ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

Module-1

Introduction to vectors
The behavior of a physical device subjected to electric field can be studied either by Field
approach or by Circuit approach. The Circuit approach uses discrete circuit parameters like
RLCM, voltage and current sources. At higher frequencies (MHz or GHz) parameters would no
longer be discrete. They may become non linear also depending on material property and
strength of v and i associated. This makes circuit approach to be difficult and may not give very
accurate results.

Thus at high frequencies, Field approach is necessary to get a better understanding of

performance of the device.

FIELD THEORY

The ‘Vector approach’ provides better insight into the various aspects of Electromagnetic
phenomenon. Vector analysis is therefore an essential tool for the study of Field Theory.

The ‘Vector Analysis’ comprises of ‘Vector Algebra’ and ‘Vector Calculus’.

Any physical quantity may be ‘Scalar quantity’ or ‘Vector quantity’. A ‘Scalar quantity’ is
specified by magnitude only while for a ‘Vector quantity’ requires both magnitude and direction
to be specified.

Examples :

Scalar quantity : Mass, Time, Charge, Density, Potential, Energy etc.,

Represented by alphabets – A, B, q, t etc

Vector quantity : Electric field, force, velocity, acceleration, weight etc., represented by
alphabets with arrow on top.
   
A, B, E, B etc.,
  
Vector algebra : If  are vectors and m, n are scalars th
A, B, C

(1) Addition
   
A B B A Commutative law
     
A (B C) (A B) C Associative law

(2) Subtraction
   
A - B A (- B)

(3) Multiplication by a scalar

 
mA Am Commutative law
 
m (n A) n (m A) Associative law
  
(m n) A m A n A Distributive law
   
m (A B) m A m B Distributi ve law
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45
A ‘vector’ is represented graphically by a directed line segment.

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45
A ‘Unit vector’ is a vector of unit magnitude and directed along ‘that vector’.

â A is a Unit vector along the direction of A .

Thus, the graphical representation of and aˆ are
A

A

 
Vector A Unit vector â A

   
Also â A A / A or A â A A

Product of two or more vectors :

(1) Dot Product ( . )

     
A.B A ( B COS θ OR { A COS θ} B , 0 θ π

 
B B


 A Cos θ

 A

B Cos θ A

A.B = B. A (A Scalar quantity)

(2) CROSS PRODUCT (X)

C=AxB= A B SIN θ n̂
Ex.,
 
where ' θ ' is angle between A and B ( 0 θ π)
ˆ  
and n is unit vector perpendicular to plane of A and B
  
directed such that A B C form a right handed system of vectors

   
A x B - Bx A
      
A x ( B C) A x B A x C

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS :

For an explicit representation of a vector quantity, a ‘co-ordinate system’ is essential.

Different systems used :

Sl.No. System Co-ordinate variables Unit vectors

1. Rectangular x, y, z ax , ay , az
2. Cylindrical ρ, , z aρ , a , az
3. Spherical r, , ar , a , a

These are ‘ORTHOGONAL‘ i.e., unit vectors in such system of co-ordinates are mutually
perpendicular in the right circular way.

i.e., x y z , z ,r

RECTANGULAR CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM :

Z
x=0 plane
az
p
y=0 Y
plane ay
ax z=0 plane
X

ax . a y ay . az az . ax 0
a x x ay az
a y x az ax
az x a x ay

az is in direction of ‘advance’ of a right circular screw as it is turned from a x to ay

Co-ordinate variable ‘x’ is intersection of planes OYX and OXZ i.e, z = 0 & y = 0

Location of point P :

If the point P is at a distance of r from O, then

If the components of r along X, Y, Z are x, y, z then


r x ax y ay z az r ar

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

Equation of Vector AB :

If OA A Ax ax Ay ay Az a z B

B B x ax
and OB By ay Bz az then 
    B AB
A AB B or AB B - A

 0 A A
where As , Ay & Az are components of A along X, Y and Z
and Bs , By & Bz are components of B along X, Y and Z

Dot and Cross Products :

 
A . B (Ax a x Ay a y Az a z ) . (Bx a x By a y Bz a z ) A x Bx Ay By Az Cz
 
A x B (Ax a x Ay a y Az a z ) x (Bx a x By a y Bz a z )

Taking 'Cross products' term by termand grouping, we get

  ax ay az
A x B Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

   Ax Ay Az
A . (B x C ) Bx By Bz
Cx Cy Cz

  
If A, B and C are non zero vectors,

  0
(i) A . B 0 then Cos θ 0 i.e., θ 90 A and B are perpendicular
 
A x B 0 then Sin θ 0 θ 0 A and B are parallel
     
(ii) A . ( B x C) represents the volume of a parallelopoid of sides A , B and C

Unit Vector along AB

a AB
AB
AB
where

Vector length AB AB (AB . AB )

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

Differential length, surface and volume elements in rectangular co-ordinate systems


r x â x y â y z â z
  
 r dx r dy r dz
dr
x y z

d r dx â x dy â y dz â z


Differential length d r [ dx2 dy2 dz2 ]1/2 - - - - -1


Differential surface element, d s

r
1. to z : dxdy â z
r
2. to z : dxdy aˆ z ------ 2
r
3. to z : dxdy aˆz

Differential Volume element

dv = dx dy dz ------------------------------------------------------ 3

z
dx p’
p dz
dy

r
 d r
r
0 y

x
Other Co-ordinate systems :-

Depending on the geometry of problem it is easier if we use the appropriate co-ordinate system
than to use the Cartesian co-ordinate system always. For problems having cylindrical symmetry
cylindrical co-ordinate system is to be used while for applications having spherical symmetry
spherical co-ordinate system is preferred.

