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Contents vii

5.7.3 Incidence energy and Laplacian-energy-like invariant . 222

5.8 Other invariants based on graph spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.8.1 Spectral radius of a graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.8.2 Estrada index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

Bibliography 247

Index 257
Preface

Chemical graph theory is an interdisciplinary field where the molecular struc-

ture of a chemical compound is analyzed as a graph, and where related math-
ematical questions are investigated through graph theoretical and computa-
tional techniques. The rapid development in this field in the last few decades
has presented us with many innovative and unique concepts and tools in such
studies. This book intends to introduce some of the most commonly used
mathematical approaches in chemical graph theory.
One of the most important ideas employed in chemical graph theory is
that of so-called chemical indices. This is to associate a numerical value with
a graph structure that often has some kind of correlation with correspond-
ing chemicals’ properties. For exactly this reason, these chemical indices are
generally considered descriptors of chemical structures. The investigation of
such a chemical index from a graph-theoretical point of view typically in-
volves studying its behavior in various classes of graphs, especially minima
and maxima as well as upper and lower bounds in terms of different graph
parameters.
In recent years numerous chemical indices have been proposed and as Ivan
Gutman pointed out, “we have far too many descriptors, and there seems
to lack a firm criterion to stop or slow down their proliferation”. Indeed, to
extensively study each chemical index is virtually impossible and likely not
informative. In this book, we chose to demonstrate some of the most common
questions and ideas through several major classes of chemical indices and their
representatives. These important classes of chemical indices include distance-
based indices, degree-based indices, indices based on counting specific sets,
and indices associated with matrices and their spectra.
After a brief introduction of related graph theoretical terminologies, we
start with the Wiener index as a representative of distance-based indices.
We then look at the Randić index and degree-based indices in general. As
representatives of indices defined by “counting”, we explore the number of in-
dependent vertex sets and the number of independent edge sets (matchings),
which are known as the Merrifield-Simmons index and the Hosoya index, re-
spectively. Lastly, graph spectra and graph energy, defined through matrices
associated with graphs, are discussed.
By no means are we attempting to be comprehensive when we discuss
the content related to each of these classes of indices. Instead, we picked,
to our best knowledge, some of the most commonly discussed problems and
their solutions. This choice is inherently subjective and reflects, at least in

ix
x Preface

part, the authors’ personal interests. Through these selected topics, we hope
to illustrate at least some of the useful techniques that are used to answer
questions in chemical graph theory.
1
Preliminaries

1.1 Basic graph notations

As can be found in any graph theory textbook, a graph G consists of a pair
(V (G), E(G)), where V (G) (or simply V when there is no ambiguity) is the
set of vertices and E(G) (or simply E when there is no ambiguity) is the set of
edges. The cardinalities of V (G) and E(G) are often called the order and size
of a graph G. In practice we often use |G| to denote |V (G)| (but not |E(G)|).
Each edge in E(G) connects two vertices from V (G), called the ends or
endpoints of this edge. For an edge e with endpoints u and v, we say that u
and v are adjacent to each other, and that u and v are incident to e. The set of
all vertices adjacent to a specific vertex v is called the (open) neighborhood of
v and denoted by NG (v) (or just N (v) for short). The set N [v] = N (v) ∪ {v}
that also includes v itself is called the closed neighborhood.
The number of edges that a vertex v is incident to in G is called the degree
of v, denoted by degG (v) or simply deg(v). Note that deg(v) = |N (v)|. A path
in G is a sequence of distinct vertices in G such that each vertex is adjacent
to the next. The length of a path is the number of edges on this path. The
distance between two vertices u, v ∈ V (G), denoted by dG (u, v) or simply
d(u, v), is the number of edges on the shortest path between them in G. A
vertex of degree 1 is called a pendant vertex or a leaf, a vertex of degree at
least 2 is called an internal vertex, and a vertex of degree at least 3 is called
a branching vertex. See Figure 1.1 for an example of these definitions.

u v

FIGURE 1.1
An example where v is a leaf, u is a branching vertex of degree 5, and d(u, v) =
4.

A cycle is a path with an additional edge connecting the starting and

ending vertices. A graph without a cycle is called acyclic. A graph is connected
if there is a path between every pair of vertices. A connected acyclic graph
is called a tree; see the next section. For a general graph (not necessarily

1
2 Introduction to Chemical Graph Theory

connected), the connected components are the maximal subgraphs that are
connected.
In chemical graph theory, the molecular structure of a compound is often
presented with a graph, where the atoms are represented by vertices and bonds
are represented by edges. Note that the difference between double bonds and
single bonds is often ignored. Consequently, there are usually no multiple
edges (no two vertices serve as the endpoints of more than one edge). The
hydrogen atoms will automatically be leaves in such a representation as the
valence of a hydrogen atom is 1, corresponding to its vertex degree. Hence, we
usually remove the vertices corresponding to hydrogens. As a result we have
what is known as the molecular graph. See Figure 1.2 for an example. Such
representations appeared as early as 1874 [13], as pointed out in [7].

H H
H H H H ✟H
❍ ✟ ❍ ✟
H C H C H C H
❍
s s
H s
H C C C C C C s s s s s s
H
❅ ✟ ❅s
H C H H H H C H
✟ ❍ ❍
s
H H H
H

FIGURE 1.2
Structural formula for 2,2,4,6-tetramethylheptane (on the left) and its corre-
sponding molecular graph (on the right).

Most of the chemical compounds under consideration are carbon-based.

The vertex degrees are no more than 4, corresponding to the valence of carbon.
Often one uses the term chemical graphs to refer to the graphs whose vertex
degrees are bounded above by 4.

1.2 Special types of graphs

There are a number of special graphs that occur very frequently in graph
theory, and in particular throughout this book. Perhaps the simplest examples
are the complete and edgeless graphs. A complete graph Kn on n vertices is one
where every two vertices are adjacent to each other. By contrast, an edgeless
graph En is a graph on n vertices without any edges.
A graph is called bipartite if its vertices can be divided into two sets A and
B (called the partite sets) such that all edges have one end in A and one end in
B. More generally, a k-partite graph is a graph whose vertices can be divided
into sets A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak such that there is no edge between two vertices that
Preliminaries 3

belong to the same set Ai . The smallest integer k such that a graph G is
k-partite is also known as the chromatic number of G: the smallest number of
colors needed to color all vertices in such a way that no two adjacent vertices
have the same color. A complete bipartite graph Ka,b consists of two sets of
vertices A and B with |A| = a and |B| = b and all possible edges between A
and B. See Figure 1.3 for examples.

FIGURE 1.3
The complete graph K4 and the complete bipartite graph K2,3 .

