y
● Gyroscopes can thus be used
y V y Fc
as compass in self-correction
x x
navigation systems for ships
z z
and aircraft, space crafts, and (d)
(c)
Segway human transport.
 Microgyroscope Structure

Microgyroscopes are attached to the moving solid structure.

Like microaccelerometers, microgyroscopes use comb-drive actuators and
beam or tether springs to actuate the motion of the proof mass, as well as
to sense and measure the rate of rotation of the gyroscope.
y
Gyro Frame x-Position
y-Spring for
Force
Measurements
Resonator
for Linear Motion
Generation
Proof x-Spring
x x
Mass

y-Position

The induced Colioris forces are used to self-regulate the navigation of the moving
structures.
End of Chapter 2