Cylindrical Co-ordiante systems :-

z
P(ρ, , z) x = ρ Cos
y = ρ Sin
az  ρ
r z=z
0 ρ x 2 y2

ap r y φ tan-1 y / x
 z z
ρ
x

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 
r x aˆ y aˆ z â
x y z

r ρ Cos aˆ ρ Sin â z â
x y z

   
r r r
dr dρ d dz - - - - - -1
ρ z
  
r r r
Cos â x Sin â y â hρ â ρ ; hρ 1
ρ ρ ρ
  
r r r
- ρ Sin â x ρ Cos â y aˆ ρ aˆ ; h ρ
 
r r
z â z hz 1
z

Thus unit vectors in (ρ, , z) systems can be expressed in (x,y,z) system as

aρ Cos a x Sin a y ax Cos a Sin a

a - Sin ax Cos a y ay Sin a Cos a
az az; a , a and az are orthogonal

Further , d r dρ aˆ ρ d aˆ dz â z ------2
2
and d r dρ2 (ρ d )2 (dz)2

Differential areas :

ds âz (d ρ) (ρ d ) . â z
ds aˆ (dz) (ρ d ) . aˆ -------3
ds aˆ (d ρ dz) aˆ

Differential volume :

d (d ρ) (ρ d ) (dz)
or d ρ dρ d dz -----4
Spherical Co-ordinate Systems :-
Z X = r Sin Cos
Y = r Sin Sin
z p Z = r Cos
R
r

0 y Y

x r Sin

X
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 
R r Sin Cos â x r Sin Sin â y r Cos â z
 
R R
â r / Sin Cos âx Sin Sin ây Cos â z
r r
 
R R
aˆ / Cos Cos â x Cos Sin â y Sin aˆz
 
R R
aˆ / - Sin â x Cos â y

 R  
R R
dR dr d d
r

dR dr â r r d aˆ r Sin d aˆ
d Sr r 2 Sin d d
2
dS r Sin dr d
dS r dr d
d v r 2 Sin dr d d

General Orthogonal Curvilinear Co-ordinates :-

z u1 a3 u3

a1
u2
a2
y

Co-ordinate Variables : (u1 , u2, u3) ;

Here
u1 is Intersection of surfaces u2 = C & u3 = C
u2 is Intersection of surfaces u1 = C & u3 = C
u3 is Intersection of surfaces u1 = C & u2 = C

â1 , â 2 , â 3 are ubnit vectors tangential to u1 , u 2 & u 3

System is Orthogonal if â1 . â2 0 , â 2 . â3 0 & â 3 . â1 0

If R x â x y â y z âz & x, y, z are functions of u1 , u2 & u3
  
R R R
then d R du1 du2 du 3
u1 u2 u3
h1 du1 â1 h 2 du 2 â2 h 3 du 3 â 3
where h1 , h2 , h3 are scale factors ;

  
R R R
h1 , h2 , h3
u1 u2 u3
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 Co-ordinate Variables, unit Vectors and Scale factors in different systems

Systems Co-ordinate Variables Unit Vector Scale factors

General u1 u2 u3 a1 a2 a3 h1 h2 h3

Rectangular x y z ax ay az 1 1 1

Cylindrical ρ z aρ a az 1 ρ 1

Spherical r ar a a 1 r r sin

Transformation equations (x,y,z interms of cylindrical and spherical co-ordinate system

variables)

Cylindrical : x = ρ Cos , y = ρ Sin ,z=z ; ρ 0, 0 2 - <z<

Spherical
x = r Sin Cos , y = r Sin Cos , z = r Sin
r 0,0 ,0 2
1 v 1 v 1 v
V aˆ1 aˆ 2 aˆ 3
h1 u1 h2 u2 h3 u3
 1
.A (h 2 h 3A 1) (h 1 h 3 A 2 ) (h 1 h 2 A 3 )
h 1 h 2 h3 u1 u2 u3
h 1 aˆ1 h 2 aˆ 2 h 3 aˆ 3
 1
xA
h 1h 2h 3 u1 u2 u3
h 1A 1 h 2A 2 h3 A3

where V V ( u 1 , u 2, u 3) a Scalar field


& A A 1 aˆ 1 A 2 aˆ2 A 3 aˆ 3 is a Vector field where A1 A1 (u1 , u2 , u3 )
A2 A2 (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and A3 A3 (u1 , u2 , u3 )

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 Vector Transformation from Rectangular to Spherical :

Rectangular : AR Ax â x A y â y  Az â z 
Spherical : A  ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
S ( AR ar ) ar (AR ) a
a (AR . a ) a
A r â r A aˆ A aˆ
where Ar , A , A are related to Ax , Ay , Az as
Ar aˆx . aˆr aˆy . aˆr aˆ z . aˆ r Ax
A aˆ x . aˆ aˆ y . aˆ aˆ z . aˆ Ay
A aˆ x . aˆ aˆy . aˆ aˆ z . aˆ Az

A ‘field’ is a region where any object experiences a force. The study of performance in the

presence of Electric field (E) , Magnetic field ( ) is the essence of EM Theory.