1.3 Trees
As mentioned before, a tree is a connected acyclic graph. A graph that is only
acyclic, but not necessarily connected, is also called a forest (it can be seen as
a union of trees). Since many compounds have acyclic molecular structures,
trees have been an important class of graphs in the study of chemical graph
theory.
It is well known (and easy to prove by induction) that for a tree T we have
|E(T )| = |V (T )| − 1, i.e., the number of edges is one less than the number of
vertices. It will often be important that every tree with at least two vertices
has at least two leaves. It is also worth mentioning that all trees are bipartite.
The notion of branches will frequently play a role: if v is a vertex of a tree
T , then the branches of v are the connected components of the graph that
results from removing v.
A tree is rooted if there is a specified vertex designated as the root. In a
rooted tree the height of a vertex v, denoted by h(v), is the distance between
v and the root. The height of the tree T , denoted by h(T ), is the largest
height of any vertex. For two vertices u and v that are adjacent to each other,
if h(u) < h(v), then u is called the parent of v and v is a child of u. More
generally, if u is on the path connecting the root and a vertex v, then v is a
descendant of u and u is an ancestor of v.
Two trees of order n will occur particularly frequently: the path Pn is the
only tree with only two leaves, and the star Sn is the only tree with n − 1
leaves (Figure 1.4). Intuitively, the path is the most “stretched out” among all
trees of the same order, and the star is the most “compact” among all trees
of the same order. In fact, the path and the star turn out to be the extremal
structures in the studies of many topics in chemical graph theory.
4 Introduction to Chemical Graph Theory

FIGURE 1.4
A star (on the left) and a path (on the right).

Sometimes acyclic structures are needed that are “compact” on one end
and “stretched out” on the other, resulting in the so-called comet formed from
appending multiple pendant edges to one end of a path (Figure 1.5).

FIGURE 1.5
An example of a comet.

When trees with specific constraints are considered, many problems be-
come much more complicated and various special trees need to be defined. An
example of this kind is the class of caterpillars: a caterpillar is a tree with the
property that a path remains when all leaves are removed; see Figure 1.6 for
an example.

FIGURE 1.6
An example of a caterpillar.

We observe that a star has only one internal (non-leaf) vertex. A slightly
more general notion is that of a starlike tree, a tree with only one branching
vertex: given a sequence (l1 , l2 , . . . , lm ) of positive integers, the starlike tree
S(l1 , l2 , . . . , lm ) is the tree with exactly one vertex of degree ≥ 3 formed by
identifying one end of each of m paths of length l1 , l2 , . . . , lm , respectively. See
Figure 1.7 for an example.
Similarly, note that caterpillars are characterized by the property that all
non-leaves lie on a single path. Relaxing this condition slightly leads natu-
rally to the notion of quasi-caterpillars. A quasi-caterpillar is a tree with the
property that all its branching vertices lie on a path; see Figure 1.8.
Starlike trees, caterpillars and quasi-caterpillars will occur repeatedly as
extremal structures in Chapter 2.
Preliminaries 5

FIGURE 1.7
An example of a starlike tree.

FIGURE 1.8
A quasi-caterpillar.
6 Introduction to Chemical Graph Theory

1.4 Degrees in graphs

As we have already mentioned, vertex degrees play a key role in molecular
graphs because of their correlation with the valences of atoms. The most
important and fundamental concept based on vertex degrees is probably the
degree sequence: the non-increasing sequence of vertex degrees of a graph. A
degree sequence is called graphical if there exists a simple graph (a graph with
no multiple edges or loops) that realizes this degree sequence.
The following well known identity, sometimes called the “handshake
lemma”, relates the degree sequence to the number of vertices: if d1 , d2 , . . . , dn
are the vertex degrees of a graph, and m is the number of edges, then
n
X
di = 2m. (1.1)
i=1

This identity is based on the observation that each edge is counted twice (once
for each end) in the degree sum.
In particular, we see that not all sequences of non-negative integers are
graphical: since the degree sum equals 2m, it must be even. Consequently
the number of odd degrees in a graphical degree sequence must be even. This
condition on its own, however, is still insufficient, as can be seen from examples
like the sequence (3, 1). The following sufficient and necessary condition is due
to Erdős and Gallai [26]:

Theorem
Pn 1.4.1 A sequence d1 ≥ d2 ≥ . . . ≥ dn is graphical if and only if
i=1 di is even and
k
X n
X
di ≤ k(k − 1) + min{di , k}
i=1 i=k+1

for all k.
Much useful information about the graph can be extracted from the degree
sequence. Let G be a graph with degree sequence π = (d1 , d2 , . . . , dn ) with
n
X
di = 2(n + c − 1) and d1 ≥ d2 ≥ c + 1 ≥ 1.
i=1

The cyclomatic number of G is

n
1X
|E(G)| − |V (G)| + 1 = di − n + 1 = c,
2 i=1

which corresponds to the number of independent (in the sense of linear inde-
pendence in the so-called cycle space) cycles in G. As special cases, connected
Preliminaries 7

graphs with the cyclomatic number c = 0 are trees, connected graphs with cy-
clomatic number c = 1 are called unicyclic graphs, and connected graphs with
cyclomatic number c = 2 are called bicyclic graphs. More generally, graphs
with cyclomatic number c are called c−cyclic graphs.
In the case of trees, since there is no cycle, the degrees of internal vertices
decide the number of leaves. For exactly this reason, sometimes for the degree
sequences of trees we can only include the internal vertex degrees. Graphical
degree sequences that are realized by trees are called tree degree sequences.
Their characterization is somewhat simpler than the characterization of all
graphical degree sequences in Theorem 1.4.1.

Theorem 1.4.2 A non-increasing sequence (d1 , d2 , . . . , dn ) of positive inte-

gers is a tree degree sequence if and only if
n
X
di = 2(n − 1). (1.2)
i=1

Proof:
It is clear from (1.1) and the fact that a tree with n vertices has precisely
n − 1 edges that the condition is necessary. We show by induction that it is
also sufficient: this is clear for n = 2, where (1, 1) is the only possible sequence
that satisfies the condition.
For the induction step, note first that (1.2) can only hold if dn = 1 (since
otherwise, the sum is at least equal to 2n). By the induction hypothesis, there
is a tree whose degree sequence is (d1 − 1, d2 , d3 , . . . , dn−1 ) (possibly rear-
ranged, if d1 = d2 ). Take a vertex in this tree whose degree is d1 − 1, and at-
tach a leaf to it by an edge. The new tree has degree sequence (d1 , d2 , . . . , dn ).
This completes the induction and thus the proof. 
In the study of chemical graph theory, very often one has to consider
different degree sequences. In the following, we introduce a way of comparing
two degree sequences (on the same number of vertices).

Definition 1.4.1 Given non-increasing sequences π ′ = (d′1 , . . . , d′n ) and π ′′ =

(d′′1 , . . . , d′′n ), π ′′ is said to majorize π ′ , denoted π ′ ⊳ π ′′ , if for k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n −
1}
Xk Xk Xn X n
d′i ≤ d′′i and d′i = d′′i .
i=0 i=0 i=0 i=0

The advantage of defining “majorization” between degree sequences be-

comes much clearer later on. For now, we just mention that the next lemma
has been one of the most frequently used tools in the study of graphs (trees)
of different degree sequences.
8 Introduction to Chemical Graph Theory

Lemma 1.4.1 ([117]) Let π ′ = (d′1 , . . . d′n ) and π ′′ = (d′′1 , . . . , d′′n ) be two
non-increasing tree degree sequences. If π ′ ⊳ π ′′ , then there exists a series of
(i) (i)
(non-increasing) tree degree sequences π (i) = (d1 , . . . , dn ) for 1 ≤ i ≤ m
such that
π ′ = π (1) ⊳ π (2) ⊳ · · · ⊳ π (m−1) ⊳ π (m) = π ′′ ,
and in addition, π (i) and π (i+1) differ at exactly two entries for every i, say
(i+1) (i) (i+1) (i)
the j-th and k-th entries, j < k, where dj = dj + 1 and dk = dk − 1.

Remark 1.4.1 Lemma 1.4.1 is a more refined version of the original state-
ment in [117]. In this process, each entry stays positive and the degree se-
quences remain non-increasing. Thereby, each obtained sequence is a tree de-
gree sequence that is non-increasing without rearrangement.
Sometimes it is advantageous to consider the degrees of the vertices at a
given level, which is often the set of vertices of the same height in a rooted
tree.

Definition 1.4.2 ([94]) In a rooted tree, the list of multisets Li of degrees of

vertices at height i, starting with L0 containing the degree of the root vertex,
is called the level-degree sequence of the rooted tree.

1.5 Distance in graphs

There are many interesting concepts related to distances between vertices. We
only present the ones most related to our topics.
First, the so-called distance function dG (v) (or simply d(v)) of a vertex
v ∈ V (G) is defined as X
dG (v) = d(v, u),
u∈V (G)

the sum of the distances between v and all other vertices. The centroid of a
graph G is the set of vertices minimizing d(·).
Instead of the sum, if the maximum distance from v is taken, we have the
eccentricity
ecc(v) = max d(u, v).
u∈V (G)

The radius of G, rad(G), is the minimum eccentricity, while the diameter,

diam(G), is the maximum. The center is the collection of vertices whose ec-
centricity is exactly rad(G).
To introduce a concept analogous to the degree sequence, but related to
distances, we first define segments of a tree (or potentially general graph).
A segment of a tree T is a path in T with the property that each of the
Preliminaries 9

FIGURE 1.9
An example graph for independent sets and matchings.

ends is either a leaf or a branching vertex and that all internal vertices of
the path have degree 2. The segment sequence of T is the non-increasing
sequence of the lengths of all segments of T , in analogy to the degree se-
quence. For example, the quasi-caterpillar in Figure 1.8 has segment sequence
(5, 4, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1).

1.6 Independent sets and matchings

An independent set in a simple graph G is a subset of V (G) in which no two
vertices are adjacent to each other. The independence number of G, usually
denoted by α(G), is the size of a maximum independent set of G. Similarly,
a matching in a simple graph G is a set of edges without common vertices. A
maximum matching is a matching that contains the largest possible number of
edges. The matching number of G, denoted by β(G), is the size of a maximum
matching of G. In Chapter 4 we shall see chemical indices based on these
concepts. In addition, the extremal graphs with a given matching number has
been studied for various concepts related to chemical graph theory. To give a
concrete example, consider the graph in Figure 1.9. Its independence number
and its matching number are both easily seen to be equal to 2.
Let a component of a graph be called odd (even) if it has odd (even) number
of vertices, and denote the number of odd components of a graph G by o(G).
The following result, known as the Tutte-Berge formula (see, e.g., [75]) is a
crucial lemma used in the study of the matching number.

Lemma 1.6.1 Let G be a connected graph of order n. Then

n − 2β(G) = max{o(G − X) − |X| : X ⊆ V (G)}.

10 Introduction to Chemical Graph Theory

1.7 Topological indices

A large portion of chemical graph theory is concerned with numerical quanti-
ties associated with graphs; a famous example is the Wiener index, the sum of
the lengths of the shortest paths between all pairs of vertices in the chemical
graph representing the non-hydrogen atoms in the molecule. Its history goes
back to the papers of Wiener in 1947 [118,119], in which he noted that the boil-
ing temperatures of alkanes can be predicted well by means of a formula that
involves the Wiener index (called path number by Wiener). Distance-based
invariants such as the Wiener index will be discussed in Chapter 2.
An important aim of chemical graph theory is to come up with useful
graph invariants, which have predictive power for chemical properties of the
molecule, if computed for the molecular graph. In chemical graph theory, such
invariants are called (topological) indices, as the expectation is that the shape
of the molecule is the ultimate source of information. The discriminating power
of an index is high if different graph shapes tend to result in distinct index
values. The range of an index limits its discriminating power. We do not even
try to form a complete list of topological indices as the number of such indices
is quite large. Instead, we try to present useful techniques in the study of
chemical graph theory through some representative examples.
As mentioned earlier, the following chapter will be devoted to distance-
based indices, in particular the Wiener index and its variants. Randić [90]
introduced another very influential index, which is now named after him. Pre-
viously, it was called the branching index or connectivity index. The Randić
index, which is the prototype of degree-based indices, and its variants will
be reviewed in Chapter 3. The Merrifield-Simmons index of a graph is the
number of its independent vertex sets [77], and the Hosoya index (also called
topological Z index) of a graph is the number of its matchings [49]. We dis-
cuss these topics in Chapter 4. Finally, Chapter 5 will be devoted to graph
spectra and invariants based on spectra, specifically the graph energy that
was introduced by Gutman [33].
Many topological indices satisfy a natural monotonicity property. In the
following, we will write G − A for the graph resulting from G by removing the
vertices or edges contained in the set A. In particular, we will simply write
G − v and G − e for the graph obtained from G by removing vertex v (edge
e, respectively). We also write G + e for the graph that is obtained from G by
adding an edge e.
A graph invariant F that assigns a value F (G) to every graph G is said to
be increasing if
F (G) > F (G − e)
for every edge e of a (non-edgeless) graph G, or equivalently

F (G + e) > F (G)
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I am, sir,
Your obedient servant,
W. S.
P. S.—It is perhaps scarcely worth observing, that the Monday
preceding Ash-Wednesday is, in the west, called Shrove-Monday;
and that peas and pork is as standard a dish on that day as
pancakes on Shrove-Tuesday, or salt fish on Ash-Wednesday.

Having thus performed a duty to a valued correspondent without

waiting till Christmas, the editor takes the liberty of referring to the
observations by which the preceding letter was introduced, and
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may appear suitable to its columns. For the first time, he believes,
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NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
Mean Temperature 40·51.

March 17.
1826, Cambridge Term ends.
St. Patrick’s Day—a Pattern.
 St. Patrick’s Day—a Pattern.
“An Irishman all in his glory was there,
With a sprig of shillelagh and shamrock so green.”

It happens that several fairs, similar to those in the country parts

of England as to tents and booths, are held in Ireland on Saint
Patrick’s day, and then its hilarity is heightened by the publicity of
the celebration.
The usual fair day or “patron,” or, as it is usually pronounced,
pattern or patten, is a festive meeting to commemorate the virtues
of a patron saint. It is a kind of rural fete with drinking and dancing,
whereto (in Ireland) is added fighting, “unless the neighbouring
magistrates personally interfere, or the spirits of the people are
repressed by a conscious participation in plots and conspiracies.”
This is the character of these festivals by an Irish writer, who relates
an anecdote resulting from one of these festivals: “We were waiting
(he says,) in the vain hope that the weather would clear up, and
allow us a fine evening for return, when a poor stranger from Joyce
country came before ‘his honour’ as a magistrate. His black eye,
swelled face, and head and shoulders covered with clotted blood,
too plainly told the history of his sufferings; and his woeful
countenance formed a strange and ludicrous contrast with his
account of the pleasures of the preceding evening.” He had obtained
these features at a patron. “The poor fellow had travelled many a
weary mile across the mountains to share its rustic mirth and
revelry: but, ‘plaze your honour, there was a little bit of fighting in it,’
and as no true follower of St. Macdarragh could refuse to take a part
in such a peaceful contest, he had received, and no doubt given,
many a friendly blow; but his meditations on a broken head during
the night, had both cooled his courage and revived his prudence,
and he came to swear before ‘his honour’ a charge of assault and
battery against those who had thus woefully demolished his upper
works.”[82]
The constant use of the “shillelagh” by Irishmen at a “patron,” is
a puzzling fact to Englishmen, who, on their own holidays, regard a
“shillelagh” as a malicious weapon. In the hand of an Irishman, in
his own country, at such a season, it is divested of that character;
this singular fact will be accounted for, when the origin of the
custom comes to be considered. At present, nothing more is
requisite than to add, that the “shillelagh” is seldom absent on St.
Patrick’s day, celebrated as a patron.