P1 : Obtain the equation for the line between the points P(1,2,3) and Q (2,-2,1)
PQ ax - 4 ay - 2 a z
P2 : Obtain unit vector from the origin to G (2, -2, 1)

Problems on Vector Analysis

Examples :-
1. Obtain the vector equation for the line PQ between the points P (1,2,3)m and Q (2, -2,
1) m
Z
PQ P (1,2,3)
Q(2,-2,-1)
0
Y

The vector PQ (x q - x p ) â x (yq - yp ) â y (zq - zp ) â z

(2 -1) â x (-2 - 2) â y (-1- 3) â z
(â x - 4 â y - 2 â z )

2. Obtain unit vector from origin to G (2,-2,-1)

G

G
0

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 The vector G (x g - 0) â x (yg - 0) â y (zg - 0) â z
(2 â x - 2 â y - â z )

G
The unit vector , aˆg 
G

G 22 (-2)2 (-1)2 3
â g (0.667 â x - 0.667 â y - 0.333 â z )

3. Given
2 aˆ - 3 aˆ aˆ
A x y z

B - 4 â x - 2 â y 5â z
   
find (1) A. B and (2) A x B

Solution :
 
(1) A. B (2 a x - 3 ay az ) . (-4 ax - 2 a y 5 a z )
=-8+6+5= 3
Since ax . ax = ay . ay = az . az = 0 and ax ay = ay az = az ax = 0

ax a y az
 
(2) A x B 2 3 1 = (-13 ax -14 ay - 16 az)
4 2 5

4. Find the distance between A( 2, , /6,0) and B = ( 1, /2,2 )

Soln : The points are given in Cylindrical Co-ordinate (ρ, , z). To find the distance between
two points, the co-ordinates are to be in Cartesian (rectangular). The corresponding
rectangular co-ordinates are (ρ Cos , ρ Sin , z)

A 2 Cos â x 2 Sin â y 1.73 âx â y
6 6

& B Cos â x Sin â y 2 âz aˆy 2 â z
6 2
AB (Bx - A x ) â x (By - A y ) â y (Bz - Az ) â z
-1.73 â x (1-1) â y (2 - 0) â z
-1.73 â x 2 â z
(AB) 1.732 22 2.64

5. Find the distance between A( 1,4 / , 0) and B = ( 1, 3 /4, )

Soln : The specified co-ordinates (r, , ) are spherical. Writing in rectangular, they are (r
Sin Cos , r Sin Sin , r Cos ).
Therefore, A & B in rectangular co-ordinates,

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 
A (1Sin Cos 0 â x 1Sin Sin 0 â y 1 Cos â z )
4 4 4
( 0.707 â x 0.707 â y )
 3
3 3 ˆ ˆ
ˆ
Cos ax Sin Sin a y Cos az )
B ( Sin
4 4 4
( 0.707 â x 0.707 â y )
AB (Bx - A x ) â x (By - A y ) â y (Bz - A z ) â z
-1.414 â x (- 0.707) â y (-0.707) â z

AB ( AB . AB )1/2

(2 0.5 0.5)1/2 1.732

6. Find a unit vector along AB in Problem 5 above.

AB 1
â AB = [ - 1.414 ax + (-0.707) ay + (-0.707) az]
AB 1.732

= ( - 0.816 â x - 0.408 ây 0.408 â z )

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 x Cos ,y Sin

B Sin â x - Cos â y z â z

BCyl (B. aˆ ) aˆ (B. aˆ ) aˆ (B . aˆz ) â z
[( Sin â x - Cos â y z â z ). (Cos â x Sin â y )] â
[( Sin â x - Cos â y z â z ). (- Sin â x Cos â y )] â z â z
[ Sin Cos - Sin Sin ] aˆ [ - Sin 2 - Cos2 ] aˆ z â z
- aˆ z â z

7. Transform to Cylindrical Co-ordinates G (2 x y) â x - (y - 4x) â y at Q ( , , z)

Soln :
GCyl (G. a ) aˆ (G. a ) aˆ (G. a z ) aˆ z
GCyl [ (2 x y) â x - (y - 4x) â y ].[ Cos â x Sin aˆ ] aˆ
[ (2 x y) â x - (y - 4x) â y ] .[ - Sin â x Cos â y ] â 0
[ ( 2x y) Cos - (y - 4x) Sin ] aˆ
[ - (2 x y) Sin - (y - 4x ) Cos ] aˆ

x Cos , y Sin

GCyl [ ( 2 Cos Sin ) Cos - ( Sin -4 Cos ) Sin ] aˆ

[-(2 Cos Sin ) Sin -( Sin -4 Cos ) Cos ] aˆ
[2 Cos2 Sin Cos - Sin 2 4 Sin Cos ] aˆ
[ - 2 Sin Cos - Sin 2 - Sin Cos 4 Cos2 ] aˆ
(2 Cos2 5 Sin Cos - Sin 2 ) aˆ
(4 Cos2 Sin 2 - 3 Sin Cos ) aˆ

Line Integrals
In general orthogonal Curvilinear Co-ordinate system
dl h1 du1 â1 h 2 du 2 â 2 h 3 du 3 â 3

F F1 â1 F2 â 2 F3 â 3

F. dl h1 F1 du1 h2 F2 du2 h3 F3 du3
C C C C

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 Conservative Field A field is said to be conservative if it is such that . dl 0
C
b

. dl d (b) - (a) (does not depend on the path !). If is electrostatic flux, then
 a

E - represent the electric field intensity and

b
. dl represent the potential between b and a and is zero if it is taken around a closed contour.
a

i.e., . dl 0
Therefore ES flux field is ‘Conservative’.

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 Introduction:
The electric charge is a fundamental property of matter and charge exist in integral multiple of
electronic charge. Electrostatics can be defined as the study of electric charges at rest. Electric fields
have their sources in electric charges.
(Note: Almost all real electric fields vary to some extent with time. However, for many problems,
the field variation is slow and the field may be considered as static. For some other cases spatial
distribution is nearly same as for the static case even though the actual field may vary with time.
Such cases are termed as quasi-static.)
In this chapter we first study two fundamental laws governing the electrostatic fields, viz, (1)
Coulomb's Law and (2) Gauss's Law. Both these law have experimental basis. Coulomb's law is
applicable in finding electric field due to any charge distribution, Gauss's law is easier to use when
the distribution is symmetrical

Coulomb's Law :

Statement:Coulomb's Law states that the force between two point charges
Q1and Q2 is directly proportional to the product of the charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Point charge is a hypothetical charge located at a single point in space. It is an idealized model of a
particle having an electric charge.
Mathematically,

Where k is the proportionality constant. And , is called the permittivity of free space
In SI units, Q1 and Q2 are expressed in Coulombs(C) and R is in meters.
Force F is in Newton’s (N)

(We are assuming the charges are in free space. If the charges are any other dielectric medium, we

will use instead where is called the relative permittivity or the dielectric constant of the
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 Therefore .................................................(1)

As shown in the Figure 1 let the position vectors of the point charges Q1and Q2 are given by and

. Let represent the force on Q1 due to charge Q2.