Some account of the commemoration of this festival, and of the

tutelar saint of Ireland and his miracles, is already given in vol. i. p.
363. To this may be added the annexed notices relative to the day,
obtained from an Irish gentleman.

It is a tradition that St. Patrick first landed at Croagh Patrick, a

high and beautiful mountain in the county of Mayo, from which place
he banished all venomous animals into the sea, and to this day,
multitudes of the natives who are catholics, make pilgrimages to
Croagh Patrick, under the persuasion of efficacy in these journies to
atone for misdeeds, or mitigate the penalties attached to sin.
It is a very popular tradition that when St. Patrick was dying, he
requested his weeping and lamenting friends to forego their grief,
and rather rejoice at his comfortable exit, for the better furtherance
of which, he advised each one to take “a drop of something to
drink;” and that this last injunction of the saint in reverence to his
character was complied with. However this may be, it is a custom on
his anniversary to observe the practice to supererogation; for the
greater number of his present followers, who take a little “crathur”
for the purpose of dissipating woeful reminiscencies, continue to
imbibe it till they “lisp and wink.”
Some years ago, “Patrick’s day” was welcomed, in the smaller
country towns or hamlets, by every possible manifestation of
gladness and delight. The inn, if there was one, was thrown open to
all comers, who received a certain allowance of oaten bread and
fish. This was a benevolence from the host, and to it was added a
“Patrick’s pot,” or quantum of beer; but, of late years, whiskey is the
beverage most esteemed. The majority of those who sought
entertainment at the village inn, were young men who had no
families, whilst those who had children, and especially whose
families were large, made themselves as snug as possible by the turf
fire in their own cabins.
Where the village or hamlet could not boast of an inn, the largest
cabin was sought out, and poles were extended horizontally from
one end of the apartment to the other; on these poles, doors
purposely unhinged, and brought from the surrounding cabins were
placed, so that a table of considerable dimensions was formed,
round which all seated themselves, each one providing his own
oaten bread and fish. At the conclusion of the repast, they sat for
the remainder of the evening over a “Patrick’s pot,” and finally
separated quietly, and it is to be hoped in perfect harmony.
In the city of Dublin, “Patrick’s day” is still regarded as a festival
from the highest to the lowest ranks of society. There is an annual
ball and supper at the lord lieutenant’s residence in the castle, and
there are private convivial assemblies of the most joyous character.
On this day every Irishman who is alive to its importance, adorns his
hat with bunches of shamrock, which is the common trefoil or clover,
wherewith, according to tradition, St. Patrick converted the Irish
nation to belief in the doctrine of the trinity in unity. In the humbler
ranks, it is the universal practice to get a morning dram as a
preparation for the duties of the festival. They then attend chapel
and hear high mass. After the ceremonies and observances peculiar
to the Romish worship, they again resort to the whiskey shop, and
spend the remainder of the day in devotions to Bacchus, which are
mostly concluded, with what in England would be called, by persons
of this class, “a row.”
On Patrick’s day, while the bells of churches and chapels are
tuned to joyous notes, the piper and harper play up “Patrick’s day in
the morning;” old women, with plenteous supplies of trefoil, are
heard in every direction, crying “Buy my shamrocks, green
shamrocks,” and children have “Patrick’s crosses” pinned to their
sleeves. These are small prints of various kinds; some of them
merely represent a cross, others are representations of Saint Patrick,
trampling the reptiles under his feet.

It appears from this account, and from general narrations, that

St. Patrick is honoured on his festival by every mode which mirth can
devise for praise of his memory. The following whimsical song is a
particular favourite, and sung to “his holiness” by all ranks in the
height of convivial excitement:—
 St. Patrick was a Gentleman.
St. Patrick was a gentleman, and he came from decent people:
In Dublin town he built a church and on it put a steeple;
His father was a Wollaghan, his mother an O’Grady,
His aunt she was a Kinaghan, and his wife a widow Brady.
Tooralloo tooralloo, what a glorious man our saint was,
Tooralloo, tooralloo, O whack fal de lal, de lal, &c.
Och! Antrim hills are mighty high and so’s the hill of Howth too;
But we all do know a mountain that is higher than them both too;
’Twas on the top of that high mount St. Patrick preach’d a sermon,
He drove the frogs into the bogs, and banished all the vermin.
Tooralloo, &c.
No wonder that we Irish lads, then, are so blythe and frisky;
St. Patrick was the very man that taught us to drink whiskey;
Och! to be sure, he had the knack and understood distilling,
For his mother kept a sheebeen shop, near the town of Enniskillen.
Tooralloo, &c.
The day after St. Patrick’s day is “Sheelah’s day,” or the festival in
honour of Sheelah. Its observers are not so anxious to determine
who “Sheelah” was, as they are earnest in her celebration. Some say
she was “Patrick’s wife,” others that she was “Patrick’s mother,” while
all agree that her “immortal memory” is to be maintained by
potations of whiskey. The shamrock worn on St. Patrick’s day should
be worn also on Sheelah’s day, and, on the latter night, be drowned
in the last glass. Yet it frequently happens that the shamrock is
flooded in the last glass of St. Patrick’s day, and another last glass or
two, or more, on the same night, deluges the over-soddened trefoil.
This is not “quite correct,” but it is endeavoured to be remedied the
next morning by the display of a fresh shamrock, which is steeped at
night in honour of “Sheelah” with equal devotedness.
That Saint Patrick was not married is clear from the rules of the
Roman catholic church, which impose celibacy on its clergy. A
correspondent suggests that the idea of his matrimonial connection,
arose out of a burlesque, or, perhaps, ironical remark, by females of
the poorer class in Ireland, to retaliate on their husbands for their
excesses on the 17th of March; or, perhaps, from the opportunity the
effects of such indulgence afforded them, these fair helpmates are
as convivial on the following morning, as their “worser halves” were
the preceding day. “Sheelah” is an Irish term, generally applied to a
slovenly or muddling woman, more particularly if she be elderly. In
this way, probably, the day after St. Patrick’s obtained the name of
“Sheelah’s day,” speciale gratia, without any reference to the
calendar of saints. The saint himself, if we determine from the
sacrifices to his memory, is deemed a kind of christian Bacchus; and,
on like home-made authority, “Sheelah” is regarded as his consort.

The editor of this work especially regrets that few of the

peculiarities regarding this festival which are familiar to Irishmen
have been communicated to him. He has received letters expressing
surprise that so little has been observed concerning their country.
Such complaints have been made under initials, and therefore he
could not answer them: the complainants he has no doubt could
have contributed largely themselves, and from them he would have
required information. As many Irish usages are fast dying away, he
hopes and earnestly solicits to be favoured with particulars, which he
is persuaded the collections or recollections of his Irish readers can
readily furnish, and which he will be most happy in having intrusted
to him for publication. Any illustrations of Irish character and
manners, especially if drawn up by natives of Ireland, will be highly
valued.

On St. Patrick’s day, 1740, the butchers in Clare-market, London,

hung up a grotesque figure of an Irishman. A great number of
Irishmen came to pull it down, when a fierce battle ensued, much
mischief was done, and several persons were dangerously wounded;
but a file of musqueteers having been fetched from St. James’s,
some of the rioters were taken into custody, and three of them were
committed by col. De Veil to Newgate.[83]

A correspondent who signs, “Ikey Pingle,” communicates a copy of

a singular monumental inscription in the churchyard of
Grimmingham, in Norfolk. It is subjoined on this day, because the
public performer to whom it refers is stated to have quitted this
stage of life on this day, in the year 1798.
Epitaph.
SACRED
To the memory of
Thomas Jackson, Comedian,
who was engaged, 21st of Dec. 1741, to play a comic cast of
characters, in this great theatre—the World: for many of which he
was prompted by nature to excel.
The season being ended, his benefit over, the charges all paid,
and his account closed, he made his exit in the tragedy of Death, on
the 17th of March, 1798, in full assurance of being called once more
to rehearsal; where he hopes to find his forfeits all cleared, his cast
of parts bettered, and his situation made agreeable, by him who
paid the great stock-debt, for the love he bore to performers in
general.

NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
Mean Temperature 41·27.

[82] Letters from the Irish Highlands.

[83] Gentleman’s Magazine.

March 18.
Edward, king of the West Saxons.
On this anniversary, which is a holiday in the church of England
calendar, and kept at the Exchequer, Rapin says, “I do not know
upon what foundation Edward was made both a saint and a martyr,
unless it was pretended he was murdered out of revenge for his
great affection to Dunstan and the monks.” See farther concerning
him in vol. i. p. 372.
 NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
Mean Temperature 41·75.

March 19.
1826. Oxford Term ends.
Palm Sunday.
This is the first of Passion Week. To accounts of remarkable
ceremonies peculiar to the day, and its present observance, it is
proper to add the mode wherein it is celebrated by the papal pontiff
at Rome. An eye-witness to the pageant relates as follows:—
About half-past nine in the morning, the pope entered the Sistine
chapel, attired in a robe of scarlet and gold, which he wore over his
ordinary dress, and took his throne. The cardinals, who were at first
dressed in under-robes of a violet colour (the mourning for
cardinals), with their rich antique lace, scarlet trains, and mantles of
ermine, suddenly put off these accoutrements, and arrayed
themselves in most splendid vestments, which had the appearance
of being made of carved gold. The tedious ceremony of each
separately kissing the pope’s hand, and making their three little
bows, being gone through, and some little chaunting and fidgetting
about the altar being got over, two palm branches, of seven or eight
feet in length, were brought to the pope, who, after raising over
them a cloud of incense, bestowed his benediction upon them: then
a great number of smaller palms were brought, and a cardinal, who
acted as the pope’s aid-de-camp on this occasion, presented one of
these to every cardinal as he ascended the steps of the throne, who
again kissed the pope’s hand and the palm, and retired. Then came
the archbishops, who kissed both the pope’s hand and toe, followed
by the inferior orders of clergy, in regular gradations, who only
kissed the toe, as they carried off their palms.
The higher dignitaries being at last provided with palms, the
deacons, canons, choristers, cardinals, train-bearers, &c. had each to
receive branches of olive, to which, as well as to the palms, a small
cross was suspended. At last, all were ready to act their parts, and
the procession began to move: it began with the lowest in clerical
rank, who moved off two by two, rising gradually in dignity, till they
came to prelates, bishops, archbishops, and cardinals, and
terminated by the pope, borne in his chair of state (sedia gestatoria)
on men’s shoulders, with a crimson canopy over his head. By far the
most striking figures in the procession were the bishops and
patriarchs of the Armenian church. One of them wore a white crown,
and another a crimson crown glittering with jewels. The mitres of
the bishops were also set with precious stones; and their splendid
dresses, and long wavy beards of silver whiteness, gave them a
most venerable and imposing appearance.
The procession issued forth into the Sala Borgia (the hall behind
the Sistine chapel), and marched round it, forming nearly a circle;
for by the time the pope had gone out, the leaders of the procession
had nearly come back again; but they found the gates of the chapel
closed against them, and, on admittance being demanded, a voice
was heard from within, in deep recitative, seemingly inquiring into
their business, or claims for entrance there. This was answered by
the choristers from the procession in the hall; and after a chaunted
parley of a few minutes, the gates were again opened, and the
pope, cardinals, and priests, returned to their seats. Then the
passion was chaunted; and then a most tiresome long service
commenced, in which the usual genuflections, and tinkling of little
bells, and dressings and undressings, and walking up and coming
down the steps of the altar, and bustling about, went on; and which
at last terminated in the cardinals all embracing and kissing each
other, which is considered the kiss of peace.
The palms are artificial, plaited of straw, or the leaves of dried
reeds, so as to resemble the real branches of the palm-tree when
their leaves are plaited, which are used in this manner for this
ceremony in the catholic colonies of tropical climates. These artificial
palms, however, are topped with some of the real leaves of the
palm-tree, brought from the shores of the gulf of Genoa.[84]
Palm Sunday in Spain.
 The following is a description of the celebration of this day in the
cathedral of Seville:—
Early in the morning, the melancholy sound of the passion-bell
announces the beginning of the solemnities for which the fast of
Lent is a preparation. This bell, the largest of several which are
made to revolve upon pivots, is moved by means of two long ropes,
which by swinging the bell into a circular motion, are twined, gently
at first, round the massive arms of a cross, of which the bell forms
the foot, and the head its counterpoise. Six men then draw back the
ropes, till the enormous machine receives a sufficient impetus to coil
them in an opposite direction; and thus alternately, as long as
ringing is required. To give this bell a tone appropriate to the sombre
character of the season, it has been cast with several large holes
disposed in a circle round the top—a contrivance which without
diminishing the vibration of the metal, prevents the distinct
formation of any musical note, and converts the sound into a dismal
clangour.
The chapter, consisting of about eighty resident members, in
choral robes of black silk with long trains and hoods, preceded by
the inferior ministers, by thirty clergymen, in surplices, whose deep
bass voices perform the plain or Ambrosian chaunt, and by the band
of wind-instruments and singers, who execute the more artificial
strains of modern or counterpoint music, move in a long procession
round the farthest aisles, each holding a branch of the oriental, or
date palm, which overtopping the heads of the assembled multitude,
nod gracefully, and bend into elegant curves at every step of the
bearers. For this purpose a number of palm-trees are kept with their
branches tied up together, that, by the want of light, the more
tender shoots may preserve a delicate yellow tinge. The ceremony of
blessing these branches is solemnly performed by the officiating
priest, previously to the procession, after which they are sent by the
clergy to their friends, who tie them to the iron bars of the
balconies, to be, as they believe, a protection against lightning.
In the long church-service for this day, the organ is silent, the
voices being supported by hautboys and bassoons. All the altars are
covered with purple or grey curtains. The holy vestments, during this
week, are of the first-mentioned colour, except on Friday, when it is
changed for black. The four accounts of our saviour’s passion,
appointed as gospels for this day, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday,
are dramatized in the following manner:—Outside of the gilt-iron
railing which encloses the presbytery, are two large pulpits of the
same materials, from one of which, at the daily high mass, the sub-
deacon chaunts the epistle, as the deacon does the gospel from the
other. A movable platform with a desk, is placed between the pulpits
on the passion-days; and three priests or deacons, in albes—the
white vestment, over which the dalmatic is worn by the latter, and
the casulla by the former—appear on these elevated posts, at the
time when the gospel should be said. These officiating ministers are
chosen among the singers in holy orders, one a bass, another a
tenor, and the third a counter-tenor. The tenor chaunts the narrative
without changing from the keynote, and makes a pause whenever
he comes to the words of the interlocutors mentioned by the
evangelist. In those passages the words of our saviour are sung by
the bass in a solemn strain. The counter-tenor, in a more florid style,
personates the inferior characters, such as Peter, the maid, and
Pontius Pilate. The cries of the priests and the multitude are
represented by the band of musicians within the choir.[85]
Palm Sunday Custom
in Lincolnshire.
The following letter is from a correspondent on the spot where
the custom is still preserved.
To the Editor of the Every-Day Book.
Sir,—There is a singular ceremony at Caistor church, Lincolnshire,
every Palm Sunday, which you may think worth describing from this
account of it.
A deputy from Broughton brings a very large ox-whip, called here
a gad-whip. Gad is an old Lincolnshire measure of ten feet; the stock
of the gad-whip is, perhaps, of the same length. The whip itself is
constructed as follows. A large piece of ash, or any other wood,
tapered towards the top, forms the stock; it is wrapt with white
leather half way down, and some small pieces of mountain ash are
enclosed. The thong is very large, and made of strong white leather.
The man comes to the north porch, about the commencement of the
first lesson, and cracks his whip in front of the porch door three
times; he then, with much ceremony, wraps the thong round the
stock of the whip, puts some rods of mountain ash lengthwise upon
it, and binds the whole together with whip-cord. He next ties to the
top of the whip-stock a purse containing two shillings, (formerly this
sum was in twenty-four silver pennies,) then taking the whole upon
his shoulder, he marches into the church, where he stands in front of
the reading desk till the commencement of the second lesson: he
then goes up nearer, waves the purse over the head of the
clergyman, kneels down on a cushion, and continues in that
position, with the purse suspended over the clergyman’s head, till
the lesson is ended. After the service is concluded, he carries the
whip, &c. to the manor-house of Undon, a hamlet adjoining, where
he leaves it. There is a new whip made every year; it is made at
Broughton, and left at Undon.
Certain lands in the parish of Broughton are held by the tenure of
this annual custom, which is maintained to the present time.
I am, Sir, &c.
G. P. J.