Fig 1: Coulomb's Law

The charges are separated by a distance of . We define the unit vectors as

........ (2)

can be defined as .

Similarly the force on Q1 due to charge Q2 can be calculated and if represents this force then we can
write
Force Due to ‘N ‘no.of point charges:

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 When we have a number of point charges, to determine the force on a particular charge due to all other
charges, we apply principle of superposition. If we have N number of charges Q1,Q2,. ..... QN located

respectively at the points represented by the position vectors , ,. .........., the force experienced by a

charge Q located at is given by,

.................................(3)

Electric Field intensity:

The electric field intensity or the electric field strength at a point is defined as the force per unit charge.

That is

Or ............................... , (4)
The electric field intensity E at a point r (observation point) due a point charge Q located at (source
point) is given by:

. ......................................... (5)
For a collection of N point charges Q1 ,Q2 ,.........QN located at , ,.......... , the electric field intensity at

point is obtained as
........................................(6)

The expression (6) can be modified suitably to compute the electric filed due to a continuous
distribution of charges.

In figure 2 we consider a continuous volume distribution of charge (t) in the region denoted as the
source region.

For an elementary charge , i.e. considering this charge as point charge, we can write the
field expression as:

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 .............(7)

Fig 2: Continuous Volume Distribution of Charge

When this expression is integrated over the source region, we get the electric field at the point P due to
this distribution of charges. Thus the expression for the electric field at P can be written as:

..........................................(8)

Similar technique can be adopted when the charge distribution is in the form of a line charge density or a
surface charge density.

........................................(9)

........................................(10)
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 Electric flux density:
As stated earlier electric field intensity or simply ‘Electric field' gives the strength of the field at a
particular point. The electric field depends on the material media in which the field is being considered.
The flux density vector is defined to be independent of the material media (as we'll see that it relates to
the charge that is producing it).For a linear isotropic medium under consideration; the flux density
vector is defined as:

................................................(11)
We define the electric flux as
.....................................(12)

Gauss's Law:

Gauss's law is one of the fundamental laws of electromagnetism and it states that the total electric flux
through a closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by the surface.

Fig 3: Gauss's Law

Let us consider a point charge Q located in an isotropic homogeneous medium of dielectric constant .
The flux density at a distance r on a surface enclosing the charge is given by

...............................................(13)

If we consider an elementary area ds, the amount of flux passing through the elementary area is given by

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 .....................................(14)

But , is the elementary solid angle subtended by the area at the location of Q.
Therefore we can write

For a closed surface enclosing the charge, we can write

Which can seen to be same as what we have stated in the definition of Gauss's Law.

Application of Gauss's Law:

Gauss's law is particularly useful in computing or where the charge distribution has some

symmetry. We shall illustrate the application of Gauss's Law with some examples.

1. An infinite line charge

As the first example of illustration of use of Gauss's law, let consider the problem of determination of
the electric field produced by an infinite line charge of density LC/m. Let us consider a line charge
positioned along the z-axis as shown in Fig. 4(a) (next slide). Since the line charge is assumed to be
infinitely long, the electric field will be of the form as shown in Fig. 4(b) (next slide).

If we consider a close cylindrical surface as shown in Fig. 2.4(a), using Gauss's theorm we can write,

.....................................(15)

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 Considering the fact that the unit normal vector to areas S1 and S3 are perpendicular to the electric field,
the surface integrals for the top and bottom surfaces evaluates to zero. Hence we can write,

Fig 4: Infinite Line Charge

.....................................(16)

2. Infinite Sheet of Charge

As a second example of application of Gauss's theorem, we consider an infinite charged sheet covering

the x-z plane as shown in figure 5. Assuming a surface charge density of for the infinite surface
charge, if we consider a cylindrical volume having sides placed symmetrically as shown in figure 5,
we can write:

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 ..............(17)

Fig 5: Infinite Sheet of Charge

It may be noted that the electric field strength is independent of distance. This is true for the infinite
plane of charge; electric lines of force on either side of the charge will be perpendicular to the sheet and
extend to infinity as parallel lines. As number of lines of force per unit area gives the strength of the
field, the field becomes independent of distance. For a finite charge sheet, the field will be a function of
distance.

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 3. Uniformly Charged Sphere
Let us consider a sphere of radius r0 having a uniform volume charge density of rv C/m3. To determine

everywhere, inside and outside the sphere, we construct Gaussian surfaces of radius r < r0 and r > r0
as shown in Fig. 6 (a) and Fig. 6(b).

For the region ; the total enclosed charge will be

.........................(18)

Fig 6: Uniformly Charged Sphere

By applying Gauss's theorem,

Therefore ............... (19)

.............................................. (20)

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 ELECTROMAGENATIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

Electric field is the region or vicinity of a charged body where a test charge experiences a
force. It is expressed as a scalar function of co-ordinates variables. This can be illustrated by
drawing ‘force lines’ and these may be termed as ‘Electric Flux’ represented by and unit is
coulomb (C).

Electric Flux Density (D) is the measure of cluster of ‘electric lines of force’. It is the
number of lines of force per unit area of cross section.
 ψ c/m2 
i.e., D or ψ D n̂ ds C where n̂ is unit vector normal to surface
A S


Electric Field Intensity (E) at any point is the electric force on a unit +ve charge at that
point.