On the 19th of March, 1755, three women in the village of

Bergemoletto, near Piedmont, were buried for thirty-seven days in
the ruins of a stable, by a heavy fall of snow. They survived their
confinement, and the facts relating to it were published by Ignazio
Somis, professor in the university of Turin. With the case of these
poor creatures, that, related at p. 176, of our Elizabeth Woodcock,
who remained so imprisoned eight days, is scarcely to be compared.
Her sufferings highly interest the feelings; a narration of theirs would
too deeply wound them.

NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
Mean Temperature 41·25
 [84] Rome in the Nineteenth Century.
[85] Doblado’s Letters from Spain.

March 20.
Lamb Season.
An Anecdote.
It is related in the Scottish newspapers that about the year 1770,
a Selkirkshire farmer, a great original in his way, and remarkable for
his fondness of a “big price” for every thing, attended at Langholm
fair, and, notwithstanding his parsimonious habits, actually sold his
lambs to a perfect stranger upon his simply promising to pay him
punctually at the next market. On his return home, the farmer’s
servants, who regularly messed at the same table, and seldom
honoured him with the name of master, inquired “Weel, Sandy, hae
ye sell’t the lambs?” “Atweel hae I, and I gat saxpence mair a-head
for them than ony body in the market.” “And a’ weel paid siller?”
“Na, the siller’s no paid yet, but its sure eneuch.” “Wha’s your
merchant, and, and what’s your security?” “Troth I never spiered,
but he’s a decent lookin’ man wi tap boots, and a bottle-green coat.”
The servants, at this, laughed outright, and tauntingly told him he
would never get a farthing. Sandy, however, thought differently, and
having accidentally hurt his leg so as to prevent him from travelling,
he sent a shepherd to Langholm, with instructions to look for a man
with a bottle-green coat, whom he was sure he said, to find standing
near a certain sign. The shepherd did as he was bid, and, strange to
say, discovered a person standing at the identical spot, who, on
learning his errand, inquired kindly for his master, and paid the
money to the uttermost farthing. Sandy, who piqued himself on his
skill in physiognomy, heard the news without emotion, and merely
said, “I wad at any time trust mair to looks than words, and whan I
saw Colly smeiling about hun sae kindly, I ken’t weel eneuch he
couldna be a scoundrel.” This result differs from one which might
have been expected. Sandy believed in a “second sight,” which, in
these times, a knowledge of the arts of life disqualify most persons
for indulging on such an occasion.

In an early edition of vol. i. p. 374, the death of sir Isaac Newton

is stated to have happened on this day in the year 1727; and it is
added, that he was born on the 25th of December 1742, instead of
the proper year 1642.

On the same page the death of the celebrated earl Mansfield, is

mentioned to have taken place on the same day in the year 1793.
He was aged eighty-nine, and his autograph is now added for the
gratification of those who desire to be acquainted with the hand-
writing of distinguished persons.
 NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
Mean Temperature 42·81.

March 21.
Benedict.
Concerning this saint in our almanacs, see vol. i. p. 380.
A Surprising Calculation.
For the Every-Day Book.
In the summer of 1825, a meeting was held at Tunbridge in Kent,
by some gentlemen interested in the formation of a rail road, in that
neighbourhood; at which was a present a young gentleman well
known for astonishing celerity in resolving difficult calculations by
the aid of memory alone. One of the company, a great snuff-taker,
and good mathematician, proposed the following, (as he thought,)
puzzling question;
“If I take so many (a given quantity) of pinches of snuff every
quarter of an hour, how many pinches shall I have taken in fifteen
years?”
The young gentleman in little more than a minute gave his
answer.
The snuff-taker called for pen, ink, and paper, to examine the
answer, when after a considerable time he declared it erroneous;
upon hearing which, the calculator asked the snuff-taker if he had
allowed for the leap-years? being answered in the negative, the
snuff-taker was requested to add them, when the calculator’s
answer was found to be correct to a single pinch, to the no small
astonishment and delight of the assembled party.
 A. S.

The preceding anecdote is wholly new, and, after a “pinch of

snuff,” the editor introduces a topic somewhat corresponding.
“Tobacco.”
“Ex fumo dare lucem.”
To the Editor of the Every-Day Book.
Sir,
The use of tobacco, “that stinking weed so much abused to God’s
dishonour,” as Stow expresses himself, having become so common,
as to be almost “naturalized on English ground;” perhaps a short
article on the subject at this seasonable period, may not be
unacceptable to the numerous readers of the Every-Day Book. Let
me however be understood in the outset.
I do not mean to write a historical—nor yet critical—nor yet a
poetical essay on my subject—no! I merely wish to “cull a few
leaves” from the “fragrant herb,” and leave them for you to burn, or
your readers to cut up, or smoke, at their good pleasure. Dropping
all metaphor, the subject is worth attention, and treated with
judgment, might be rendered highly interesting. Resigning all
pretension however to that quality, I have merely collected a few
“passages,” which, I hope, will be considered worthy of a place in
your interesting miscellany.
“Commencing our commencement,” says the old French proverb,
my medical dictionary, (Hooper’s) has the following under this
head:—
“Tobacco. See Nicotiana.”
“Nicotiana. (From M. Nicot, who first brought it into Europe.)
Tobacco.”
“1st. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnean system. Class
Pentandria; order, Monogynia.”
“2nd. The former pharmacopæial name of the officinal tobacco,”
&c. &c.
 Hooper’s Medical Dictionary,
4th edit. p. 594.
In that elegant work, “Flora Domestica,” the botanical summary
says, “This genus is named from Jean Nicot of Nismes, agent from
the king of France to Portugal, who procured the seeds from a
Dutchman, and sent them to France. Tobacco, from the island
Tobago. The French have many names for it; as, le tabac: Nicotiane
from its first introducer; petum [the original Indian appellation;]
herbe du grand prieur; herbe à la Reine; herbe sacrìe; herbe propre
à tous maux; herbe de St. Croix; &c. &c. Italian, tabacco; terna
bona.”
Flora Domestica, 1823. p. 365.
Of these names, the Italian one of “terna bona,” is very singular,
and as arbitrary as need be, for example, what connection can there
be between tobacco, and the “grand prior,” the “queen’s,” or the
“holy cross?” “Propre à tous maux,” is rather too comprehensive an
appellation; I have copied but few of these names, many as there
may appear to be.
Of all the subjects which have employed the pens of writers,
perhaps no one has called forth so great a diversity of opinion as
this; and we may perhaps go further, and say, that no other (save
only, love and war) has attracted so much notice since its
introduction. Popes, poets, historians, kings, and physicians, have
dwelt upon its use and abuse, and even historians have
condescended to mention it. But to proceed.
With regard to its first introduction into England, Hume says,
“chap. xli. Eliz. 1558, 1603,” at the close of the narration of Drake’s
attack on the Spanish provinces in the West Indies. “It is thought
that Drake’s fleet first introduced the use of tobacco into England.”
In an after part of his work “Appendix, James I. 1603-1625,” he
adds,
“After supplying themselves with provisions more immediately
necessary for the support of life, the new planters began the
cultivating of tobacco; and James notwithstanding his antipathy to
that drug, which he affirmed to be pernicious to men’s morals as
well as health, gave them permission to enter it in England; and he
inhibited by proclamation all importation of it from Spain.”
At this period originated the story of the wetting poor sir Walter
Raleigh, received from the hands (and bucket) of his servant; this,
however, is too common to deserve transferring to your pages. The
following facts, however, are not so generally known. “On the first
introduction of tobacco, our ancestors carried its use to an enormous
excess, smoking even in the churches, which made pope Urban VIII.
in 1624, publish a decree of excommunication against those who
used such an unseemly practice; and Innocent XII. A. D. 1690,
solemnly excommunicated all those who should take snuff or
tobacco, in St. Peter’s church at Rome.” Flora Domestica, p. 367.
This excess is perhaps only equalled by the case of William
Breedon, vicar of Thornton, Bucks, “a profound divine, but
absolutely the most polite person for nativities in that age;” of whom
William Lilly, “student in astrology,” says, “when he had no tobacco,
(and I suppose too much drink,) he would cut the bell ropes and
smoke them.”—History of Lilly’s Life and Times, p. 44.[86]

To the eulogist of tobacco, who, on column 195 of your present

volume, defies “all daintie meats,” and
——“keeps his kitchen in a box,
And roast meat in a pipe,”
take as an antidote the following from Peter Hausted’s Raphael
Thorius: London, 1551.
Let it be damn’d to Hell, and call’d from thence,
Proserpine’s wine, the Furies’ frankincense,
The Devil’s addle eggs.
Hawkins Brown, esq., parodying Ambrose Philips, writes thus
prettily to his pipe:—
 Little tube of mighty power,
Charmer of an idle hour,
Object of my warm desire;
Lip of wax, and eye of fire;
And thy snowy taper waist,
With my finger gently brac’d; &c.
In our own times the following have appeared.
“La Pipe de Tabac,” a French song to music, by Geweaux,
contains the following humorous stanzas:—
“Le soldat baille sous la tente,
Le matelot sur le tillac,
Bientôt ils ont l’âme contente,
Avec la pipe de tabac;
Si pourtant survient une belle,
A l’instant le cœur fait tìc tac,
Et l’Amant oublie auprès d’elle,
Jusqu’à la pipe de tabac.
“Je tiens cette maxime utile,
De ce fameux Monsieur de Crac,
En campagne comme à la ville,
Font tous l’amour et le tabac,
Quand ce grand homme allait en guerre
Il portait dans son petit sac,
Le doux portrait de sa bergère,
Avec la pipe de tabac.”
In the accompanying English version, they are thus imitated:—
 See, content, the soldier smiling
Round the vet’ran smoking crew
And the tar, the time beguiling,
Sighs and whiffs, and thinks of Sue.
Calm the bosom; naught distresses;—
Labour’s harvest’s nearly ripe;—
‘Susan’s health;’—the brim he presses,—
Here alone he quits his pipe.
Faithful still to every duty
Ne’er his faithful heart will roam;
Mines of wealth, and worlds of beauty,
Tempt him not from Susan’s home.
From his breast—wherever steering,
Oft a sudden tear to wipe,
Susan’s portrait,—sorrow cheering,
First he draws—and then his pipe!
Our immortal Byron, in his poem of “The Island,” sings thus the
praises of “the Indian weed:”—
Sublime tobacco!—which from east to west
Cheers the tar’s labours, or the Turkman’s rest;
Which on the Moslem’s ottoman divides
His hours,—and rivals opium and his brides;
Magnificent in Stamboul, but less grand,
Though not less loved, in Wapping or the Strand;
Divine in hookas, glorious in a pipe
When tipped with amber, mellow, rich, and ripe;
Like other charmers, wooing the caress
More dazzlingly when daring in full dress;
Yet thy true lovers more admire by far,
Thy naked beauties—— Give me a cigar!
If, Sir, you should deem this communication worthy of your
notice, I shall feel inclined to pursue my researches farther; and,
whatever the result, allow me in the mean time to subscribe myself,
Your well-wisher,
Fumo.
P. S. Should you, Sir, burn this, the Roman adage, which I have
used as my motto, will be once more verified.

NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
 Mean Temperature 43·44.

[86] “The following commendation of Lilly is inserted under a curious

frontispiece to his “Anima Astrologiæ,” 1676, containing portraits of
Cardan, Guido, and himself.
“Let Envy burst—Vrania’s glad to see
Her sons thus Ioyn’d in a Triplicity;
To Cardan and to Guido much is due,
But in one Lilly wee behold them Two.”