 F q1 aˆ N / c
i.e., E 1
q 4 01
r2
 
1 q1 D N/c  in vacuum
aˆ1 N / c or D
0 E C
0 4 r12 0

In any medium other than vacuum, the field Intensity at a point distant r m from + Q C is
 Q
E â r N / c ( or V / m)
4 0r r2
   Q ˆ
and D 0r E C or D a C
4 r2 r
 
Thus D is independent of medium, while E depends on the property of medium.

 
r E
+QC q = 1 C (Test Charge)
Source charge 
E

0 r,m


Electric Field Intensity E for different charge configurations

1. E due to Array of Discrete charges

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 
Let Q, Q1 , Q2 , ……… Qn be +ve charges at P, P1 , P2 , ……….. Pn . It is required to find E
at P.
 
Q1 r1 En
P1
 
Q2 r2 P E2

E1

P2 r1
Qn 0

Pr rn

 
1 Qm
Er 2 âm V / m
4 0 r - rm

2. E due to continuous volume charge distribution

â R

R P

ρv C / m3

The charge is uniformly distributed within in a closed surface with a volume charge density
dQ
of ρv C / m3 i.e, Q V dv and
V
V dv

 Q V
E 2
aˆ R V
2
aˆ R
4 0 R 4 0
R
 (r1 )
E V aˆ N / C
r 1 2 R
V1
4 0 (r - r )

â R is unit vector directed from ‘source’ to ‘filed point’.


3. Electric field intensity E due to a line charge of infinite length with a line charge
density of ρl C / m â R

 P
R

dl ρl C / m
L
 1 dl
Ep l
â N / C
4 0 L
R2 R

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 
4. E due to a surface charge with density of ρS C / m2

â R
P (Field point)

ds R

(Source charge)

 1 Sds â N / C
Ep R
4 0S
R2

Electrical Potential (V) The work done in moving a unit +ve charge from Infinity to that is
called the Electric Potential at that point. Its unit is volt (V).

Electric Potential Difference (V12) is the work done in moving a unit +ve charge from one
point to (1) another (2) in an electric field.

Relation between E and V
If the electric potential at a point is expressed as a Scalar function of co-ordinate variables
(say x,y,z) then V = V(x,y,z)

f 
dV - dl - E . dl - - - - - - - - (1)
q
V V V
Also, dV dx dy dz
x y z
dV V . dl - - - - - - - - - (2)

From (1) and (2) E - V

Determination of electric potential V at a point P due to a point charge of + Q C

â l

R dR

0

+Q R P â R

 Q 
At point P, E â R N / C
4 0 R2

Therefore, the force f on a unit charge at P.

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45
  Q
f 1 x Ep 2
â R N
4 0 R
The work done in moving a unit charge over a distance dl in the electric field is
 
dV - f . dl - E . dl
R R
Q dl Q
Vp - (â R . â l ) - dR
4 0 R
2
4 0
R2
Q
VP Volt (a scalar field)
4 0 R2

Electric Potential Difference between two points P & Q distant R p and Rq from 0 is

Q 1 1
Vpq (Vp - Vq) - volt
4 0 Rp Rq

Electric Potential at a point due to different charge configurations.

1. Discrete charges
. Q1
. P
Q2 Rm
Qm
n
1 Qm
V1P V
4 0 1 Rm

2. Line charge
1 ll dl V
xP V2P
4 0 l R
ρl C / m

3. Surface charge

1 ds V
xP V3P S
4 0S R
ρs C / m 2

4. Volume charge

xP
ρv C/ m3 1 V dv
R V4P V
4 0V R

5. Combination of above V5P = V1P + V2P + V3P + V4P

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

Equipotential Surface : All the points in space at which the potential has same value lie on a
surface called as ‘Equipotential Surface’.
Thus for a point change Q at origin the spherical surface with the centre of sphere at the
origin, is the equipotential surface.
Sphere of
Radius , R
R
P
0
+Q equipotential surfaces

Q
V

0 R

Potential at every point on the spherical surface is

Q
VR volt
4 0R

VPQ is difference of potential two equipotential surface potential


Gauss’s law : The surface integral of normal component of D emerging from a closed
surface is equal to the charge contained in the space bounded by the surface.

i.e., D ˆ. n ds Q C (1)
S

where ‘S’ is called the ‘Gaussian Surface’.

By Divergence Theorem,

D . nˆ ds . D dv ----------- (2)
S V

Also, Q V dv ---------- (3)

V

From 1, 2 & 3,

.D ----------- (4) is point form (or differential form) of Gauss’s law while
equation (1) is Integral form of Gauss law.

Poisson’s equation and Laplace equation

 
In equation 4,
D E
 0

.E / 0 or . (- V) / 0

2
V- Poisson equation
0
2
If 0, V 0 Laplace equation
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

Till now, we have discussed (1) Colulomb’s law (2) Gauss law and (3) Laplace equation.

The determination of E and V can be carried out by using any one of the above relations.
However, the method of Coulomb’s law is fundamental in approach while the other two use
the physical concepts involved in the problem.
 
(1) Coulomb’s law : Here E is found as force f per unit charge. Thus for the simple case
of point charge of Q C,
 1 Q
E V/ M
4 0 R2

V E dl Volt
l

(2) Gauss’s law : An appropriate Gaussian surface S is chosen. The charge enclosed is
determined. Then
 
D n̂ ds Qenc
S
 
Then D and hence E are determined

Also V E dl volt
l

2
(3) Laplace equation : The Laplace equation V 0 is solved subjecting to different

boundary conditions to get V. Then, E - V

Solutions to Problems on Electrostatics :-

1. Data : Q1 = 12 C , Q2 = 2 C , Q3 = 3 C at the corners of equilateral triangle d m.


To find : F on Q3
Solution :

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

Let Q1 , Q2 and Q3 lie at P1, P2 and P3 the corners of equilateral triangle of side d meter.
If P1, P2 and P3 lie in YZ plane, with P1
at origin the n Z
P1 (0,0,0) m P3
P2 (0, d, 0) m d d
P3 (0, 0.5 d, 0.866 d) m

r1 0 d Y

r2 d aˆy P1 P2

r3 0.5 d aˆy 0.866 â z
   
The force F3 is F3 F13 F23 X

Q1 aˆ Q2
aˆ
F3 Q3
2 13 2 23
4 0  d d
r- r 0.5 d â y 0.866 d â z
â13 3 1
0.5 â y 0.866 â z
 
r3 - r1 d
 
r - r
3 2
â 23   - 0.5 â y 0.866 â z
r3 - r2

Substituting,

 12 x 10-6 2 x 10-6
F3 (3 x 10-6 ) 9 x 109 ( 0.5 â y 0.866 â z ) ( - 0.5 â y 0.866 â z )
d2 d2
27 x 10-3 5 â y 12.12 âz
13.11
d2 52 12.122

F3 0.354 aˆF N where â F (0.38 â y 0.924 â z )

2 2 2
2. Data : At the point P, the potential is Vp (x y z ) V
To find :

(1) E (2) V given P(1,0.2)and Q (1,1,2) (3) V by using general expression for V
p PQ PQ

Solution
 :
Vp ˆ Vp ˆ Vp ˆ
(1) Ep - Vp - a a a
x x y y z z
- [ 2 x â x 2 y â y 3z2 aˆz ] V /m


P 1 0 2
(2) VPQ - Ep . dl 2x dx 2y dy 3z2 dz
Q 1 1 2
2 0
0 y 0 -1 V
-1 V
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(3) VPQ VQ - VP
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

3. Data : Q = 64.4 nC at A (-4, 2, -3) m A

 
To find : E at 0 (0,0,0) m E
0
Solution : 0

 Q
E0 â N / C
4 0
(AO)2 AO
64.4 x 10-9
[ â AO ] N/ C
10-9 2
4 x (AO)
36
AO (0 4) â x (0 - 2) â y (0 3) â z 4â x - 2 â y 3 â z
AO 1
â AO (AO) (0.743 â x - 0.37 â y 0.56 â z )
AO 29
 64.4 x 9
E0 â AO 20 â AO N / C
29

4. Q1 = 100 C at P1 (0.03 , 0.08 , - 0.02) m

Q2 = 0.12 C at P2 (- 0.03 , 0.01 , 0.04) m
F12 = Force on Q2 due to Q1 = ?
Solution :

F12 Q1 Q2 â
2 12
4 R 12
  0
(-0.03 aˆ 0.01â 0.04 â ) - (0.03 aˆ 0.08 aˆ - 0.02aˆ )
R 12 R 2 - R1 x y z x y z

( - 0.06 â x - 0.07 â y 0.06 â z ) ; R12 0.11m

â12 ( - 0.545 â x - 0.636 â y 0.545 â z )
 100 x 10-6 x 0.121 x 10-6
F12 2
x 9 x 109 â12
 0.11
ˆ
F12 9 a12 N

5. Q1 = 2 x 10-9 C , Q2 = - 0.5 x 10-9 C C


(1) R12 = 4 x 10-2 m F12 ?
,

(2) Q1 & Q2 are brought in contact and separated by R12 = 4 x 10-2 m F`12 ?

Solution :

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

 2 x 10-9 x - 0.5 x 10-9 -9

F12 â12 x 10-5 â12 5.63 N (attractive)
10-9 16
4 x x ( 4 x 10-2 )2
36
1
(2) When brought into contact Q1` Q`2 (Q1 Q2 ) 1.5 x 10-9 C
(1) 2
 ( 1.5 x 10-9 )2 1.52 x 9 x 10 -18 13 aˆ
F`12 â12 12 12.66 N â12
10-9 16
4 x x ( 4 x 10-2 )2
36
F12` 12.66 N (repulsive)

6. Y
P3
x x

P1 P2
x x
0 X

Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q4 = 20 C
QP = 200 C at P(0,0,3) m

P1 = (0, 0 , 0) m P2 = (4, 0, 0) m
P3 = (4, 4, 0) m P4 = (0, 4, 0) m
FP = ?
Solution :
    
Fp F1p F2p F3p F4p

R1p 3 â z R1p 3 m â1p â z

R 2p - 4 â x 3 â z ; R 2p 5 m â 2p - 0.8 â x 0.6 â z

R3p - 4 â x - 4 â y 3 â z ; R3p 6.4 m ; â 3p - 0.625 â x - 0.625 aˆy 0.47 â z

R 4p - 4 â y 3 â z ; R 4p 5 m ; â 4p - 0.8 â y 0.6 â z
 Qp Q2 Q3 Q4
Fp Q1 â â 2p â3p â 4p
1p
10-9 2
R 1p R 22p R 33p 2
R 4p
4
36

1 1 1
2
aˆz ( - 0.8 â x 0.6 â z ) (-0.625 â x - 0.625 â y 0.47 â z )
-6 9 3 52 6.42
200 x 10 x 9 x10 20 x 10-6
1
( - 0.8 â y 0.6 â z )
52

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

100 100 100

aˆz (- 0.8 aˆ 0.6 â ) (-0.625 â x - 0.625 â y 0.47 â z )
x z
-6 9 9 -6 -2 9 25 40.96
200x10 x9x10 x10 x10 x 10
100
( - 0.8 â y 0.6 â z )
25
1
0.36 ( 3.2 1.526) â x (-1.526 - 3.2) â y (11.11 2.4 1.15 2.4) â z )
6.42
(-1.7 â x -1.7 â y 17 â z ) N 17.23 â p N