March 22.
Passion Wednesday.
In 1826, this being the Wednesday before Easter, called Passion
Wednesday, is celebrated with great solemnity in catholic countries.
At Seville a white veil conceals the officiating priest and ministers,
during mass, until the words in the service “the veil of the temple
was rent in twain” are chaunted. At this moment the veil disappears,
as if by enchantment, and the ears of the congregation are stunned
with the noise of concealed fireworks, which are meant to imitate an
earthquake.
The evening service, named Tinieblas, (darkness) is performed
this day after sunset. The cathedral, on this occasion, exhibits the
most solemn and impressive aspect. The high altar, concealed
behind dark grey curtains which fall from the height of the cornices,
is dimly lighted by six yellow wax candles, while the gloom of the
whole temple is broken in large masses by wax torches, fixed one on
each pillar of the centre aisle, about one-third of its length from the
ground. An elegant candlestick of brass, from fifteen to twenty feet
high, is placed, on this and the following evening, between the choir
and the altar, holding thirteen candles, twelve of yellow, and one of
bleached wax, distributed on the two sides of the triangle which
terminates the machine. Each candle stands by a brass figure of one
of the apostles. The white candle occupying the apex is allotted to
the virgin Mary. At the conclusion of each of the twelve psalms
appointed for the service, one of the yellow candles is extinguished,
till, the white taper burning alone, it is taken down and concealed
behind the altar. Immediately after the ceremony, the Miserere,
(Psalm 50.) set, every other year, to a new strain of music, is sung in
a grand style. This performance lasts exactly an hour. At the
conclusion of the last verse the clergy break up abruptly without the
usual blessing, making a thundering noise by clapping their movable
seats against the frame of the stalls, or knocking their ponderous
breviaries against the boards, as the rubric directs.[87]

Chronology.
On the 22d of March, 1687, Jean Baptiste Lully, the eminent
musical composer, died at Paris. He was born of obscure parents at
Florence, in 1634, and evincing a taste for music, a benevolent
cordelier, influenced by no other consideration than the hope of his
becoming eminent in the science, undertook to teach him the guitar.
While under his tuition, a French gentleman, the chevalier Guise,
arrived at Florence, commissioned by Mlle. de Montpensier, niece to
Louis XIV., to bring her some pretty little Italian boy as a page. The
countenance of Lully did not answer to the instructions, but his
vivacity, wit, and skill on an instrument, as much the favourite of the
French as of the Italians, determined the chevalier to send him to
Paris. On his arrival, he was presented to the lady; but his figure
obtained for him so cool a reception, that she commanded him to be
entered in her household books as an under-scullion. Lully was at
this time ten years old. In the moments of his leisure from the
kitchen, he used to scrape upon a wretched fiddle. He was
overheard by a person about the court, who informed the princess
he had an excellent taste for music, and a master was employed to
teach him the violin, under whom in the course of a few months, he
became so great a proficient, that he was elevated to the rank of
court-musician. In consequence of an unlucky accident he was
dismissed from this situation; but, obtaining admission into the
king’s band of violins, he applied himself so closely to study, that in a
little time he began to compose. His airs were noticed by the king,
Lully was sent for, and his performance of them was thought so
excellent, that a new band was formed, called les petits violons, and
under his direction it surpassed the band of twenty-four, till that time
celebrated throughout Europe. This was about the year 1660, when
the favourite entertainments at the French court were dramatic
representations, consisting of dancing intermixed with singing and
speaking in recitative; they were called ballets, and to many of them
Lully was employed in composing the music.
In 1669, an opera in the French language, on the model of that
at Venice, being established at Paris, Lully obtained the situation of
composer and joint director, left his former band, instituted one of
his own, and formed the design of building a new theatre near the
Luxemburg palace, which he accomplished, and opened in
November, 1670.
Previous to this, Lully, having been appointed surperintendent to
the king’s private music, had neglected the practice of the violin; yet,
whenever he could be prevailed with to play, his excellence
astonished all who heard him.
In 1686, the king recovering from an indisposition that
threatened his life, Lully composed a “Te Deum,” which was not
more remarkable for its excellence, than the unhappy accident with
which its performance was attended. In the preparations for the
execution of it, and the more to demonstrate his zeal, he himself
beat the time. With the cane that he used for this purpose, he struck
his foot, which caused so much inflammation, that his physician
advised him to have his little toe taken off; and, after a delay of
some days, his foot; and at length the whole limb. At this juncture,
an empiric offered to perform a cure without amputation. Two
thousand pistoles were promised him if he should accomplish it, but
his efforts were vain; and Lully died.
Lully’s confessor in his last illness required as a testimony of his
sincere repentance, and as the condition of his absolution, that he
should throw the last of his operas into the fire. After some excuses,
Lully acquiesced, and pointing to a drawer in which the rough draft
of “Achilles and Polixenes” was deposited, it was taken out and
burnt, and the confessor went away satisfied. Lully grew better and
was thought out of danger, when one of the young princes came to
visit him: “What, Baptiste,” says he to him, “have you thrown your
opera into the fire? You were a fool for thus giving credit to a
gloomy Jansenist, and burning good music.” “Hush! hush! my lord,”
answered Lully, in a whisper, “I knew very well what I was about, I
have another copy of it!” This pleasantry was followed by a relapse;
and the prospect of inevitable death threw him into such pangs of
remorse, that he submitted to be laid on ashes with a cord round his
neck; and, in this situation, he chaunted a deep sense of his late
trangression.
Lully contributed greatly to the improvement of French music. In
his overtures he introduced fugues, and was the first who, in the
choruses, made use of the side and kettle drums. It is difficult to
characterize his style, which seems to have been derived from no
other source than his own invention.
His compositions were chiefly operas and other dramatic
entertainments, adapted to the desires of Louis XIV., who was fond
of dancing, and had not taste for any music but airs, in the
composition of which a stated number of bars was the chief rule to
be observed. Of harmony or fine melody, or of the relation between
poetry and music, he seems to have had no conception; and these
were restraints upon Lully’s talents.
He is said to have been the inventor of that species of
composition, the overture; for, though the symphonies or preludes of
Carissimi, Colonna, and others, are, in effect, overtures, yet they
were compositions of a mild and placid kind, while Lully’s are
animated and full of energy.[88]

Notwithstanding the character of Lully’s compositions, when

unrestricted by the royal command and the bad taste of the court,
he was one day reproached with having set nothing to music but
languid verses. He flew to his harpsichord, and wildly running over
the keys, sung, with great violence of gesture, the following terrific
lines from Racine’s tragedy of “Iphigenie:”
 “Un prêtre environne d’une foule cruelle
Portera sur ma fille, une maine criminelle
Dechirera son sein, et d’un œil curieux
Dans son cœur palpitant consultera les Dieux.”
When cardinal d’Estrees was at Rome, he highly praised Corelli’s
sonatas to that eminent composer. “Sir,” replied Corelli, “if they have
any merit it is because I have studied Lully.” Handel has imitated
Lully in many of his overtures.[89]

NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
Mean Temperature 42·79.

[87] Doblado’s Letters from Spain.

[88] Biograph. Dictionary of Musicians.
[89] Seward.

March 23.
MAUNDY THURSDAY.

Shere Thursday.
These denominations have been sufficiently explained in vol. i. p.
400, with an account of the Maundy at the chapel royal St. James’s.
The Romish church this day institutes certain ceremonies to
commemorate the washing of the disciples’ feet.
Celebration of the day at Seville.
The particulars of these solemnities are recorded by the rev.
Blanco White.
The ceremonies of the high mass, are especially intended as a
remembrance of the last supper, and the service, as it proceeds,
rapidly assumes the deepest hues of melancholy. The bells, in every
steeple, from one loud and joyous peal, cease at once, and leave a
peculiar heavy stillness, which none can conceive but those who
have lived in a populous Spanish town long enough to lose the sense