7. Data : Q1 , Q2 & Q3 at the corners of equilateral triangle of side 1 m.

Q1 = - 1 C, Q2 = -2 C , Q3 = - 3 C
To find : E at the bisecting point between Q2 & Q3 .
Solution :
Z
P1 Q1 P1 : (0, 0.5, 0.866) m
P2 : (0, 0, 0) m
P3 : (0, 1, 0) m
P : (0, 0.5, 0) m
Q2 P E1P Q3
Y
P2 E2P E3P P3
   
EP E1P E2P E 3P
1 Q2 Q3 ˆ
Q1 â aˆ a3P
2P
4 0 R 1P 2
1P
R 2P 2
R 3P2
R 1P - 0.866 â z R1P 0.866 â1P - â z
R 2P 0.5 â y R 2P 0.5 â 2P â y
R 3P - 0.5 â y R3P 0.5 â 3P - â y
 1
-1 x 10-6 - 2 x 10-6 - 3 x 10-6
EP ( - â z ) ( - â y ) ( - â y )
10-9 0.8662 0.52 0.52
4
36
9 x 103 1.33 aˆ-z 8 aˆ y 12 â y
9 x 103 4 â y 1.33 âz 36 â y 12 âz 03 V / m 37.9 180 k V/m

Z
E1P EP ( EP ) = 37.9 k V / m

Y
E2P (E3P – E2P) E3P

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

8. Data Pl = 25 n C /m on (-3, y, 4) line in free space and P : (2,15,3) m

To find : EP
Solution :
Z ρl = 25 n C / m
A

R ρ (2, 15, 3) m
P

The line charge is parallel to Y axis. Therefore E PY = 0


R AP (2 - (-3)) aˆ (3 - 4) â z (5 â x - â z ) ; R 5.1m
x

R
â R (0.834 â x - 0.167 â z )
R
 l
ˆ 25 x ˆ
EP aR a R
2 R 10-9
0 2 x 5.1
 36
EP 88.23 aˆ R V / m

9. Data : P1 (2, 2, 0) m ; P2 (0, 1, 2) m ; P3 (1, 0, 2) m

Q2 = 10 C ; Q3 = - 10 C
To find : E1 , V1
Solution :
Q3
   1 ˆ ˆ
E1 E21 E21 Q 2 a a31
2 21 2
4 0 R 21 R 31
 
R 21 (2 aˆx ây - 2 â z) R 21 3 â 21 0.67 â x 0.33 â y - 0.67 â z
 
R31 â x 2 â y 2 âz R31 3 â31 0.33 â x 0.67 â y 0.67 â z
 -6 10-6
9 10
E1 9 x 10 (0.67 â x 0.33 â y - 0.67 â z ) (0.33 â x 0.67 â y 0.67 â z )
9 9
103 [ aˆ x â y ] 14.14 (0.707 â x 0.707 â y ) V / m
1 Q2 Q3 10-6 10-6
V1 9 x 109 3000 V
4 0 R 21 R31 3 3

E1 14.14 V / m V1 3000 V

10. Data : Q1 = 10 C at P1 (0, 1, 2) m ; Q2 = - 5 C at P2 (-1, 1, 3) m

P3 (0, 2, 0) m

To find : (1) E3 (2) Q at (0, 0, 0) for E3x 0

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Solution :
Dept of EEE, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 34
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

 1 Q1 â Q2
(1) E 3 2 13
â 23
4 0 R 13 R 232

R13 (2 -1) â y (0 - 2) â z aˆy - 2 â z R13 5

R 23 (0 1) aˆx (2 -1) aˆy (0 - 3) âz â x â y - 3 â z R 23 11

R13
â 13  ( 0.447 â y - 0.894 â z )
R13

R 23
â 23  0.3 â x 0.3 â y - 0.9 â z
R 23
 9 10 x 10-6 - 5 x 10-6
E3 9 x 10 (0.447 â y - 0.894 â z ) (0.3 â x 0.3 â y - 0.9 â z )
( 5)2 ( 11)2
(8 â y -16 â z ) (-1.23 â x -1.23 â y 3.68 â z )
-1.23 â x 6.77 â y -12.32 â z 103 V / m

  Q2 Q 
(2) E3 9 x 109
Q1
â aˆ aˆ ; R03 2 aˆy
2 13 23 03
R 13 R 232 R 032

E3x -1.23 â
x

E3x cannot be zero

11. Data : Q2 = 121 x 10-9 C at P2 (-0.02, 0.01, 0.04) m

Q1 = 110 x 10-9 C at P1 (0.03, 0.08, 0.02) m
P3 (0, 2, 0) m

To find : F12
Solution :
 Q1 Q2
F12 2
â12 N ; R12 - 0.05 â x - 0.07 â y 0.02 â z
4 0 R 12
 121 x 10-9 x 110 x 10-9
F12 [â12] R12 0.088
10-9 -3
4 x 7.8 x 10
 36
F12 0.015 â12 N

12. Given V =(50 x2yz + 20y2) volt in free space

Find VP , EP and aˆnp at P (1, 2, - 3) m
Solution :

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

VP 50 (1)2 (2) (-3) 20 (2)2 - 220 V


E - V - V aˆx- V â y - V â z
x y z
 2 ˆ 2
ˆ
E -100 x y z ˆa x - 50 x z a y - 50 x y a z

ˆ ˆ (2) aˆ
EP -100 (2) (-3) a -x 50 (-3) a - 50
y z

600 â x 150 â y -100 â z

62 6.5 â P V / m ; â P 0.957 â x 0.234 â y - 0.16 â z

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

dQ ρl dz is the elemental change at Z.

The field intensity dEP due to dQ is
dQ
dEP  2 â R V / m
4 0 R

 1
where R ρ aˆρ - z â z and â R ( ρ âρ - z â z )
R
dQ ρl dz C
ρl dz ρ
dEP aˆ - z aˆ dEPρ â ρ dEP z aˆ z
2 ρ
4 0 R R R z
ρl ρl
(i) dEPρ 2
ρ dz ; (ii) dEP z - z dz
4 0 R 4 0
R2
Taking OP̂A as integratio n variable, and expressing all distances in terms of ρ and
ρ
z ρ tan , dz ρ Sec2 d and R ρ Sec
Cos
ρ l x ρ x ρ Sec2 ρl
(i) dEPρ d Cos d
0 ρ Sec 0 ρ
3 3
4 4
ρl ρl
E Pρ [ Sin ] / 2 x 2 ρl
4 0
ρ -/2
4 0 ρ 2 0 ρ
ρl x ρ tan x ρ Sec
2
(ii) dEP z d ρl (- Sin ) d
0 ρ Sec 0 ρ
3 3
4 4

EP z ρl [ Cos ] /2
-/2 0
4 0 ρ
 ˆ
ρl
EP  aρ V / m
Thus, 2 0ρ

E is radial in direction

A2. Find the electric field intensity E at (0, -h, 0) due to a line charge of finite length along Z
axis between A (0, 0, z1) and B(0, 0, z2)
Z
B (0, 0, z2)

dz
P 2 A(0, 0, z1)
1
Y

Solution :

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

ρl dz h z
dE P 2
aˆ y - aˆ z
4 0 R R R
 z2
 ρ 2
ρ 2
l
EP d EP - Cos d â y - l Sin d â z
z1 4 0h 1 4 0h 1

ρl ρl
(- Sin ) 21 â y ( Cos ) 21 â z
4 0 h 4 0 h
 ρl
EP (Sin 1 - Sin 2 ) â y (Cos 1 - Cos 2 ) â z V / m
4 0
h
If the line is extending from - to ,

2 , 1 -
2 2
 - ρl
EP â y V / m
2 0 h

A3. Two wires AB and CD each 1 m length carry a total charge of 0.2 C and are disposed

as shown. Given BC = 1 m, find Eat P, midpoint of BC.

P
A B . C
1m
1m

Solution :

(1)
1 = 1800 2 = 1800
A B P
1m

 ρ 0
EP l - (Sin 2 - Sin 1 ) aˆy Cos 2 - Cos 1 â z (Indeterminate)
AB
4 0 h 0

az
(2) Pay
C
1
1 1 = - tan-1 = - 63.430
0.5
2 =0

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Dept of EEE, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 38
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

ρl - (Sin
E PCD 2 - Sin 1 ) â y (Cos 2 - Cos 1 ) â z
4 0 h
0.2 x 10-6
- (Sin (-63.43)) â y (Cos 0 - Cos 63.43) â z
10-9
4 0.5
36

E PCD 3.6 x 103 - 0.894 â y (1- 0.447) â z (-3218 â y 1989.75 â z )

Since Eρ is indeterminate, an alternate method is to be used as under :
AB

Z
dEPz

d
dy
y B Y P dEPy
A
L R

ρl dy
dEP 2 â R V / m
4 0 R
 ˆ ˆ 1 (-aˆ )
R (L d - y) a R ; a R
R y
ρl â y
dEPy dy
4 0
(L d - y)2
1
Let L d - y - t ; - dy - dt ; y 0 , t
L d
1
y L; t
d
- ρl dt
dEP
4 0
t2
1
ρl d
ρl 1 - 1
EP
4 0 t 1 4 0 d L d
Ld
 ρl 1 1
EP - V/m
4 0 d L d

 0.2 x 10-6 1 1
E PAB -9
- â y
4 10 0.5 1.5
36

E P AB 1800 [ 2 - 0.67] â y 2400 â y V/ m

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Dept of EEE, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 39
   
EP E PAB EPCD 2400 â y - 3218 â y 1990 â z
(-820 â y 1990 â z )
2152 â P V / m
where â P (- 0.381â y 0.925 â z )

A4. Develop an expression for E due to a charge uniformly distributed over an infinite
plane with a surface charge density of ρS C / m2.

Solution :
Let the plane be perpendicular to Z axis and we shall use Cylindrical Co-ordinates. The
source charge is an infinite plane charge with ρS C / m2 .
dEP Z

AP R
 z P


0 Y

X A
ρ

AP AO OP - OA OP

R ( - ρ aˆρ z â z )
1
â R ( - ρ âρ z â z )
R

The field intensity dEP due to dQ = ρS ds = ρS (d dρ) is along AP and given by

dEP ρS ρ d dρ 2 â R ρS
3
( - ρ âρ z â z ) d ρ dρ
4 0 R 4 0 R

Since radial components cancel because of symmetry, only z components exist

dEP ρS z d ρ dρ
3
4 0 R

 ρ 2 z ρ dρ ρ zρ
S
EP dEP S
d x2 dρ
S
4 0 0 0 R3 4 0 0 R3

‘z’ is fixed height of ρ above plane and let OP̂A be integration variable. All distances
are expressed in terms of z and

ρ = z tan , d ρ = z Sec2 d ; R = z Sec ; ρ = 0, =0 ; ρ= , = /2

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

 ρ z z tan
E S
z Sec2 d ρS /2
Sin d ρ[- Cos
S
] / 2 aˆ
P 0 z
2 0 0 z3 Sec3 2 0 0 2 0
ρS
aˆ (normal to plane)
z
2 0

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY 18EE45

Dept of EEE, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 42

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